Energies

energies
Article
Experimental Study for the Assessment of the
Measurement Uncertainty Associated with Electric
Powertrain Efficiency Using the Back-to-Back
Direct Method
Michele De Santis 1, * , Sandro Agnelli 2 , Fabrizio Patanè 1 , Oliviero Giannini 1 and
Gino Bella 3
1 Department of Engineering, University of Rome Niccolò Cusano, via Don Carlo Gnocchi 3,
00166 Rome, Italy; fabrizio.patane@unicusano.it (F.P.); oliviero.giannini@unicusano.it (O.G.)
2 OPV Solutions S.r.l., via Etna 9, 00141 Rome, Italy; s.agnelli@opvsolutions.eu
3 Department of Enterprise Engineering, University of Tor Vergata, via del Politecnico 1,
00133 Rome, Italy; bella@uniroma2.it
* Correspondence: michele.desantis@unicusano.it; Tel.: +39-328-9598852

Received: 12 October 2018; Accepted: 14 December 2018; Published: 19 December 2018
Abstract: Brushless electric motors are used intensively in the industrial automation sector due to the
motors low inertia and fast response. According to the International Electrotechnical Commission,
IEC 60034-2-1, the efficiency of a three-phase electric machine (excluding machines for traction
vehicles) can be determined by direct or indirect techniques. In the case of small traction motors
(<10 kW), direct methods are used extensively by manufacturers, even if no standard has been
published or scheduled by the IEC. In this paper, we evaluated the accuracy of the (direct) back-to-back
method for the estimation of the energy performance of a 3 kW brushless AC electric motor used in a
light electric vehicle. We measured the efficiencies of a pair of motors and inverters, as well as the
overall efficiency of the entire power train. The results showed that the methodology was sufficiently
accurate and comparable with other indirect methods available in existing literature. Moreover, we
developed a Simulink model that used the powertrain efficiency map as the input to perform the
simulation of a standard urban driving cycle. The simulation was run 500 times to calculate the
probability density function associated with the total range of the vehicle, considering the uncertainty
of the efficiency that was determined experimentally. The simulation results confirmed the low
deviation of the distribution standard compared to the average value of the range of the vehicle.
Keywords: measurement of efficiency; uncertainty of the efficiency; electric power train; brushless
electric motor; simulation of the driving cycle
1. Introduction
The motor and drive system are crucial components in vehicle applications [1]. Most of the
companies that manufacture cars use the low-voltage hybridization solution to limit the CO2 emissions
of internal combustion engines (ICEs). The first step in electric hybridization consists of replacing the
alternator with an electric motor-generator unit with a nominal output voltage of 48 V. The motor and
the generator are the same electrical machine, but the positioning inside the vehicle can be varied,
according to different costs and different functionalities, as reported in Figure 1.
Energies 2018, 11, 3536; doi:10.3390/en11123536 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 3536 2 of 19
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 19
1. Graphical
Figure 1. Graphical description
description of the five hybridization schemes from P0 to P5, P5, considering
considering the
the
different positioning
different positioning of
of the
the electrical
electrical machines
machines in
in the
the powertrain
powertrain of
ofthe
thevehicle.
vehicle.
Then, a 48/12
48/12 V V converter
converter and and a small battery storage system are added. A similar system was
shown to reduce fuel consumption by as much as 5%, 5%, as measured
measured in the the New
New European
European Driving
Driving
Cycle (NEDC) [2]. The following steps provide an increasing level of hybridization, up to the fifth
hybridization
hybridization scheme
scheme (P5 (P5 in Figure
Figure 1), which consists of two electric motor-generator
motor-generator units located in
the rear wheels. architecture of
wheels. This final architecture of the powertrain
powertrain allows
allows the
the vehicle
vehicle to travel a limited distance
in full
full electric
electric drive.
drive. Its performance is based on the continuous power offered by the batteries to
maximize the range of the the vehicle.
vehicle. Analysis and estimation of the power loss and efficiency of the
drivetrain are of practical significance
significance in in this
this matter
matter [3].
[3]. As an example, the drive components in the
system simulation tools are typically designed based on the efficiency maps of the motor, which is a
cost-effective method for optimizing the power consumption and power efficiency over the required
ranges of torque
torque and
and speed
speed [4–7].
[4–7].
Testing
Testing of of electric
electric machines
machines is is regulated
regulated by the the IEC
IEC commission
commission as described
described in the IEC 60,03460,034
documents, which provide several guidelines, such as IEC 60034-30-2 [8], which is focused on the the
technical specifications of permanent-magnet, synchronous
specifications of permanent-magnet, synchronous motors. In motors. In particular, the standard
standard
considers up up to
to four
fourclasses
classesofofefficiency,
efficiency,and and it groups
it groups motors
motors according
according to their
to their output
output power power
and
and number
number of poles.
of poles. SinceSince 1 January
1 January 2017,2017, all motors
all motors withwith a rated
a rated power power between
between 0.750.75
andand375 375
kW kW
are
are required
required to comply
to comply with
with thethe
IE3IE3 efficiency,which
efficiency, whichisispremium
premiumefficiency
efficiencyin in International
International Efficiency
classification
classification [9].
[9].
Efficiency,
Efficiency, as as described
described in in the
the IEC
IEC standards,
standards, can can bebe estimated
estimated directly
directly oror indirectly.
indirectly. A direct
measurement is based on the evaluation of input power from voltage voltage and current, and the the output
output
power is is measured
measured based based on on the
the rotational
rotational speed
speed and and torque.
torque. Direct measurement methods are
usually considered to be complex, and their implementation is expensive and difficult to perform in
terms of the
the accuracy
accuracy of of the
the specifications
specifications of of laboratory
laboratory instrumentation.
instrumentation. Thus, the IEC standards standards
recommend that the efficiency of motors be estimated indirectly, indirectly, i.e.,
i.e., by
by measuring
measuring the input power
and
and computing
computingthe theoutput
outputpower
powerby byestimating
estimatingthe thelosses
losseswithin
withinthethe
motor,
motor,as as
described
describedin the IECIEC
in the TS
60349-3 documents
TS 60349-3 documents [10].[10].
IECIEC60034-30-2
60034-30-2addresses
addressesthe standardization
the standardization of efficiency tests tests
of efficiency of motors with
of motors
up
withtoup
eight polespoles
to eight for industrial purposes,
for industrial and it
purposes, cannot
and be applied
it cannot to permanent
be applied to permanent magnet
magnetmotors for
motors
small-vehicle
for small-vehicletraction, whichwhich
traction, are characterized by highby
are characterized numbers of poles and
high numbers variable-speed
of poles operation.
and variable-speed
To date, rigorous
operation. To date, estimations of the efficiencies
rigorous estimations of permanent
of the efficiencies magnet synchronous
of permanent motors have
magnet synchronous not
motors
have not been investigated extensively [11–17], because most studies have been focused on induction
motors, which are mostly used in industrial applications.
Energies 2018, 11, 3536 3 of 19
been investigated extensively [11–17], because most studies have been focused on induction motors,
which are mostly used in industrial applications.
The increasing demand for the use of small AC motors has stimulated research related to the
development and enhancement of techniques for the measurement of the motors’ efficiency, and for
the computation of the associated accuracy [18–28], where we provide a short review of the related
research papers. In Reference [9], a comparative analysis of direct and indirect efficiency estimation
techniques was presented for a 3 kW, three-phase induction motor, and it was concluded that the
direct determination of efficiency should be used for all sizes of induction motors. The authors
recommended the use of the direct method rather than the indirect method for three-phase motors
with power ratings ≤1 kW. In Reference [20], the authors proposed the use of a combination of genetic
algorithms to estimate the efficiency of an induction motor, where the uncertainty for a rated output
power of 3 kW, was only 0.3%, which was within the acceptable range of accuracy. In Reference [21],
the same authors showed that the difference between the measured efficiency (direct method) and the
efficiency estimated by the authors’ technique (indirect method) was only 0.25%, for a rated power
of 3 kW. In addition, the inaccuracy of the measured efficiency always was less than 1%, but the
inaccuracy of the estimated efficiency always was less than 0.03%. The authors obtained similar results
in Reference [23], where the difference between the measured and estimated efficiency was 0.4%
for a 3 kW rated power. In Reference [27], for an 11-kW rated power induction motor, the Realistic
Error Estimation (REE) was ±0.24%, which was lower than the Worst Case Estimation (WCE) of the
method recommended by the IEEE 112-B standard for polyphase induction motors. In Reference [28],
the accuracy difference for a 3-hp machine, when comparing the measured and estimated efficiencies,
was 1.2%. The inaccuracy of the former was ±0.65%, whereas it was ±0.35% for the latter, suggesting
that, for this class of electrical machine, the direct method can be considered to be sufficiently accurate
compared to the estimated method. Other advanced techniques for estimating efficiencies, such as the
bacterial foraging algorithm [25], when applied to a 7.5 kW induction motor, resulted in inaccuracies
of 1% or less.
Regarding the specific issue of estimating the efficiencies of light traction motors, the IEC has
yet to publish or schedule a standard, whereas the SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) recently
developed a document that is focused on measurement repeatability [29]. The direct measurement
method is used via back-to-back dual motor mounting or by means of electromagnetic friction. This
method is particularly fitted for the case of light electric vehicles, because they are always equipped
with two motors that are nominally identical. Even though the method is simple and cost-effective, we
were unable to identify any papers in the literature that focused on the efficiency uncertainty analysis,
and that were sufficiently rigorous or detailed for the range of working conditions (speed-torque pair)
of the motors. Therefore, the purpose of this paper was to evaluate the back-to-back direct method used
to measure the efficiency of the motor of a small electrical vehicle and the efficiency of the overall drive
system. Uncertainty maps associated with the back-to-back direct method can be useful in various
applications, where the estimation by means of the simulation of the range of an electric vehicle is a
crucial step, the results of which are needed for the design/optimization of the driving control system
or for the overall energy management policy. Specifically, we performed the following to achieve that
goal: (i) We applied the direct method on the full power train of a small electrical vehicle (2 × 3 kW
brushless motors plus drivers), (ii) We computed the uncertainty maps associated with the measured
efficiency, and (iii) We estimated the uncertainty associated with the range of the vehicle by simulating
a standard Urban Driving Cycle (UDC) [2] in a Simulink environment.
This paper is organized as follows. After a general description of the powertrain, Section 2
describes the experimental setup, the experimental procedure, and the computation of the efficiency of
the powertrain. Section 3 discusses the results of the measurements of efficiency of the powertrain
and the corresponding estimation of the uncertainty, which was compared with other studies in the
literature. Section 4 presents the results of the UDC simulation to determine the uncertainty associated
with the vehicle’s range. Section 5 presents the conclusion.
Energies 2018, 11, 3536 4 of 19
2. Methods
2.1. General
2.1. General Description
Description
The powertrain
The powertrain was was part
part of
of an
an electric,
electric, 4-wheel
4-wheel vehicle
vehicle developed
developed within
within the
the European-project,
European-project,
HI-QUAD. The vehicle was equipped with two in-wheel motors
HI-QUAD. The vehicle was equipped with two in-wheel motors in the rear wheels, Figure in the rear wheels, Figure 2. The two
2. The two
rear wheels were independently controlled through an inverter–motor couple, and they provided aa
rear wheels were independently controlled through an inverter–motor couple, and they provided
maximum power
maximum powerof of33kW.
kW.EachEachbrushless
brushless motor
motor waswas rated for afor
rated peak power
a peak of 6 kW
power of 6atkW
72 V.
atFor safety,
72 V. For
in the case of the L6e vehicle category, the European regulation specifies that the
safety, in the case of the L6e vehicle category, the European regulation specifies that the on-board DC on-board DC voltage
should not
voltage exceed
should not 60 V, and
exceed 60 that
V, andthethat
overall maximum
the overall power power
maximum of the vehicle must be
of the vehicle mustlessbe
than
less6than
kW.
The previous limitations restricted the power of each motor to 3 kW, and
6 kW. The previous limitations restricted the power of each motor to 3 kW, and they restricted the they restricted the voltage
from thefrom
voltage battery pack located
the battery under under
pack located the seats
the to 51 to
seats V. 51
The
V. forward/regenerative
The forward/regenerative modemodecould be
could
controlled
be independently
controlled independently by sending
by sending to each inverter,
to each an appropriate
inverter, an appropriateanaloganalog
torque torque
or speed orsignals
speed
ranging between 0.5 and 4.5 V. The inverters contained the power electronics
signals ranging between 0.5 and 4.5 V. The inverters contained the power electronics to convert the to convert the DC power
frompower
DC the battery
from the intobattery
the ACintopower necessary
the AC powerto drive thetomotors
necessary drive theaccording
motors to the driver’s
according command.
to the driver’s
Three-phaseThree-phase
command. currents werecurrents
sent from eachsent
were inverter
fromtoeachthe AC brushless
inverter motor.
to the ACThe invertersmotor.
brushless could also
The
be programmed to tune the control parameters of the motor for both the
inverters could also be programmed to tune the control parameters of the motor for both the torquetorque and speed modalities.
The vehicle’s
and power source
speed modalities. was a 51-V,
The vehicle’s LiFePO
power source4 battery
was a pack,
51-V, which
LiFePOwas equipped
battery pack,with
which 32 cells
was
consisting of a series of 16 pairs of cells. The battery pack was also used to power
equipped with 32 cells consisting of a series of 16 pairs of cells. The battery pack was also used to the other devices in
the vehicle through a 48–12 V DC/DC converter.
power the other devices in the vehicle through a 48–12 V DC/DC converter.
Figure 2. Electric motors

motorsare
arethe
thepowertrain
powertrainofofthe
theHi-Quad
Hi-Quad quadricycle,
quadricycle, andand they
they areare placed
placed inside
inside the
the
rearrear wheels.
wheels. TheThe inverters
inverters areare inside
inside thethe metal
metal box
box behindthe
behind thetwo
twoseats,
seats,the
thebattery
batterypack
pack is divided
into two parts, and they are inside the aluminum packages that are are located
located underneath
underneath the
the seats.
seats.
2.2. Experimental
2.2. Experimental Setup
Setup
The goal
The goal was
was to to implement
implement the the direct
direct methodology
methodology forfor evaluating
evaluating the the efficiency
efficiency ofof the
the full
full
powertrain transmission in terms of the conversion of electrical energy to mechanical
powertrain transmission in terms of the conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy and vice energy and
vice versa
versa (regenerative
(regenerative braking).
braking). UsingUsing a back-to-back
a back-to-back configuration,
configuration, i.e.,
i.e., usingone
using onemotor
motor asas the
the
electromagnetic brake for the other motor, the methodology allows all of
electromagnetic brake for the other motor, the methodology allows all of the components of the the components of the
powertrain to
powertrain tobebecharacterized
characterized simultaneously.
simultaneously. By determining the torque,
By determining speed,speed,
the torque, voltage,voltage,
and current
and
measurements from the sensors placed at each power-train level, the efficiency
current measurements from the sensors placed at each power-train level, the efficiency of each of each component
of the powerofchain
component could be
the power estimated
chain could bewith an associated
estimated uncertainty,
with an associatedwhich must bewhich
uncertainty, computedmustasbea
function ofas
computed the accuracyof
a function ofthe
the accuracy
instruments that
of the were used that
instruments on the testused
were bench. on the test bench.
To perform the tests, the powertrain was unmounted
To perform the tests, the powertrain was unmounted from the vehicle from the vehicle and and placed
placed on
on aa fixed
fixed
frame, as shown in Figure 3. The coupling between the two motors consisted
frame, as shown in Figure 3. The coupling between the two motors consisted of two elastic joints of two elastic joints
attached to
attached tothethetwotworotors andand
rotors a torque meter.meter.
a torque No bearings were added
No bearings werebetween
added the torque the
between transducer
torque
transducer and the rotor, so there was no need to take into account any additional mechanical losses.
Energies 2018, 11, 3536 5 of 19

and the rotor, so there was no need to take into account any additional mechanical losses. The two
stators
The two were fixedwere
stators rigidly to the
fixed test to
rigidly bench, andbench,
the test misalignments between thebetween
and misalignments joints were reduced
the joints to
were
areduced
minimum to apercentage to cancel possible
minimum percentage to cancelflexional
possiblemoments
flexionalfor the torque
moments meter.
for the In the
torque proposed
meter. In the
setup,
proposedthere was there
setup, no differential gear sincegear
was no differential the since
motors thewere
motorsin-wheel motors, i.e.,
were in-wheel theyi.e.,
motors, were built
they to
were
be directly inserted inside the wheels without involving any kind of differential
built to be directly inserted inside the wheels without involving any kind of differential transmission, transmission, and
they could
and they be controlled
could be controlledindependently.
independently. In In
fact, during
fact, during the measuring
the measuringtest, test,one
oneelectrical
electrical machine
machine
was
was used
used as as aa motor,
motor, andand the
the other
other was
was used
used as as aa brake.
brake. Motor 1 and motor 2 were driven by driver
11 and
and driver
driver 2, 2, respectively,
respectively, which
which were
were set
set in
in different
different modalities.
modalities. Driver 1 was set to speed mode,
i.e., the driver
driver tries
triestotokeep
keepthe
therotational
rotationalspeed
speed ofofthethe motor
motor as constant
as constant as possible,
as possible, andand driver
driver 2 was2
was set to torque mode where the driver tries to keep the torque
set to torque mode where the driver tries to keep the torque of the motor constant. of the motor constant. The supply
voltages
voltages of both driver 1 and driver 2 were kept in the range from 46.4 V to 54.4 V during the tests. tests.
Both driver
driver 11 and
and driver
driver 22 were
were Sevcon
Sevcon Gen4
Gen4 36/48
36/48 V controllers, whose working voltage ranges are
defined
defined in in Table
Table1.1.This
Thisdriver
drivermodel
modelautomatically
automaticallyprovides
provides a protection
a protection alert when
alert whenunder-voltage
under-voltage or
over-voltage
or over-voltage threshold limits
threshold are are
limits exceeded
exceededfor for
too too
much muchtime, andand
time, it stops its functioning
it stops to avoid
its functioning the
to avoid
occurrence
the occurrence of anofinverter saturation.
an inverter saturation.
Figure 3. Bench test for the powertrain.

Energies 2018, 11, 3536 6 of 19
Table 1. Protocol to ensure that all tests have been performed in the proper voltage range.
Operating Condition Voltage Range for Gen4 36/48V Controller

Conventional working voltage range 25.2 V to 57.6 V
Working voltage limits 19.3 V to 69.6 V
Non-operational overvoltage limits 79.2 V
The mechanical power was estimated by measuring the torque using a torque meter, while also
measuring the angular velocity by the internal circuitry of the motor drivers. The electrical power was
monitored by measuring the input voltages and currents of each inverter and motor. Inverter inputs
were equipped with two shunt resistors and one voltage divider, i.e., Ib1 and Ib2 for DC currents,
and Vb1 = Vb2 = Vb for DC voltage. The inputs to the motor were equipped with clamp meters
(Tektronix A622, Tektronix, Beaverton, OR, USA) and differential probes (Metrix MX9003, Metrix,
Dubuque, IA, USA) that were connected to a digital oscilloscope (Keysight DSO-X 3024A, Keysight
Santa Rosa, CA, USA) for AC currents Id1 and Id2, and for AC voltages Vd1 and Vd2, respectively.
To avoid thermal damage, the temperatures of the motors, inverters, and batteries were monitored
during the test sessions. The batteries and inverters never reached high temperatures, i.e., they were
below 40 ◦ C, while on average, the motors heated up to 60 ± 5 ◦ C, because the tests were performed on
a test bench without cooling air. The temperature of the motor was monitored during measurements,
although this experimental investigation was not directly focused on determining the change of
powertrain efficiency as a function of motor thermal condition.
A DSpace 1104 control board was used to collect the speed and temperature of the motor from the
motor drivers via a CAN-bus, and the torque signal was obtained using an A/D converter. A Compact
Data AcQuisition (DAQ) module NI-9206 was used to acquire the remaining signals, i.e., DC/AC
voltages and currents. AC power was computed by instantaneous values of voltage and current,
which were estimated from the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) [30] of the signals acquired by the
clamp meter and differential probes. In particular, we used clamp meters connected to the digital
oscilloscope for the AC currents Id1 and Id2, and we used differential probes for the AC voltages Vd1
and Vd2, where for the symbols in both cases, refer to Figure 3. The phase voltage was modulated by
the controller with a 16 kHz Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) signal.
For each of the three phases, we obtained by calculating the 5 s DFT of the signals, the amplitude,
phase, and frequency of both the voltage and current components corresponding to the motor speed.
During the acquisition time, the measured electrical and mechanical quantities were in a steady-state
condition. As proof of this statement, Figure 4 shows the profile of one current phase absorbed by the
motor, and the corresponding illustration provided the torque and rotational speed in the interval
of one second. Figure 4 refers to a typical operating condition, when the electric motor is required
to provide about 40 Nm of torque and to speed at almost 240 rpm, where that rotational velocity
corresponds to 24 km/h for the Hi-Quad quadricycle. In the current profile of Figure 4, the residual
DC component could be obtained by computing the current signal average. The DC component results
were expected to be approximately 0.5 A over about 116 A of peak-to-peak amplitude, i.e., about 0.4%.
The DC component could come not only from the non-balanced three-phase system, but also from the
inaccuracies of the current probe and oscilloscope. Considering that the last two devices were both
responsible for 3% of inaccuracy (Table 2, Section 2.4), the DC component could be neglected in the
uncertainty calculation. However, we chose to add to the current uncertainty calculation, the fixed
(conservative) component of 1 A.
Energies 2018, 11, 3536 7 of 19
Figure4.4.From
Figure Fromthe the top:
top: current,
current, speed,
speed, andand torque
torque signals
signals related
related to the to the torque
torque controlled
controlled motor
motor during
during
one onetests.
of the of theThe
tests. The shows
figure figure shows the typical
the typical steady-state
steady-state condition
condition achieved
achieved by thebyelectrical
the electrical
and
mechanical signals
and mechanical during
signals the measurement
during phase.
the measurement phase.
The
Thepower
powerwas wasfinally calculated
finally as the
calculated asproduct of the current,
the product voltage, voltage,
of the current, and cosineandof the difference
cosine of the
between the two phases. We considered the 3-phase system as symmetrical on
difference between the two phases. We considered the 3-phase system as symmetrical on voltagesvoltages and balanced
on
andcurrents,
balanced which in this case,
on currents, which wasinan acceptable
this case, wasapproximation. We verified thatWe
an acceptable approximation. assumption by
verified that
monitoring the voltages and currents at the three phases, and verifying that the
assumption by monitoring the voltages and currents at the three phases, and verifying that the amplitudes estimated
by the DFT did
amplitudes not differ
estimated by more
by the DFT didthannot2%.differ
An example
by more of the2%.
than voltage and current
An example waveforms
of the voltage and of
the two different
current waveforms phases
of theare
tworeported
differentinphases
Figuresare5 and 6, respectively.
reported in Figures 5Both
andthe voltage and Both
6, respectively. current
the
profiles referred to a very low torque operating condition, below 5 Nm, which could
voltage and current profiles referred to a very low torque operating condition, below 5 Nm, which be considered
the worst
could be case in terms
considered of worst
the the percentage of theofDC
case in terms thecurrent component
percentage of the with respect component
DC current to peak-to-peakwith
AC current
respect amplitude. InAC
to peak-to-peak this worst-case
current condition,
amplitude. theworst-case
In this ratio between the DCthe
condition, component and the
ratio between theAC
DC
peak-to-peak amplitude was slightly over 2%. That result was considered by adding
component and the AC peak-to-peak amplitude was slightly over 2%. That result was considered by to the current
uncertainty,
adding to thethecurrent
fixed (conservative)
uncertainty, the component of 1 A.
fixed (conservative) component of 1 A.
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Figure 5. Voltage waveforms: the averaged signal and the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) signal
are reported for each phase. One phase is red and the other one is blue, and the amplitudes are equal
Figure
Figure 5.5.Voltage
Voltagewaveforms:
waveforms: the
theaveraged
averagedsignal and thethe
signal Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) signal are
to 2% of accuracy, and the voltage profiles are 120°and Discrete
out of phase withFourier Transform
the same accuracy.(DFT) signal
reported for each phase. One phase is red and the other one is blue, and the amplitudes
are reported for each phase. One phase is red and the other one is blue, and the amplitudes are equal
are to 2%
equal
of accuracy, and the voltage profiles are 120 ◦ out of phase with the same accuracy.
to 2% of accuracy, and the voltage profiles are 120° out of phase with the same accuracy.
Figure6.6.Current
Figure Currentwaveforms:
waveforms:one
onephase
phaseisisred
redand
andthe
theother
otherone
oneisisblue.
blue.The
Theamplitudes
amplitudesare
areequal
equaltoto
2% of accuracy, and the current profiles are ◦
120° out of phase with the same
2% of accuracy, and the current profiles are 120 out of phase with the same accuracy. accuracy.
Figure 6. Current waveforms: one phase is red and the other one is blue. The amplitudes are equal to
2.3. Experimental Procedure
2% of accuracy,
2.3. Experimental and the current profiles are 120° out of phase with the same accuracy.
Procedure
The
Theefficiency
efficiency ofofthe
thepowertrain
powertrainwas washighly
highlydependent
dependenton onthethecurrent
currentoperative
operativecondition
conditionofofthethe
2.3. Experimental Procedure
vehicle,
vehicle, and the working range could be wide due to the actual driving scenario and/orthe
and the working range could be wide due to the actual driving scenario and/or thedriving
driving
style. The
style. efficiency
Therefore,
Therefore, of
aatest
testthe powertrain
bench
bench was
wasused was
used highly
toto dependent
characterize
characterize the on the current of
theperformances
performances operative
ofthe condition
thepowertrain
powertrain forofthe
for the
the
vehicle,
entire and
ranges the working
over which range
the could
torque be
and wide due
rotation to the
speed actual
were driving
varied. In scenario
a
entire ranges over which the torque and rotation speed were varied. In a typical, highly-accurate testtypical, and/or the driving
highly-accurate
style.
test
bench, Therefore,
bench,
the the
brakinga test
braking
torquebench
torque was used andto characterize
is controlled
is controlled and
the the
the resulting
resulting performances
speed speed
is ofbythemeans
is measured
measured powertrain
byofmeans forofthe
a dedicated a
entire
dedicatedranges over which
electro-magnetic
electro-magnetic the
motor. In motor.torque and
the caseInofthe rotation speed were
case of back-to-back
back-to-back varied.
mounting, two In
mounting,a typical, highly-accurate
two nominally-identical
nominally-identical test
motors were
bench,
motors the
were braking
tested torque is
simultaneouslycontrolled
by and the
setting resulting
one motor speed
in speedis measured
tested simultaneously by setting one motor in speed mode and then setting the other motor mode and by means
then of
settinga dedicated
the
in other
torque
electro-magnetic
motor in torque motor.
mode. In
The the case of
experimental back-to-back
procedure mounting,
consisted two
of nominally-identical
mapping
mode. The experimental procedure consisted of mapping the characteristics of the powertrain the motors
characteristics ofwere
the
tested simultaneously
powertrain
conversion conversion by
by:setting
by: (i) Setting (i)
a target one
Setting amotor
speed oninone
target speed
speed mode
of on
the one
twoofandthethen
twosetting
inverters, the other
inverters,
(ii) Tuning (ii)the motor
Tuning in torque
targetthe target
torque on
mode. The experimental procedure consisted of mapping the characteristics of the powertrain
conversion by: (i) Setting a target speed on one of the two inverters, (ii) Tuning the target torque on
Energies 2018, 11, 3536 9 of 19
torque on the other inverter from the minimum to the maximum allowed values, and (iii) Averaging
the sensor data for 5 s, for each value of torque in the stationary condition. The operating status of the
powertrain system during each measurement was in thermal and mechanical steady-state conditions.
Starting from the principle that we were trying to measure the torque characteristics available from
motor 1, we needed motor 2 to function as a brake. The rotational direction of motor 2 was opposite
to that of motor 1, so that motor 2 resisted the rotational motion of motor 1. That came from the
back-to-back positioning of the two motors, and in this configuration, the two motors were mirrored,
so that if one rotated clockwise, the other rotated counterclockwise to check the speed value of each
motor (expressed in RPM), and to determine the maximum torque provided by motor 1. Then, motor 1
was controlled by driver 1 in the speed mode, but the brake, represented by motor 2, was controlled
by driver 2 in the torque mode. This arrangement was chosen for speed control. The three previous
steps were repeated by varying the torque value from the minimum to the maximum allowable
value, while keeping the speed of motor 1 as constant as possible. This procedure was repeated three
times for a range of target speeds from 0 to 380 rpm, which allowed us to compute the efficiency of
the speed-controlled motor–inverter pair (regenerating electrical power), and the torque-controlled
motor–inverter pair.
2.4. Forward and Regenerative Mode Efficiency and Efficiency Uncertainty

This section addresses the estimation of the overall inaccuracies associated with the computation
of the efficiency of the powertrain. Nomenclature and propagation rules follow the description in
Reference [31].
The symbol u(qi ) represents the standard uncertainty associated to the measurement of the
quantity qi .
The powertrain was equipped with two nominally-identical motors and drivers, operating as
electrical to mechanical (forward mode) and as mechanical to electrical (regenerative mode) energy
converters. Following the scheme reported in Figure 3, four efficiency maps were computed, following
the nomenclature j ηi = Pi /Pj , corresponding to four power conversion operations, i.e., (a) driver 1, b ηd ;
(b) motor 1, d ηm ; (c) motor 2, m ηd ; and (d) driver 2, d ηb . The forward and regenerative mode efficiencies,
i.e., b ηm and m ηb , corresponded to the generation and regeneration, respectively, of the mechanical
power, and they could be computed by multiplying, in pairs, the above-mentioned quantities (a, b)
and (c, d). The uncertainty associated with the efficiency, j ηi , of the generic powertrain component
was equal to the addition in quadrature of the uncertainties associated with the output and the input
powers, i.e., Pi and Pj , respectively:
s
Pi 1 1 2
j
ηi = j j
⇒ u ηi = ηi 2
u( Pi )2 + 2 u Pj (1)
Pj Pi Pj
The mechanical power, Pm , of a motor can be computed by means of the torque meter output, T,
and the velocity of the motor, w, so the associated standard uncertainty of power u(T) is:
r
1 1
Pm = Tω ⇒ u( Pm ) = Pm u ( T )2 + 2 u ( ω )2 (2)
T2 ω
Regarding the electrical powers, Pb1 and Pb2 and Pd1 and Pd2 , that are exchanged between the
battery and the drivers and between the drivers and the motors, respectively:
s
1 1
Pbi = Vb Ibi ⇒ u( Pbi ) = Pbi 2
u(Vb )2 + 2 u( Ibi )2 (3)
Vb Ibi
s
1 1
Pdi = Vd Idi ⇒ u( Pdi ) = Pdi u(Vdi )2 + 2 u( Idi )2 (4)
Vdi2 Idi
Energies 2018, 11, 3536 10 of 19
In Therefore,
Equation (4), the phase
taking error wasthe
into account notuncertainties
considered inrelated
the uncertainty calculation.
to the DC/AC voltage and current
measurements, and the uncertainties in the speed and torque measurementsvoltage
Therefore, taking into account the uncertainties related to the DC/AC of both and current
of the motors,
measurements, and the uncertainties in the speed and torque measurements of both of the
the uncertainty associated with the estimation of the power could be computed for each operating motors,
thepoint
uncertainty associated Table
of the powertrain. with the estimation
2 reports of the power
the accuracy could
budget be computed
considered for thefor each operating
computation of the
point of the powertrain.
overall uncertainty. Table 2 reports the accuracy budget considered for the computation of the
overall uncertainty.
Table 2. Uncertainty budget for the mechanical and electrical quantities.
Table 2. Uncertainty budget for the mechanical and electrical quantities.
Quantity Device Accuracy Distribution
Quantity Device
Torque meter Accuracy
±0.1% reading Distribution
2
Torque Torque meter ±0.1% reading 22
Torque DS1104 ±0.1% reading
DS1104 ±0.1% reading 2
Speed Inverter ±1 rpm reading √ √3
Speed Inverter
DAQ NI 9206 ±1 rpm reading
±0.1% full scale 32
DC voltage and DC current
DAQ NI 9206 resistor
Shunt ±0.1% full scale
±0.25% reading √2√3
DC voltage and DC current
Shunt resistor
Oscilloscope ±0.25%±3%
reading
reading 3√3
√
AC motor current Oscilloscope ± 3% reading
±3% reading ± 50 mA √3√3
AC motor current
Clamp Clamp
meter meter
±3% reading ± 50 mA
full full scale
scale 3
√
Oscilloscope
Oscilloscope ±3% ±3%
readingreading √3√3
AC motor voltage
AC motor voltage Differential probe ± 2% full scale 3
Differential probe ± 2% full scale √3
3. 3.
Results and
Results Discussion
and Discussion
Figure
Figure7 shows
7 shows thethe
raw data
raw forfor
data speed
speedand torque
and torque that were
that collected
were during
collected duringthethe
experimental
experimental
evaluation
evaluation of of
thethe
powertrain.
powertrain. The
Thefigure shows
figure showsthat thethe
that maximum
maximum torque
torqueavailable
availablefrom
fromthethe
motor
motor
was close to 135 Nm, which was produced at up to 150 rpm. Above 150 rpm,
was close to 135 Nm, which was produced at up to 150 rpm. Above 150 rpm, the maximum torque the maximum torque
decreased
decreased asasthe speed
the speedincreased,
increased,following
followingaahyperbolic
hyperbolicconstant-power
constant-powertrend.trend. Then,
Then, itit decreased
decreased to
to zero
zero at
atthe
themaximum
maximumspeed speedofof370370rpm.
rpm.Note
Note that
that bothboth of the
of the motors
motors werewere rated
rated for 220
for 220 Nm Nm when
when powered with 72 V, but the reduction of voltage to 51 V caused a corresponding
powered with 72 V, but the reduction of voltage to 51 V caused a corresponding decrease in decrease in thethe
maximum available torque to 135 Nm. This behavior was due to the inverter power
maximum available torque to 135 Nm. This behavior was due to the inverter power limitation, which limitation, which
was setset
was to to
3 kW.
3 kW. The same
The sameconsideration
consideration could bebe
could made
made forfor
thethe
maximum
maximum speed value,
speed value,which
whichnever
never
exceeded 370 rpm, even though the motors were rated
exceeded 370 rpm, even though the motors were rated for 600 rpm. for 600 rpm.
Figure
Figure 7. 7.
RawRaw speed
speed and
and torque
torque data
data gathered
gathered byby
thethe experimental
experimental tests
tests of the
of the powertrain.
powertrain.
The
Thegeneral trend
general trendof of
thethe
experimental
experimental data was
data wasnear-vertical
near-vertical curves. That
curves. trend
That trendwas
wasduedueto to
thethe
action of the speed-controlled driver 1. Precisely, Figure 7 shows that the vertical
action of the speed-controlled driver 1. Precisely, Figure 7 shows that the vertical line of line of blue dots is
is not properly
properly vertical;
vertical;rather,
rather,ititisisleaning
leaningslightly
slightly
toto
thethe left.
left. This
This waswasduedue to fact
to the the fact
that,that,
as theastorque
the
torque request
request on driver
on driver 2 increased,
2 increased, driver driver 1 struggled
1 struggled to keep tothekeep the rotational
rotational velocity
velocity of motor of motor 1
1 completely
completely constant. As the torque produced by motor 2 increased, the rotational velocity
constant. As the torque produced by motor 2 increased, the rotational velocity of motor 1 decreased of motor 1
slightly until the value of the torque provided by motor 2 blocked motor 1. That represented the value
of torque that motor 1 was unable to provide to keep its rotational velocity constant. In fact, the
Energies 2018, 11, 3536 11 of 19
decreased
Energies 2018, slightly
11, x FORuntil
PEERthe value of the torque provided by motor 2 blocked motor 1.
REVIEW That represented
11 of 19
the value of torque that motor 1 was unable to provide to keep its rotational velocity constant. In fact,
capability of maintaining
the capability of maintaininga constant motor
a constant speed
motor speedforfor
driver
driver1 decreased
1 decreasedasasthe theimposed
imposedtorque
torque
increased,
increased, and
and that
that phenomenon
phenomenon was moremore evident
evidentasasthe
thespeed
speedincreased.
increased.However,
However,the theinaccuracy
inaccuracy of
of the
the speed
speed control
control atat high
high torque
torque and
and speeddid
speed didnot
notaffect
affectthe
theestimate
estimateofofthe
theefficiency,
efficiency, because
because allall
of
of theinput
the inputand
andoutput
outputpowers
powerswere
weremeasured
measuredconstantly.
constantly. Figure
Figure 77 also shows somesome raw
raw data
datapoints
points
that
thatcorrespond
correspondtotothe
thepreliminary
preliminaryruns
runsof
ofthe
thepowertrain,
powertrain,which
whichwas wastested
testedwithwithtwotworesistive
resistiveloads
loads
applied
appliedto tomotor
motor2.2.That
Thatdynamic
dynamicbraking
brakingmethodology
methodologyisiscalled
calledrheostatic
rheostaticbraking.
braking.
3.1.Power
3.1. PowerTrain
TrainForward-Mode
Forward-Modeand
and Regenerative-Mode Efficiencies b ηm and
Regenerative-Mode Efficiencies andm ηb
The efficiency
The efficiency map map b ηm , which, whichcorresponds
corresponds to the
to torque
the torqueand speed pairs of
and speed Figure
pairs of 7, is reported
Figure 7, is
in Figurein8a.
reported The 8a.
Figure figure
Theshows
figure that,
shows irrespective of the speed
that, irrespective of the of
of the speed motor, the powertrain
the motor, the powertrain had a
lowaforward
had low forward mode modeefficiency for small
efficiency for torques. The same
small torques. Theperformance
same performance was observed
was observedfor lowfor speeds,
low
speeds, i.e., speeds
i.e., speeds less than less50than
rpm,50irrespective
rpm, irrespective of the amplitude
of the amplitude of the torque.
of the torque. As theAs the speed
speed of the of the
motor
motor increased,
increased, the efficiency
the efficiency of the of the powertrain
powertrain increased increased
as the as the torque
torque request request
increased.increased.
In theIn the
speed
speed
range range
of 50–100of 50–100
rpm and rpmfor and for values
values of torqueof torque
greatergreater
than 30thanNm,30the Nm, b η , was in the
the efficiency,
efficiency, m , was in
range
the range
of 0.6 of 0.6
to 0.7. Intothe
0.7.same
In the sameofrange
range torque of values,
torque values,
a slightaincrement
slight increment
in speed in resulted
speed resulted
in a higherin a
higher efficiency,
efficiency, which which
approachedapproached 0.8 rpm
0.8 at 150 at 150inrpm in the 50–100
the 50–100 Nm range Nmof range
torque of values.
torque values.
The highestThe
highest
powertrain powertrain
performance performance
was reached was close
reachedto theclose to the maximum
maximum speed, i.e., speed, i.e., inrange
in the torque the torque
of 60–80 range
Nm.
of
The60–80 Nm. The
maximum maximum
efficiency valueefficiency
was 0.88, value
which was 0.88, which
indicated indicated
that the powertrainthat the
thatpowertrain
was tested that was
provided
tested
a goodprovided
performance. a good Inperformance. In terms
terms of efficiency, the of efficiency,
results that werethe results
obtained that were obtained
showed showed a
a battery-to-ground
battery-to-ground
efficiency that was efficiency
comparable that was comparable
to typical Permanent to typical
MagnetPermanent MagnetMotor
Synchronous Synchronous
(PMSM)Motor drive
(PMSM)
systems drive systems with
with three-level three-level
inverters [14]. inverters [14].
Figure
Figure8b 8bshows
showsthe thetotal
totalefficiency
efficiencyin inregenerative
regenerativemode, mode, m ηb, ,that thatwaswasestimated
estimatedby bymeans
meansof of
motor
motor22and anddriver
driver2.2. The map
The map was similar
was to the
similar mapmap
to the obtained
obtainedin the inforward
the forwardmode,mode,but inbut thisincase,
this
the
case,powertrain
the powertrainexhibited an overall
exhibited higherhigher
an overall efficiency. For low
efficiency. Forvalues
low valuesof motor speed,
of motor i.e., below
speed, 100
i.e., below
rpm and and
100 rpm above 20 Nm,
above 20 Nm,the the
powertrain’s
powertrain’s regenerative
regenerative efficiency
efficiency diddidnotnotexceed
exceed0.75. 0.75.The
Theefficiency
efficiency
reached
reached 0.8 0.8 when the the speed
speedof ofthethemotor
motorwas wasincreased
increased to to
150150rpm.rpm. In the
In the speed
speed range range of 150–250
of 150–250 rpm
rpm
and and
in the intorque
the torque
rangerange of 20–90
of 20–90 Nm, Nm, the efficiency
the efficiency was about
was about 0.88.best
0.88. The Theperformance
best performance was foundwas
found
when the when the ranged
speed speed ranged from 270–330
from 270–330 rpm andrpm and thewas
the torque torque
15–60was Nm, i.e., mNm,
15–60 i.e., thereached
ηd reached value of
the
0.9.value
In theofsame0.9. In thethe
area, same area, the
forward modeforward mode
efficiency wasefficiency
0.88. In thewasrange
0.88. ofInlow
the range
speeds,ofi.e.,
low0–15speeds,
rpm,
i.e.,
the0–15 rpm, the performance
performance of the powertrain of the was
powertrain was poor,as
poor, especially especially
the torque as the torque increased.
increased. Figure 8bFigure shows
8b shows
that that the powertrain
the powertrain must runmust at a run
low at a lowtospeed
speed achieveto achieve a significant
a significant regeneration
regeneration of power. of power.
In fact,
In fact, a minimum
a minimum of 100 rpm of 100wasrpm was sufficient
sufficient to regenerate
to regenerate 60% of 60% of the mechanical
the mechanical power. power.
(a) (b)
Overallefficiency
Figure8.8.Overall
Figure efficiencyin
inmechanical
mechanicalpower:
power:(a)
(a)generation;
generation;(b)
(b)regeneration.
regeneration.
3.2. Forward-Mode efficiencies of the Motor and Driver and

Figure 9 shows the specific forward efficiencies of motor 1 and driver 1, i.e., and ,
respectively.
Energies 2018, 11, 3536 12 of 19
3.2. Forward-Mode Efficiencies of the Motor and Driver d ηm and b ηd

Figure 9 shows the specific forward efficiencies of motor 1 and driver 1, i.e., d ηm and
bη
d , respectively.
The forward-mode efficiency of motor 1, d ηm , as shown in Figure 9a, increased rapidly12up
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
to 0.75,
of 19
as long as the speed was less than 100 rpm. When the speed was greater than 100 rpm, the efficiency
of the motor The increased
forward-mode efficiencyits
and reached ofmaximum
motor 1, values , as shown
as the in Figure
speed 9a, increased
increased and therapidly
torqueup request
to
0.75, as long as the speed was less than 100 rpm. When the
was in the range of 30–100 Nm. The best performance of the motor was in the torque range of speed was greater than 100 rpm, the
60–80efficiency
Nm. Asofthe thespeed
motorwas increased
close to and270 reached
rpm, itsthemaximum
efficiencyvalues
reachedas thethespeed
valueincreased
of 0.92, and the that
a result
torque request was in the range of 30–100 Nm. The best performance of the motor was in the torque
was in accordance with recent studies on the efficiencies of Permanent Magnet (PM) motors [15,16].
range of 60–80 Nm. As the speed was close to 270 rpm, the efficiency reached the value of 0.92, a
The highest efficiency was attained when both the driver and the motor maps achieved their best
result that was in accordance with recent studies on the efficiencies of Permanent Magnet (PM)
performances,
motors [15,16].i.e., inThe
thehighest
speed range of 270–330
efficiency Nm and
was attained whenthe both
torque therange
driver of and
60–80 theNm.
motorThemaps
efficiency
decreased
achievedrapidly to less
their best than 0.5 when
performances, the
i.e., in thetorque
speed values
range ofwere lessNm
270–330 than and 20the
Nm. torque range of 60–
TheNm.driver b , shown in Figure 9b, had high values, i.e., greater than
80 The 1efficiency
forward-mode
decreased efficiency,
rapidly toηless d than 0.5 when the torque values were less than 20
0.9, forNm.the torque range of 30–130 Nm, and for speeds greater than 30 rpm. The maximum values were
The driver 1in
mostly concentrated forward-mode
the area delimitedefficiency,by speed , shown
from 50 into
Figure
100 rpm,9b, hadandhigh values,values
by torque i.e., greater
that were
greater than 0.9, 40
than forNm.
the torque
In thisrange
regionof 30–130
of theNm, and for speeds
rpm/torque greater than
characteristic, the30maximum
rpm. The maximumefficiency values
reached a
valuewere overmostly
0.95. The concentrated in the area delimited
worst performance occurredbywhen speedthe from 50 towas
speed 100 set
rpm, atand
lessby torque
than valueswhere
25 rpm,
that were greater than 40 Nm. In this region of the rpm/torque characteristic, the maximum efficiency
the efficiency decreased to 0.3, irrespective of the torque. The driver’s efficiency was always higher
reached a value over 0.95. The worst performance occurred when the speed was set at less than 25
than the motor’s efficiency. Figure 9b shows that the driver’s efficiency in the area close to 320 rpm was
rpm, where the efficiency decreased to 0.3, irrespective of the torque. The driver’s efficiency was
very always
high. However,
higher than due thetomotor’s
measurementefficiency. errors that9b
Figure randomly
shows that enhanced
the driver’sthe driver’s
efficiencyefficiency
in the area values,
the result was slightly greater than 1. In terms of visualization, we
close to 320 rpm was very high. However, due to measurement errors that randomly enhanced the decided to eliminate the driver’s
efficiency values
driver’s that values,
efficiency exceeded the 1, since
result was it slightly
was physically
greater thanimpossible
1. In terms forofthis scenario to
visualization, weoccur.
decided In fact,
the driver’s characteristics
to eliminate in that area
the driver’s efficiency valueswerethatreduced
exceededfor the sake
1, since it wasofphysically
visualizing the data.
impossible forFigure
this 8a
shows scenario to occur. of
the efficiency In the
fact,entire
the driver’s
powertrain,characteristics
and theinmeasured
that area data
were werereduced notfor the sake
deleted afterof they
visualizing
were acquired. the data. Figure 8a shows the efficiency of the entire powertrain, and the measured data
were not deletedthe
In conclusion, after they were acquired.
experimental tests of the powertrain, concerning the forward-mode evaluation
In conclusion, the experimental tests of the powertrain, concerning the forward-mode evaluation
phase, showed that the decrease in the efficiency was not caused by a specific component of the
phase, showed that the decrease in the efficiency was not caused by a specific component of the
powertrain. In fact, the low-efficiency regions observed in b ηm were found for the same speed/torque
powertrain. In fact, the low-efficiencyb regionsd observed in were found for the same
ranges in both of ranges
speed/torque the efficiency
in both of maps, i.e., ηd maps,
the efficiency and ηi.e.,
m. and .
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 9. 9. Efficiencyininpower
Efficiency power generation:
generation: (a)
(a)motor
motor1; (b) driver
1; (b) 1. 1.
driver
3.3. Regenerative-Mode Efficiencies

3.3. Regenerative-Mode Efficienciesofofthe
theMotor
Motor and Driver m ηd and
and Driver and d ηb
Figure
Figure 10a 10a
showsshows
thethe efficiency
efficiency ofofmotor
motor22in inthe
the regenerative
regenerative mode.
mode.TheTheperformance
performance of motor
of motor 2
2 resulted
resulted in an efficiency
in an efficiency map was
map that that similar
was similar to that
to that obtained
obtained by by testing
testing motor
motor 1 in
1 in theforward
the forwardmode.
mode. Thewas
The efficiency efficiency
in thewas in the
range of range
0.2 to of
0.70.2when
to 0.7below
when below 50 rpm,
50 rpm, and itand it was
was independent
independent of of
thethe
torque
torque values. For higher speed values, i.e., in the range of 150–300 rpm in the same central torque
values. For higher speed values, i.e., in the range of 150–300 rpm in the same central torque interval of
interval of 30–80 Nm, the efficiency remained high at about 0.9. The peak efficiencies, i.e., near 0.93,
30–80 Nm, the efficiency remained high at about 0.9. The peak efficiencies, i.e., near 0.93, occurred in
occurred in the speed range of 200–270 rpm and the torque range of 30–70 Nm. This region of peak
efficiency was clearly visible in the efficiency map of motor 1 for the same speed and torque ranges,
and the peak value of efficiency was also very close to that of motor 2. In the last part, i.e., for speeds
Energies 2018, 11, 3536 13 of 19
the speed range of 200–270 rpm and the torque range of 30–70 Nm. This region of peak efficiency was
clearly visible in the efficiency map of motor 1 for the same speed and torque ranges, and
the peak
13 of 19
value of efficiency was also very close to that of motor 2. In the last part, i.e., for speeds greater 13 of 19
than
greater
350 rpm andthanfor 350
torquerpm in andtheforrange
torqueofin20–40
the range
Nm,ofthe20–40 Nm, thewas
efficiency efficiency
around was0.8.
aroundFor the0.8. same
For thespeed
greater than 350 rpm and for torque in the range of 20–40 Nm, the efficiency was around 0.8. For the
rangesame
with speed range less
the torque withthan
the torque
20 Nm, less
thethan 20 Nm,decreased
efficiency the efficiency decreased
to 0.2 to 0.2 as
as the torque
same speed range with the torque less than 20 Nm, the efficiency decreased to 0.2 as the torque
the torque
decreased.
decreased.
Figure d
10b shows the efficiency map, ηb , of driver 2 in the regenerative mode. The behavior
decreased.
, of driver 2 in the regenerative mode. The behavior
of driver Figure
was10b
2Figure shows the efficiency map,
similar
10b shows to that of drivermap,
the efficiency 1 in the , forward
of driver 2mode
in the for motor 1 mode.
regenerative and motor 2. In fact,
The behavior
of driver 2 was similar to that of driver 1 in the forward mode for motor 1 and motor 2. In fact, the
the regenerative
of driver 2 was mode condition
similar did
to that of not 1change
driver the driver
in the forward modeefficiency
for motor significantly,
1 and motor 2. rather it was
In fact, the
regenerative mode condition did not change the driver efficiency significantly, rather it was
regenerative
independent of the mode
applied condition
torque, did
and not
it change the
remained driver
above 0.8efficiency
for motor significantly,
speeds rather
greater thanit 50
wasrpm.
independent of the applied torque, and it remained above 0.8 for motor speeds greater than 50 rpm.
independent
For lower speeds of the
and forapplied
torque torque,
values and it than
remained abovethe0.8 for motor was
speeds greater than 50 rpm.
For lower speeds and for torque valuesless
less than 50 50 Nm,
Nm, the efficiency
efficiency was high,high,
i.e., i.e., always
always greater
greater
For
than than lower
0.9, and speeds
the the
same and for
behavior torque
was values less than 50 Nm, the efficiency was high, i.e., always greater
0.9, and same behavior wasobserved
observed forfor driver
driver 11ininthe
theforward
forward mode.
mode.
than 0.9, and the same behavior was observed for driver 1 in the forward mode.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 10.10. Efficiencyiningenerating
Efficiency generating power:
power:(a)
(a)motor
motor2; (b) driver
2; (b) 2. 2.
driver
Figure 10. Efficiency in generating power: (a) motor 2; (b) driver 2.
3.4. Efficiency Uncertainty
Using
Using the the uncertainty
uncertainty propagation procedure
propagation procedure defined
definedininSection
Section2.4,2.4,
thethe
overall uncertainty
overall uncertainty
Using the uncertainty propagation procedure defined in Section 2.4, the overall uncertainty

associated with the forward mode efficiency is shown in Figure 11, which reports bη versus
associated with the
associated withforward mode
the forward efficiency
mode is shown
efficiency in Figure
is shown 11,11,
in Figure which reportsU
whichreports m versus
versus the
the torque and speed.
torquethe
andtorque
speed.
and speed.

Figure 11. Forward
11. Forward mode
mode efficiency(expanded)
efficiency (expanded) uncertainty UU b η associated withwith
driver 1 and1 and
FigureFigure 11. Forward mode efficiency (expanded)uncertainty
uncertainty U associated
m associated driver
with driver 1 and
motor
motor motor
1. 1.
1.
Energies 2018, 11, 3536 14 of 19
By comparing the uncertainty maps with the efficiency maps, it could be observed that the
high efficiency area (b ηm > 0.8) overlapped the area where the uncertainty was less than 0.03.
Therefore, the expanded uncertainty, in the optimum functioning area for the electric vehicle, was about
±3.75%. For low speeds, the accuracy of the measurement decreased to the range of 0.04–0.07, which
corresponded to a relative expanded uncertainty of ±10%. Instead, for the low torque, the absolute
inaccuracy increased, but the change in the relative uncertainty was limited to ±5%.
Table 3 compares the uncertainties of the measured and estimated efficiencies for the methods
using data which were available in the literature and reported in the introduction section, as well
as applying these data to electrical motors with output power values similar to the output power
values of the motor tested in this study. The results that were obtained were consistent with the results
of the indirect methods that were available in the literature for induction motors, which were the
most-studied sector for measuring of the efficiencies of electrical machines. The uncertainty associated
with other direct methods was always lower than the value of 3.75% computed for the back-to-back
method. However, this last uncertainty value was still sufficient to correctly measure the efficiency of
the powertrain.
The uncertainty components due to the measurements of electrical quantities could be greatly
reduced using a power analyzer. However, for the purpose of this experimental study, the powertrain
efficiency was estimated with a sufficient level of accuracy.
Table 3. Uncertainty associated with the measured and estimated efficiencies that are available in the
literature. Only a few studies involving asynchronous motors, computed the uncertainty associated
with the efficiency.
Uncertainty of the Uncertainty of the

Synchronous Motor Asynchronous Motor
Measured Efficiency Estimated Efficiency
Back to back method - ±3.75% _
- Method in Reference [9] ±0.7% ±0.5%
- Method in Reference [23] - ±0.4%
4. Simulation of an Urban Driving Cycle

The measured efficiency map and the associated uncertainty map were used to simulate a drive
with a UDC profile, to test the feasibility of using the back-to-back method to model a vehicle’s range
with sufficient accuracy. We considered the range of the electric quadricycle to be its main issue,
based on the observation that pure electric vehicles must be very efficient to maximize the vehicle’s
driving range and to reduce the driver’s anxiety about being stranded. In fact, a recent survey found
that the main impediments to buyers’ choosing electric vehicles were the vehicles’ perceived lack
of charging stations and concerns about the range [32–34]. Standardized driving cycles [35–38] are
useful for the analysis of the performance of the vehicle in terms of fuel consumption, pollution, and
efficiency. The UDC (Figure 12) consists of a speed-versus-time driving profile, limited to 45 km/h in
the present case, which was used extensively in Europe to ensure realistic results in the evaluation of
light-duty electric vehicles [39,40].
Energies 2018, 11,
Energies 2018, 11, 3536
x FOR PEER REVIEW 15
15 of
of 19
19
12. Urban Driving

Figure 12. Driving Cycle
Cycle (UDC)
(UDC) velocity
velocity profile,
profile,limited
limitedto
to45
45km/h:
km/h: the driving cycle consists
Figure 12. Urban Driving Cycle (UDC) velocity profile, limited to 45 km/h: the driving cycle consists
of three
three steps
steps of
of acceleration
acceleration and
and deceleration
deceleration actions.
actions.
of three steps of acceleration and deceleration actions.
The
The UDC
UDC simulation
simulation was
was run
run in
in the Simulink environment
the Simulink environment using
using the
the efficiency
efficiency maps
maps to to compute
compute
the The UDC simulation was run in the Simulink environment using the efficiency maps to compute
the actual power consumption of the torque–speed powertrain. The Simulink model (Figure 13)
actual power consumption of the torque–speed powertrain. The Simulink model (Figure 13) uses
uses
the following
the actual power consumption of theparameters
torque–speed powertrain. The Simulink model (Figure 13) uses
the following electrical/mechanical parameters as inputs, i.e., the battery pack model, electric motor
electrical/mechanical as inputs, i.e., the battery pack model, electric motor
the following electrical/mechanical
data, parameters as inputs, i.e., the battery pack model, electric motor
data, maximum
maximum torque,
torque, reduction
reduction ratio,
ratio, and
and other
other mechanical
mechanical quantities
quantities from
from thethe motor
motor andand from
from
data,
the maximum
vehicle torque,
chassis (mass,reduction
moment ratio,
of and
inertia, other mechanical
friction). The motor quantities
that was from
modeled the motor
was the and from
standard
the vehicle chassis (mass, moment of inertia, friction). The motor that was modeled was the standard
the vehicle
Simscape chassis (mass, moment of inertia, friction). The motor that was modeled was the standard
Simscape servomotor.
servomotor. The
The battery
battery model
model considered
considered thethe discharge
discharge curve
curve ofof aa single
single cell
cell [41]
[41] and
and the
the
Simscape servomotor.
nominal The battery model considered the discharge curve of a single cell [41] and the
nominal and
and residual
residual capacities.
capacities.
nominal and residual capacities.
Figure 13. Block diagram

Figure 13. diagram of
of the
the UDC
UDC simulation:
simulation: electrical/mechanical
electrical/mechanical quantities reported inside the
the
Figure 13. Block diagram of the UDC simulation: electrical/mechanical quantities reported inside the
red
red boxes
boxes were
were evaluated
evaluated experimentally.
experimentally.
red boxes were evaluated experimentally.
The electrical capacity of the battery is a function of the time integral of the electrical current
absorbed by the powertrain during the execution of the UDC. Each UDC simulation started with the
absorbed by the powertrain during the execution of the UDC. Each UDC simulation started with the
Energies 2018, 11, 3536 16 of 19
absorbed by11,
Energies 2018, the powertrain
x FOR during the execution of the UDC. Each UDC simulation started with
PEER REVIEW the
16 of 19
battery pack fully charged (state of charge (SOC) = 100%), and the simulation ended when the SOC
battery pack
reached the 0% fully chargedWe
threshold. (state of charge
performed 500(SOC) = 100%), andwhich
UDC simulations, the simulation
took about ended when
10 h on the SOC
a quad-core
reached
Intel Xeonthe 0% threshold.
e3-1230v6/3.5 GHzWeprocessor
performed with50016UDC
GB ofsimulations,
Random AccesswhichMemory
took about 10 h on a quad-
(RAM).
core Concerning
Intel Xeon e3-1230v6/3.5
the efficiency GHz
of theprocessor
power train, withbecause
16 GB of Random
it was AccesstoMemory
impossible (RAM).
determine the random
Concerning
or systematic the of
nature efficiency of the
the sources ofpower
errors train,
in thebecause
measuredit was impossible
uncertainty to determine
map, in each UDCthe run,
random we
decided to estimate the actual efficiency map by adding an efficiency error to the reference value ηwe
or systematic nature of the sources of errors in the measured uncertainty map, in each UDC run,b
m,
decided
where thetoefficiency
estimateerror
the actual efficiency
for each ith run was mapdefined
by adding
as: an efficiency error to the reference value
, where the efficiency error for each ith run was defined
b
√ b as:
ε m,i = pi · 3u ηm (5)
, = ∙ √3 (5)
whereppi iis
where is aa random
randomvariable
variablefrom
fromaarectangular
rectangulardistribution,
distribution,limited
limitedtotothe rangeofof−−1,1.
therange This means
1,1. This means
that the
that the efficiency
efficiencymap mapforforthe
theith
ithrun
runwas
wasalways
alwaysover-estimated
over-estimatedor orunder-estimated.
under-estimated. As As mentioned
mentioned
previously,we
previously, wechose
chosesuch
suchaaconservative
conservativehypothesis
hypothesis because
because ofof the
the absence
absence of of information
information on on the
the
characteristicsof
characteristics ofthe
theerror
errorsources.
sources.
Figure 14
Figure 14shows
showsaahistogram
histogramof ofthe
theUDC
UDCsimulations.
simulations. The
The results
results of of the
the estimation
estimation of of the
the range
range
wereabout
were about145,115
145,115m mwith
withaa95%95%uncertainty
uncertaintyvalue
valueof ofabout
about450450m,
m,i.e.,
i.e.,0.3%.
0.3%. Such
Such aa low
low uncertainty
uncertainty
value was
value wasdue duetotothe
thefact
factthat
thatthethevehicle,
vehicle,when
whenfollowing
followingthetheUDC
UDCpattern,
pattern, waswasalways
always working
working in in
theareas
the areasofofthetheefficiency
efficiencymaps,
maps, where
where thethe associated
associated uncertainty
uncertainty waswas the lowest,
the lowest, i.e., between
i.e., between 1% and1%
and 0.1%.
0.1%. That result
That result confirmed
confirmed that thethat the back-to-back
back-to-back direct was
direct method method
validwas valid for measuring
for measuring the efficiencythe
efficiency
of of the powertrain
the powertrain with a lowwithlevelaoflow level of associated
associated uncertaintyuncertainty
measurements. measurements. The simulation
The simulation indicated
indicated
that that the uncertainty
the uncertainty of the efficiency
of the efficiency measurementmeasurement
was verywas lowvery
when lowestimating
when estimating
the range theofrange
the
of the vehicle
vehicle for a standard
for a standard drivingdriving
cycle. cycle.
Figure 14. Histogram of the vehicle range from the UDC simulation.
Figure 14. Histogram of the vehicle range from the UDC simulation.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
We evaluated the efficiency and the associated accuracy of the power train of a light electric
vehicleWetoevaluated the efficiency
verify the feasibility and
of the the associated
back-to-back directaccuracy
method.ofThe theinaccuracy
power train of adirect
of the lightmethod
electric
vehicle
was to verify
greater than the feasibility of the
inaccuracies back-to-back
of other methodsdirect method.
available in theThe inaccuracy
literature, of the
but the direct
values method
were still
comparable. Our results can also be extended to small motors for traction vehicles, when limitedstill
was greater than the inaccuracies of other methods available in the literature, but the values were to
comparable.
the Ourtechnique.
back-to-back results can also
The be extended
results reportedto
insmall motors
another studyfor
[9]traction vehicles,
indicated that thewhen
directlimited
methods to
the back-to-back technique. The results reported in another study [9] indicated that the direct
methods for electric motors with rated power values greater than 1-kW could be used for all three-
phase motors with a sufficient level of accuracy. The performed UDC simulation led to the conclusion
that the back-to-back direct method allowed us to obtain accurate information about the overall range
of the vehicle when travelling on a standard driving cycle. We could have obtained a lower
Energies 2018, 11, 3536 17 of 19
for electric motors with rated power values greater than 1-kW could be used for all three-phase motors
with a sufficient level of accuracy. The performed UDC simulation led to the conclusion that the
back-to-back direct method allowed us to obtain accurate information about the overall range of the
vehicle when travelling on a standard driving cycle. We could have obtained a lower inaccuracy of
measurements using a power analyzer instead of a digital oscilloscope; however, both the powertrain
efficiency and the vehicle range were estimated with sufficient accuracy.
No previous research has been conducted on the uncertainty of the measurements associated with
the efficiency of the powertrain using the back-to-back direct method. All uncertainty assessments in
this field have been performed on the asynchronous electric motors used in industries, and most of
them were conducted using the indirect method. The efficiency of synchronous electric motors used
for electric vehicles is currently not regulated by standards, but considering the increasing requests
for electric vehicles in the automotive market, it is likely that this aspect will be investigated in the
near future.
Forthcoming developments of this experimental study concern the improvement of the
measurement uncertainty associated with the electric powertrain efficiency using the back-to-back
direct method, and the estimate of the vehicle’s range to real a UDC and not just to a standard UDC.
Furthermore, the experimental estimate of the powertrain efficiency, using the back-to-back direct
method, will be extended to two different useful scenarios: Powertrain efficiency evaluation as a
function of both motor and battery temperatures and powertrain efficiency evaluation as a function
of the state of charge (SoC) of the battery pack. This information could be very useful for on-board
implementation of a real-time estimation of a vehicle’s effective range.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.D.S. and S.A.; methodology, F.P.; software, S.A., and M.D.S.;
validation, M.D.S., S.A., and F.P.; formal analysis, M.D.S., S.A., and O.G.; investigation, S.A., M.D.S., and F.P.;
resources, G.B.; data curation, M.D.S., and S.A.; writing—original draft preparation, M.D.S.; writing—review and
editing, M.D.S., F.P., and O.G.; visualization, M.D.S., S.A., F.P.; supervision, O.G., and G.B.; project administration,
M.D.S., O.G., and G.B.; funding acquisition, G.B.
Funding: This research was funded by the Ministry of Economic Development of Italy, Innovation Industry
project “sustainable mobility” No. MS01_00038.
Acknowledgments: The present research was financed by the Ministry of Economic Development of Italy in the
contest of the project named HI-QUAD.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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energies

Energies 2018, 11, 3536; doi:10.3390/en11123536 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Figure 2. Electric motors

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19

Figure 3. Bench test for the powertrain.

Operating Condition Voltage Range for Gen4 36/48V Controller

2.4. Forward and Regenerative Mode Efficiency and Efficiency Uncertainty

3.2. Forward-Mode efficiencies of the Motor and Driver and

3.2. Forward-Mode Efficiencies of the Motor and Driver d ηm and b ηd

3.3. Regenerative-Mode Efficiencies

Uncertainty of the Uncertainty of the

4. Simulation of an Urban Driving Cycle

12. Urban Driving

Figure 13. Block diagram

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