Particle theory of light

 Light consists of discrete particles known as photons that carry identical quantity of energy that depends on
frequency of oscillation.
 Photons are massless particle that is basically a packet of energy given by where h is plank’s constant.
 Two important experiments served to confirm the photon theory of light
1. Photoelectric effect
 Light directed on a metal surface makes electrons in the metal to be ejected if frequency of light was high
enough.
 If frequency was too low, increasing intensity did nothing to eject electrons.
 If frequency was high enough, more electrons were ejected but their maximum K.E did not change. (In
simple terms, the incident light particles hit electrons in the metal leading to ejection).

2. Compton effect
 Colliding a photon with a stationary electron caused an increase in wavelength of scattered photon.
 The photon after collision were scattered and the wavelengths were larger than the wavelength of the incident
photon to mean some energy of the initial photon were transferred to the stationary electron.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

1. The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses electromagnetic waves of all frequencies and wavelengths.
2. Despite vast differences in their uses and means of production, these are all electromagnetic waves with the same
propagation speed (3.0x108m/s in vacuum) Electromagnetic waves may differ in frequency and wavelength but
the relationship in vacuum holds for each.

3. The key characteristics of e-m waves are;

 o The wave is transverse; both E and B are perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. The
electric and magnetic fields are also perpendicular to each other. The direction of propagation is the
direction of the vector product EXB
o There is a definite ratio between the magnitudes of E and B; E=cB
o The wave travels in vacuum with a definite and unchanging speed.
o Unlike mechanical waves, which need the oscillating particles of a medium such as water or air to
transmit a wave, electromagnetic waves require no medium.
o The energy of the waves are determined by the equation ; h=6.62x10-34Js

4. There are dangers associated with the e-m waves;

o Large doses of radio waves can cause leukaemia and other associated disorders
o Prolonged exposure to microwaves causes cataracts
o Too much white light can damage retina
o Large doses of UV can cause sunburn, skin cancer, etc
o Intense x-rays can lead to cell damage and cancers
o Gamma rays can be associated with mutations of cell tissues when not controlled
5. Below are some of the safety equipment for handling e-m radiations

Equipment Application
Lead Apron Lead aprons work with the principle of penetration inhibition, that is, Lead, which is a heavy
metal, does not allow ionizing x-rays used in medical in medical imaging to pass through vital
organs of the body.
X-ray test objects These objects are used to evaluate the operation of x-ray equipment to establish the correct
operating performance of the equipment so as to prevent the dangers of possible stray
radiations.
Film Budges Film budge dosimeters are personal meters fitted with photographic film that allow the
formation of images of its protective case when irradiated. The film is then removed and
developed to measure exposure.
Forceps To minimize direct contact with radiation sources, the sources are to be held with forceps for
safety.

Applications

1. In communication, the advantages and disadvantages of Visible light compared to Radio waves are as tabled;
Advantages Disadvantages

 Visible light wave can carry much
information due to its shorter wavelengths
compared to radio waves.
 The desire for visual signaling can only be
achieved by visible light in LEDs and not
radio wave.
 Visible light signals can be damaging to the eye if
unregulated.
 The waves get readily scattered by obstacles along
transmission paths such as clouds, mist, and so on.
 As opposed to radio wave, light waves require line of
sight for data transfer and cannot travel very long
distances in fibres.
2. For communication systems, the wiring is arranged so that a conductor carrying a signal in one direction and the
conductor carrying the return signal are side by side, or twisted around each other, as a result, the magnetic field
due to these signals outside the conductors is very small, making it less likely to exert unwanted forces on other
information-carrying currents, i.e Computer cables, or cables for audio-video equipment, create little or no
magnetic field. This is because within each cable, closely spaced wires carry current in both directions along the
length of the cable. The magnetic fields from these opposing currents cancel each other.

Sources of optical Radiation

 Optical radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

 It is subdivided into ultraviolet radiation (UV), the spectrum of light visible for man (VIS) and infrared radiation
(IR).
 It ranges between wavelengths of 100 nm to 1 mm.
 Electromagnetic waves in this range obey the laws of optics – they can be focused and refracted with lenses
 Optical radiation may be produced by artificial sources, such as UV lights, common lightbulbs, and radiant
heaters, but the primary source (natural) of exposure for most people is the sun.
 This exposure can result in negative health effects. All wavelengths across this range of the spectrum, from UV to
IR, can produce thermal injury to the surface layers of the skin, including the eye. When it comes from natural
sources, this sort of thermal injury might be called sunburn. However, thermal injury from infrared radiation could
also occur in a workplace, such as a foundry, where such radiation is generated by industrial processes. At the
other end of this range, UV light has enough photon energy that it can cause direct effects to protein structure in
tissues, and is well established as carcinogenic in humans.
 Excessive exposure to natural or artificial UV-radiation means immediate (acute) and long-term (chronic) damage
to the eye and skin.
 Occupational exposure limits may be one of two types: rate limited or dose limited. Rate limits characterize the
exposure based on effective energy (radiance or irradiance, depending on the type of radiation and the health
effect of concern) per area per time, and dose limits characterize the exposure as a total acceptable dose. The latter
is applied when the intensity of the radiation is great enough to produce a thermal injury
Optical detectors
 Optical/photon detectors can be classified according to the physical effect that produces the detector response.
Some important classes include;
o Photoconductive
 The incoming light produces free electrons which can carry electrical current so that the electrical
conductivity of the detector material changes as a function of the intensity of the incident light
 Photoconductive detectors are fabricated from semiconductor materials such as silicon
o Photovoltaic
 Such a detector contain a junction in a semiconductor material between a region where the
conductivity is due to electrons and a region where conductivity is due to holes (a p-n junction)
 A voltage is generated when optical energy strikes the device
 o Photoemissive detectors
 These are based on photoelectric effect, in which incident photons release electrons from the
surface of the detector material
 The free electrons are then are then collected in an external circuit

Photometry

 The study of measurement of light energy and its illumination on a surface.

 The following concepts are discussed;
o Radiant flux (P)
 This refers to the total energy radiated by a light source.
 It is measured in Watts
o Luminous flux (ϕ)
 This is the total light energy emitted by a light source; one lumen is light energy radiated by a
source of 1/685 Watt and 5500Ǻ wavelength.
o Luminous efficiency (ɳ)
 This is the ratio of luminous flux to radiant flux;

o Luminous Intensity (L)

 This refers to the luminous flux per unit solid angle in a given direction. Consider the illustration
shown;

ñ
S dΩ dϕ

Along the direction ñ, luminous intensity is given as;

This means for isotropic source (emitting light in all directions), total angle is considered;

o Illuminance (I)
 When a surface illuminates light falling on it then illuminance is defined as luminance flux per
unit area on the surface (
 Consider a parallel source of light on flat surface as illustrated;

Source
of Light Area S

Illuminance at area S is;

  Considering an isotropic source located at distance r0 from vertical screen, the total flow is
distributed through a spherical region of radius r0 with respect to the screen, thus the point on the
screen (A) normal to the source has illuminance given as;

But
Thus,

This relationship of luminous intensity and illuminance can be generated for any other point on
the screen which is at an angle with respect to the direction of propagation of light (Assignment
2-compare with Lambert cosine rule)

Photometer

 An experimental set up used to compare illuminance of two sources on a screen. Consider the set up below;

 Moving the sources modifies the combined illumination on the screen, when illumination due to the two sources
become equal on the screen then;

 This is the Principle of Photometry.

Examples
1. A 40W point isotropic light source has luminous efficiency of lumen/watt. Find,
a) Luminous flux of the source [160π Lumen]
b) Luminous intensity of the source [40 Cd]
c) Illuminance of a normal surface 2m away from source [10 lux]
2. A 100W bulb having luminous efficiency of 10 is placed at a distance √ m from a screen S as shown in the
figure. Find the luminous intensity on the screen at a point P shown. [3.32 Lux]

300
Screen

√ 𝑚
S
 Light reflection

 This is the bouncing back of light after it strikes on a surface that does not permit light penetration.
 The nature of the surface determines the type of reflection that will be realized;
(i) Specular reflection: the reflecting surface is smooth; the reflected rays are in the same direction. It is also
known as regular reflection.
(ii) Diffuse reflection: involves rough reflecting surface. The reflected rays are scattered in all directions.
Also known as irregular reflection
 The illustration shown below shows how reflection on a plane surface occurs;

 The laws of reflection include;

1. The angle of incidence (θi) equals angle of reflection (θr)
2. The normal, the incident ray and the reflected ray, at the point of incidence, all lie on the same
plane
 The properties of the images formed on plane reflectors/mirrors include;
1. Laterally inverted
2. Same size as the object
3. Virtual
4. Located at the same distance from mirror/ reflector as the object is from the reflector

Fermat’s Principle

 Stating this principle is such that the path taken by a ray of light in traveling between two points requires either a
minimum or a maximum time. Thus, two beams of light diverging from a distant object point and converged by a
lens to an image point will have identical optical path lengths.
 Fermat’s principle was first enunciated in 1658 by Pierre de Fermat, a French mathematician. It is useful in the
study of optical devices.

Fermat’s Principle & Reflection

Consider the illustration shown: Light follows the path of least time. Of course the straight line from A to B is the
shortest time, but suppose it has a single reflection;

The law of reflection can be derived from this principle as follows: the path length from A to B is;
 √ √

Since the speed is constant, the minimum time path is simply the minimum distance path. This may be found by
setting the derivative of L with respect to x equal to zero;

√ √

√ √

Refraction

 The deviation of light rays from its path when it travels from one transparent medium to another transparent
medium is called refraction of light. This is because the speed of light is different in different media.

Figure: Refraction of Light

 Laws of Refraction include;

o The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all three lies in the same plane.
o The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is constant( refractive index) for a
pair of two media (Snell’s Law)
………………………….. (1)

Assn. 1: Derive equation 1****

 Refractive index plays a central role in geometric optics. It is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed
in the material
Example
1. The figure below is a phenomena for refraction and reflection, determine θr and θb