PRINCIPLESPRINCIPLES OF NAVIGATION EXTRA MASTER EXTRA MASTER Former Principal Former Principal LBS College of Advanced ssessaneseeras aanvaneaeraat LBS College of Advanced Maritime Studies and Research Maritime Studies and Research Former Capt. Supdi. TS.Rajenda =§————=—=——==——= Former Capt. Supdt. T.S.Rajendra Capt_T.K, JOSEPH (Ary Capt. $.S.5 REWARIAry) Applied Research international Pvt. Ltd. B-1, Hauz Khas, New Delhi -110016, india. Tol, : 91-11-41655123-28 Fax : 91-11-26858331 E-mail : mediabook@ariedu.com Website : www.ariedu.com Published in India by Applied Research International Pvt: Ltd, (Media Division) New Dethi All tights reserved with the Authors. No part of this Publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, of transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or ‘otherwise without the prior permission of the Authors. First Edition 1996 ‘Second Edition 2006 Price Rs. 400.00 Printed by : GAURAV ENTERPRISES C-56, Hari Nagar Clock Tower New Delhi - 110064 Tel. : 25125278tis o the stars that navigators from all lands first turned to aid them in their journeys across the oceans. Of course, technical innovation has over the years yielded newer, more precise ways to chart one's course across the high seas, yet celestial navigation still constitutes the basis of many of the newer techniques of ‘modern navigation and remains the one, unfailing option for navigators. A navigator's training, then, is never complete without a mastery of the rudiments of astronomy. In the course of our years in marine education, however, we have seen this to be a generally grey area among ‘many navigation students. This book endeavours to present the principles of celestial navigation in an accessible manner without compromising the level of the subject matter The book caters to the absolute beginners as well as the middle and advancéd level students in pre-sea, post-sea and degree curriculae. In addition to aiding students preparing for the certificate of competency / B.Sc. (Nautical science) degree, it should also be useful to their teachers and examiners. Finally, we hope it will also be of great interest to senior navigators wishing to revisit this fascinating subject. Some of the highlights of the simplified approach adopted in the book are : A large number of worked examples. Itis our strong belief that the theory of any technical subject is more fully understood when the student sees calculations that demonstrate how the theory is applied to real life situations. These worked examples have been carefully designed to illustrate the theory as well as to bring to focus its finer points without which the ‘student may find himself unsure. An emphasis on visualisation. Over 200 sketches have been provided to illustrate both the main text and the worked examples. These have been crafted to aid the student in visualising the subject matter, making it simpler to grasp. Arich set of problems. The book also provides a large number of problems for solution by the student along with brief comments and hints where deemed necessary. These problems have been graded with care to step the student sequentially through his studies. A siniple style geared to students. The book has been written to make for comfortable and easy reading. Ample space has been left for the student to make his personal notes in the book We are deeply grateful to Capt. M.C. Yadav for his valuable suggestions and assistance in taking this book to production. We would also like to thank Capt. Heredia who assisted us in the initial stages with the drawing of sketches and Capt. R.K. Sood for the final proof reading. Finally, we would like to express our sincerest gratitude to our students, both on the high seas and ashore, whose affection and inspiration for over 30 years convinces us that, if offered, a lifetime in maritime educa- tion is something we would be happy to seize all over again, TK. Joseph SSS. RewariThe book has been revised to increase its usefulness to students preparing for certificate of competency/B.Sc. (Nautical Science) degree. Theory and problems on resolution of Celestial Cocked hat have been added. Theory of Transverse Projection and U.T.M. Grid has been included as plans, harbor Charts and topographical maps are drawn on this projection. Mrs. A, Rewari Capt. TK. JosephDedicated to Rigmor & Ambi our respective life partners who have stood by us in all our endeavours" AILI Ask Is A Tall Ship And A Star To Steer Her By" John MasefieldChapter No. Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Contents Topic Earth 11 Shape of the Earth 12 Distance & Directions Parallel & Plane Sailing 21 Parallel Sailing 22 Plane Sailing Charts 31 Mercator Chart 32 Gnomonic Chart 33° PlanChart 34 Other Map or Chart Projections Sailing 41 Mercator Sailing 42 Middle/Mean Latitude Sailing 43 Traverse Sailing 44 Days Work Nautical Astronomy Sd Stellar Magnitude $2 TheCelestial Sphere 53 Equinoctial System 54 Horizon System 55 Important Relationships Solar System 61 Planetary Motion 62 Apparent Motion of Celestial Bodies 63 Elongation of Planet or the Moon 64 Venus as a Morning and Evening Star 65 Apparent Magnitude of Planets Earth - Moon System TL Phases of the Moon 72 Daily Retardation ofthe Moon 73 Appearance ofthe Moon Relative tothe Horizon 74 Liberation of the Moon 75 Eclipses 16 — Oceultation Time 81 TheDay 82 Mean, Apparent & Sidereal Time 83 Relationship Between Longitude and Time 84 Standard Time 85. Zone Time 86 International Date Line Page No. eaawaS veaess seeped sd Saesan BIRBBSChapter No. Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Topic 87 Why Stars Rise, Culminate & Set 4 Minutes Earlier Each Day 88 Comparison of Solar and Sidereal Day and Time 89 Relationship Between Are and Time 810 Relationship Between Longitude & Time 811 Equation of Time 812 Precession of Equinoxes 313. Notation 814 The Years Altitudes 90 Sextant 91 Correction of Altitudes 92 Back Angles 93 Computing the Sextant Altitude Nautical Almanac Position Lines M1” Terrestrial Position Lines 12 Position Circle 113 Transferred PL 114 Position Lines from Celestial Observations 115 Astronomico! Position Lines 116 Latitude by Meridian Altitude 117 Lower Meridian Passage 1.8 Latitude by Lower Meridian Altitude 119 Circumpotar Bodies 1.10 Azimuth VAL Amplitude 1112 Observation of Celestial Bodies off the Meridian 1113 Noon Pe 11.14 Ex-Meridian Sights IIS Polaris Sights 11.16 Errors in Position Lines Rising Setting of Celestial Bodies and Twilight 121 Twi 122 Theoretical Sunrising and Sunset 123 Moonrise and Moonset Great Circle Sailing 131 Solution of Great Circe Sailing Problems 132 Use of ABC Tables to Find Initial and Final Courses. 133. Composite Tracks Calculations in Nautical Astronomy ides 151 Lunar Tide 152 Relationship Between Phases of the Moon and Tides 153 Definitions ‘Almanac Answers Index Page No. 109 109 0 m 113 14 ve 128 139 2B a 152 “7 161 165 18 287 303 3051 EARTH 1.1 SHAPE OF THE EARTH : The Earth is nota true sphere. Its shape is that of an oblate spheroid, the equatorial diameter being moré than the polar diameter. The equatorial diameter is 7926.7 statute miles while the polar diameter is 7899.5 ‘statute miles. In kilometers the equatorial radius is 6378.16 km and the polar radius is 6356.77 km. The difference of about 27 miles between these diameters as compared to the average diameter of 7913 miles is so small that the Earth may be considered a true sphere for most purposes. Axis ‘The axis of the Earth is the diameter about which it rotates. Poles ‘The geographic poles of the Earth are the two points where the axis meets the Earth’s surface. ‘The Earth rotates about its axis once each day. This rotation carries each point on the Earth’s surface towards East. West is the direction 180° from East, North is the direction 90° to the left of East, and South the direction 90° to the right of East. The two poles of the Earth are designated North Pole and South Pole, accordingly. AGreat Circle isacircleon the surface of a sphere, the plane of which passes through the centre of the sphere, There is only one great circle through any two points on the sphere’s surface, except ifthe points are at the two ends of a diameter when an infinite number of great circles are possible. A Small Circle is acircle on the surface of a sphere, the plane of which does not pass through the centre ofthe sphere. Equator The Equator is'a great circle on the surface of the Earth, the plane of which is perpendicular to the Earth’s axis, The Equator divides the Earth into the north and the south hemispheres, Latitudes ane measured North or South from the Equator.Parailels of Latitude Meridians Prine Meridian Parallels of Latitude are small circles on the Earth’s surface, the planes of which are parallel tothe plane of the Equator. All parallels therefore run East-West. Meridians are semi-great circles on the Earth, joining the two poles. The other half of the same great circle forms yet another meridian. All meridians intersect the Equator and parallels of latitude at 90°. Since the meridiangjoin the poles,all meridians run North-South, is the meridian which passes through Greenwich. The other meridians are named East or West from the Prime meridian. FIG.1.1) In Fig. 1.1. QDQ"is a great circle as its plane passes through C, the centre of the sphere. LGL isasmallcircle N@& Sare the North Pole and South Pole respectively. NCS the Earth’s axis QQ the Equator LL are parallels of latitudes NDS, NES and NFS are meridians NGS the Prime meridian (through Greenwich) Latitude of A = are AD or angle ACD ( The lat. is North) Longitude of A =are ED or angle GNA (the long. is West) Latitude of B= are FB or angle FCB (the lat. is South) Longittide of B= are EF or angle ENF (the long. is East) acme eer ne NS i AEE ENE OTGeocentric Latitude of a place Gengraphie Latitude ofa place Longitude ofa place d'lat from A to B =arc AH or angle ACH (the d’lat is South) long from A to B= arc DF or angle ANB (the d’long is East) isthe arc ofa meridian or the angle at the centre of the Earth con: tained between the Equator, and the parallel of latitude through that place. Latitudes are measured from 0° to 90°, and named North or South according to the place being North or South of the Equator. isthe angle between the plane of the Equator and the vertical at that place. In navigation, the term latitude implies, the latitude as observed, thatiis the geographic latitude. ‘The Geographic latitude differs from the Geocentric latitude as the Earth isnota true sphere, The difference between them isnil at the Equator and at the poles. They differ by amaximum of about 11.61 at 45°N and 45°S. ‘The geocentric latitude is approximately equal to :- Geographic latitude - (11.6x:sin2 geographic latitude). Verties (FIG.1.2) QQ’ the plane of the Equator = Geocenttic latitude of A ~ Geographic latitude of A is the arc of the Equator or the angle at the poles contained between the Prime mevidian and the meridian through that place. Longitudes are measured from 0° to 180°, and named East or West according to the place being East or West ofthe Prime meridian. ‘Any position on the Earth is established, if ts latitude and longitude are defined. errr cea aR RCN 3 lam:Diiterenve in Lautudes (Way Difference in longitude (d’long) Meant Caniuue 1.2 DISTANC The d’lat between two places isthe arc of a meridian or angle at the centre of Earth contained between the parallels of latitude through the two. places. D’latis named North or South according to the direction from the first place to the second e.g. d’lat from 30°N to 20°N is 10°S and d’lat from 10°S fo 15°N is 25°N. ‘Fhe d’long between two places is the shorter arc of the Equator or the smaller angle tthe poles contained between the meridians through the two places, D’long. is named East or West according to the direction from the first place to the second place. The following examples will make itmore clear. long from OWE = to 0" = 40° @long from o90W = to OPW = SOE long from 020°E to 030°W = =50°W + dlongfiom 160°W to 170°E = -30°W * @longfiom 15S°E to O70°W = 135°E * The shorter arc crosses the 180th Meridian and therefore the d’long is named in the direction of the 180th meridian from the first place. ‘The Mean latitude between two latitudes is the arithmetic mean between them, ‘Various units are used for measuring distances on the Earth. ‘The nantical mile at any placeis the length ofthe arc of ameridian subtending an angle of 1’ at the centre of curvature of that place. It may also be defined as the length of a meridian between two Geographic latitudes Which differ by I', thats I’ of lat.Knot Geographical mile PQ'P'Q- meridianof places A & B R -centre of curvature ofarc AP ntre of curvature of are BQ’ (FIG.13) Since RA is greater than R’B, AP the nautical mile near the pole is also greater than BQ’, the nautical mile near the Equator. The length of the nautical mile varies with the latitude, due to the varying curvature of the Earth’s surface. At the poles where the curvature is least, the nautical mile measures 1861.7m; (6107.8ft.) while at the Equator, where the curvature is largest, the nautical mile measures 1842.9m; (6046.4f.). This is so because the Earth being flattened at te poles and bulged at the Equator, the centre of curvature ofthe polar region will be further away from the Barth’s surface than the centre of curvature of the equatorial region. The arc subtended by the same angle of I' would therefore be larger atthe Poles and smaller atthe Equator. The sll variation in the length ofthe nautical mile has no significance in practical navigation asthe distance in nautical miles between ‘two places on the same meridian is the d’lat between them in minutes; and the two units vary together. For certain purposes, a standard unit is necessary. Therefore a mean length of 1852.3m (60808) is adopted as the standard nautical mile. The Jength of the Nautical Mile in latitude gis obtained as 1852.3 -9.4 cos 24. is aumit of speed equal to one nauucal mile per hour. is the length of the arc of the Equator subtending an angle of 1 at the centre of the Earth, Itis constant in length, equal to 1855.3m (6087.2).Kileimcter 1.2.2 Directions True course tyne Bearing Magnetic meridians & variation Deviation or land mile isan arbitrary measure of length equal to 52808. is the approximate length of 1 / 10,000 part of a meridian between the ‘Equator and the pole. (90° x 60 = 5400’ x 1.8523 = 10,002.43 km) Directions are measured as angles in degrees and minutes with reference to the Geographic North, which is indicated by all meridians. The angle is measured clock-wise from North in 360” notation. In the quadrantal system, the angles are measured from North to East or West and from South to East or West. Thus 160° in the 360° notation would be $20°E in the quadrantal system. is the angle at the ship between True North and the ship's head, thats, the angle between the truc meridian and the ship’s fore and aft line. The true bearing of an object is the angle at the observer between True ‘North indicated by the meridian and the line joining the observer and the object. Magnetic meridians are lines joining the magnetic poles of the Earth. Since these poles are not in the same position as the geographic poles, there isan angle between the magnetic and the geographic meridians. The angle between them is known as the variation. Variation is different at different places. Itis termed East, if the Magnetic North lies to the East or tight of the True North and West if the Magnetic North lies to the West or leftofthe True North. The value of the variation at a place isnot constant. It changes because the position of the magnetic poles of the Earth is constantly changing. This change is called the secular change in variation. ‘The variation and the amount of yearly change in it are indicated on the ‘compass roses on the charts. The value of the variation at any place may also be obtained from the variation chart of the World. A magnetic compass undisturbed by any other magnetic field will point towards the Magnetic North. In a ship made of steel, the magnetism of the ship’s structure also creates a further magnetic field at the compass position. This deviates the compass from the direction of Magnetic North. is the angle between the magnetic meridian and the North-Southline of, the compass card. Deviation is termed Easterly if thé compass North lies to the East or right of the Magnetic North and Westerly ifthe compass North lies to the West or left of Magnetic North. The deviation of a compass varies as the ship’s head changes. .Itshould be noted that for the same ship’s head, the deviation remains the same forall bearings, as deviation depends on the ship's head and not on the bearings. ‘The compass error is the algebraic sum of the deviation and the variation. Deviation, variation and the error are to be applied as follows to courses True @EG@W = — Magnetic = (EGW = Compass Compass (EW = = ~— Magnetic § (@)E(QQW = True Deviation Variation True QE@W == Compass Eror Compass (E(QW = True Eror ‘The above rule can be understood better by drawing appropriate figures in each case. Find the true course for a compass course of 040°, Deviation 15°E, ‘Variation 10°W, Dev. 15E — Comp.Co. 040°C) Var. 10°W Dev. 15%E) Enror SE Mag.Co. 055°(M) Comp.Co. 040°C) Var. 10°(W) TreCo, 045°C) TrueCo, 045°)@IG.1.4) ‘Asan exercise in the application of the above, the following table should be completed. EXERCISE! 1. Find the d’lat and d’long between the following positions : a) From 30°10.0°N 019°25.2°W to 37°15.7°N 020°04.2°W 'b) From 08°12.6°N 015°03.8’E to 02°08.0°S 017°18.6°W ¢) From LL°LL.6°N 178°32.0’E to 15°14.0°S 176°00.2° W @) From 08°14.2’S 160°40.0°W to 03°53,8°S 130°27.2°E. 2. Find the mean latitude between the following latitudes : a) 10°12.0°Nand 46°36.0°N ‘b) 12°04.0’Nand 23°08.0’S 3. Given initial position 12°49.5’S 176°48.7°E,d lat 30°12.0°N, d'long 12°36.5°E. Find the final position.THEORY QUESTIONS 4. Given initial position 15°30.6°N 008°20.8’ W,d’ lat 02°56.8°N,d’long, 32°11.6°E. Find the final position. 5. If the vessel's arrival position was 29°10.0°S, 003°28.3’E and she had made good ad’ lat of 62°16.3’S and d’long of 29°52’E, what ‘was the initial position? 6. Given Compass error 3°E, Variation 7°E, find the Deviation. 7. Given Compass error 6°W, Deviation 2°E, find the Variation. 1. Define =: (@)—-Nantical nite (b) Geographical mile (©) Statute mile, Explain clearly why the length of the nautical mile varies. 2, Define Variation and Deviation. Is the Variation at a place constant ? Why? 3. Define : (@) — Bquator ) Ding © Latitude, 4, Show by drawing a suitable figure, the difference between “Geoven- tric latitude” and “Geographic latitude”.2 PARALLEL & PLANE SAILING Sailing between two positions on the Barth’s surface involves calculating the course and distance between them. The shortest distance between any two points on the Earth is the shorter arc of the great circle through those points It can be seen from Figure 2.1, that the great circle track crosses the various meridians at differing angles. Thus a ship following agreat circle track would have to continually alter her course, ‘throughout the passage. Therefore in navigating from one place to another, the usual method isto sail along, arhumb line track. 150° 180° 150° 120° 90° West 30° East (FIG.2.1) Rhumb line ‘A Rhumb line or Loxodrome isa line on the Earth's surface, crossing all ‘meridians at the same angle, Itcan thus be seen that the rhumb line isthe most convenient track to follow as the course of the ship remains constant for the entire passage. ‘The Equator, all parallels of latitude and meridians are particular cases of thumb lines, as the course along the first two is always 090° or 270° and meenesecnees ||) eae etn ee Se RTSDeparture the course along any meridian is always 000° or 180°. On the surface of the Earth, all other rhumb lines will be curves spiralling towards the pole of the hemisphere. This is so because on the Earth the meridians converge towards the poles. (Fig.2.2a) pa 40° (FIG.2.2a) (FIG.2.2b) Ona Mercator chart however, arhumb line appears asa straight fine, as the meridians on a Mereator Char are represented as straightlines, parallel toeach other. (Fig.2.2b) ‘The departure between two places is the east-west distance between them in nautical miles. When the two places are on the same latitude the departure is the distance between them along their parallel of latitude. This fact is used in parallel sailing problems, ‘When the two places (A and B in Fig.2.3) are in different latitudes the departure between them will be smaller than the distance L,L, and greater than the distance L,L,. When the latitudes of the two places are fairly close to each other, the departure between them may, for practical ‘purposes, be considered equal to the east-west distance between the two ‘meridians measured along the mean latitude LL (Fig.2.3). This conceptis used without appreciable loss of accuracy in mean latitude sailing problems.Middle Latitude ‘When the latitudes of the two places are widely separated, the above assumption would be incorrect. The true departure between the two places then, will be the east-west distance between the meridians, measured along the “middle latitude” between them. The middle latitude between two places is the latitude in which the true departure lies, when sailing between them, Itmay also be defined as the latitude whose secant isthe d’Iong in minutes divided by the departure in nautical miles between the two places. (Relationship proved later). To convert mean latitude to middle latitude, some nautical tables provide atable of difference between the mean and middle latitude, as a function of the mean latitude and the d’lat between them. “Middle latitude sailing” is based on this concept. The use of middle lati- tude sailing for the purposes of practical navigation is now generally discouraged. 2.1 PARALLEL SAILING ‘When the starting and destination positions are on the same latitude, the ship could sal alongarhumb line, due East or West. Her track would therefore lie along the parallel of latitude ofthe two places. Sailing in this manneris therefore called parallel sailing, Since the distance travelled is due East or West, itis equal to the depatture between the two positions, A very important relationship exists between departure and d’long in such cases.P&P" represent the poles of the Earth PP’ the Barth’s axis, PAP’ and PBP” are two meridians Centre of the Earth Ocentre of the circle offlatitude LL? QY the Equator. CA=CB=Cbas they are radii of Earth a &b two places on the latitude LL’ FIG.2.4) Equator Parallel LL’ Lo * (FIG.2.4a) (FIG.2.4b) Arc ab is the departure between the two places and are AB on the Equatoris their d’long. Are ab/ Arc AB =dep. / 'lomg =radius Ob / radius CB , as ares are proportional to radius in concentric circles, as shown in fig. 2.4 (b) Since Cb = CB (both radii of the Earth), we have, dep. /d'long= radius Ob / radius Cb Since the triangle ObCis a plane triangle, right angled at O. Ob / Cb = sin OCb = sin(90-Iat) = cos lat: dep. /d'long=cos lat. Example 1 ‘A vessel in lat.47°S long. 054°W steers a course of 270°(T) fora distance of 412 miles, Find the position arrived. dep./d'long = coslatord’long=dep x sec lat=412. sec 47° = 604.1°W= 10°04.1°WExample 2 Example3 EXERCISE IL Longarrived = S4°W + 10°04.1'W=064°04.1°'W Positionarrived= — 47°S;064°04.1"W A vessel in latitude 37°12’N, proceeds along the same latitude from longitude 013°04’E to 005°37’ W, calculate the distance travelled. d'long made good = 13°04' + 05°37'= 18°41’ W = 1121°W dep. = d’long cos lat = 1121. cos 37°12’ =892.9M Distance travelled = 892.9 miles. ‘Two vessels on the Equator, were 60 miles apart. Both steered 180°(T) until they reached latitude 30°S. Find the distance between them on latitude 30°s. We know that dep: /d’long= cos lat. Since the vessels are in 0° latitude, dep. /d'long=cos 0°= 1 Therefore departure (the distance between them) is equal to the d’long between them. Thus d’long=60. As both ships have steered 180°(1), ie. along their respective meridians, the d’long between them remains the same on reaching latitude 30°. Since tlie two vessels are on the same latitude, the departure i.e, the east- west distance between them equals d’long. cos lat. = 60.cos 30° = 51.96 miles. 1, Find the d’long for 200 miles of departure in latitude 60°N 2. ‘Two ships on the Equator are 60 miles apart. Both steer 180°(T) at equal speeds. How many miles would each have to proceed till they are 40 miles apart ? Hint The number of minutes of d'lat= the distance in miles steamed South. 3. ‘Two vessels in the same latitude and 300 miles apart, steer 000°(T) at the same speed. On reaching latitude 40°N, their long is found to be 5°30’, What distance did they cover ? 4, ‘Twoaircraftsin lat.60°N, long. 090°W depart at the same time, one flying East and the other West at 500 knots. In what longitude will they meet, ifthere is a 30 knot Easterly wind ? 5. In what latitude will the number of miles of departure equal half the number of minutes of d’long ?HARDER PROBLEMS ma 220M 8 RL equator €1G.25) 1. A ship in position 30°N 020°E, steers a course 090°(T) at 10 knots for 20 hours. She then alters course 90° to starboard and covers a cértain distance. Thereafter the course is altered a further 90° to starboard, She sailson this course for 22 hours and arrives in longitude 020°E. Find the distance covered by her whilst heading South. In lat. 30°N dep. made good eastwards = 20 x 10 = 200 miles long made good = dep x sec lat = 200 sec 30°=230.9' From the figute, itis clear that the d’long for CD =d’long for AB=230.9" AtCD, cos lat = dep. /d'long = 220/230.9 Lat of CD = 17°42.5’N The distance covered South (BC in figure) is equal to d’lat in minutes. Distance the V/L covered while heading Soath = 30°N - 17°42.5'N = 12°175'=7375M Find the difference in speed at which two places, one in lat.22°S and the other in lat.43°N are carried round by the Earth’s rotation. A place on the Equator is carried round by the Earth’s rotation at 360° x 60'/24=900'/hour d’long atthe Equator=900/hour Since dep: = d’long. cos lat.; a place in Lat 22°S will be carried round at 900.cos 22° = 834.46 M/hour Similarly a place in latitude 43°N will be carried round at 900. cos 43° =658.21 Mhhout. Difference in speeds between them = 834.46 - 658.21 = 176.25 miles/hour. . Ship A in lat 42°S, steers due West at 20 knots. Ship B in lat 30°S, also steers due West. They commenced from the same longitude. If after 24 hours, they remained due North and South of each other, calculate B’s speed: Distance covered by A, in 24 hours ona course 270°(T) =24 x 20= 480 M= departureThe d’long made by A =dep.x seclat = 480. sec 42°= 645.9" The d’long made by B=d"long made by A 645.9" departure made by B=d"long. cos lat. 645.9. cos 30° = 559.4M Speed of B = 559.4/24 = 23.31 knots. . A vessel in position, lat. 40°10°N, long, 25°10", steers 090°(T) at 15 kts, After 8 hours, her position was found to be lat. 40°10°N, long, 28°B. Find the set and drift of current. departure=15Kts.x8hours= 120M long for 120Mofdep. = dep. xseclat. = 120, see 40°10" = 157.03" = 2°37.03' Longleft25°16'E;d’long = 2°37.30°E DRlongarrived = 27°47.03°E Obs long = 28°00.00°E long due to current = 0°1297E dep. for d’long of 12.97 12.97 cos 40°10’ =9.91 M. Since DR and observed positions are on the same latitude, the set is East and the drift 9.91 M. A Ship ‘X’ on the Equatoris steering a course of 270° (1) at20 kts, while ship “Y” on acertain south parallel of latitude is steering a course of 090°(T) at 15 kts, When Ship X makes a d’long of 80, ship Y makes.ad’long of 75’. Calculate the latitude of ship Y. d’long of ship X = 80' on the Equator = dist covered. Time taken = 80/20=4 hours In 4 hours, dist. covered by Y = 4 x 15 = 60 M = departure she makes. d’long made by Y in the same period =75' cos lat = dep. / d'long = 60/75 =0.8 Latitude of ¥ = 36°52.2’S. . A ship on the Equator, steers 270°(T) at 18 kts. Another ship ina south latitude steers 090°(T) at 15 kts. While the first ship makes a d'long of 1°40’, the second ship makes a d’long of 2°. Find the latitude of the second ship.‘Tomakead’long of 1°40’, the first ship will take 100/18 hours, ‘The distance covered by the second ship in the same interval 100/18 x 15.= 83,33 miles = her dep. cas lat of second ship = dep. /d'long = 83.33 / 120= 0.6944 Latitude of second ship = 46°01°S. 7. Twoships X and Y depart from the same meridian and steer 090°(T). ‘Xisonthe Equator and Y inanorth latitude. X proceeds at 14 times the speed of Y. Find Y’s latitude, if she remains true North of X throughout. Since Y remains North of X throughout, both X and Y make the ssame @'long in equal periods. Letthe speed of ¥ = akts. departure Distance covered by X in one hour 5/4 2=¢"iong of Y dep. / long = cos lat=a/$a/4=4/5=08 ‘Latitude of ¥ =36°52'N -~ es : THEORY QUESTIONS With the help of a figure, egtablish the long and latitude... anal 2.2) PLANE SAILING Plane sailings sailing along a humb line fram one position to another, which are not situated on the same Iatitude. ‘When the vessel stils along any thumb line , except ameri.ian ora parallel of latitude; as an artifice, the lat, departure and distance may be considered as the three sides of aplane tight angled triangle. The angle opposite the side, which represents the departure would then represent the course. dep dat ‘distAB represents the rhumb line track from A to B (Fig. 2.7). The rhumb line AB is divided into a large number of very small equal parts, AC, CD ete. Ca, De etc. are arts of parallels of latitude through C, D etc. respectively. Since the sections ate very small, the triangles AaC, CcD etc. may be considered to be right angled plane triangles. It should be understood that the Barth’s surface is not being considered asa plane surface. itis the very small areas covered by each triangle which are being considered as flat surfaces. ‘The course anglesat A,C;D ete. are all equal be- cause AB isa thumb line. Insailing from A toB Sections Aa, Co, Dd etc. are sections of d’lat. Sections aC, cD, dE ete. are sections of dep. and Sections AC, CD, DE etc. are sections of distance, 1G.2.7) aC=ACsin course, cD = CD sin course, dE = DE sin course etc. Adding, aC +cD + dE etc. =(AC + CD+DEete.) sinco. ‘Thus dep. =distance. sin course, Similarly, it can be shown thatd’lat = distance cosine course, From the above formulae it can be seen that : dep. /d'lat = tan course AND Distance = d’lat.sec course Insailing between two positions, it must be understood that the departure is made good in every latitude through which the ship sails. Thus the departure to be used in the above formulaeis the true departure between the places and not the departure at the latitude left or atthe latitude arrived. seem | § neem tne eeeTherefore if the true departure is used, the above relationships hold good for all distances and courses. Ifthe departure used is that at the latitude left or atthe latitude reached, inaccuracies will result. The inaccuracies will be least when @ thedistancesare small, (©) sailingnearthe Equatorand © _ sailing nearlyNorth or South. However any result obtained by calculations involving the use of d’lat, dist. or course (but not dep.) will always be accurate, for all distances and courses., It can be seen that the plane sailing formulae connect dep., d’lat, dist and course only. It does not involve d’long. Thus, knowing only the d’lat and d’long between two places, the course or distance between them cannot be found by the above formulae. In practical navigation problems, the course is initially found by Mercator sailing or Middle latitude sailing formulae (explained later) and thereafter the distance obtained by using the Plane sailing formula, Distance =d'lat. sec.co. However academic problems based on the Plane sailing formulae are necessary to understand the princi- ples involved. Using the plane sailing formulae, the following exercises should be worked out. EXERCISE II (A) 1. Avvessel sails ona course 240° for 350 M. Find the d’lat and dep. she makes. 2. Find the course and distance, made good by ashipifshe made a departure of 260 M. East and a d’lat of 165'North. 3. Find the course in the SE quadrant on which the d’lat will be 1/6th ofthe departure. HARDERPROBLEMS 1. Twoships A and B doing equal speeds are both in lat 30°S, B being to the East of A. The d’long between the two ships is 2°30'."A’ steers 150°(T), while ‘B’ steers 210°(T). Find the latitude reached when they are 20 miles apart. 129.9 (FIG2.8) NRE TEREST |) SRTx Departure between the ships in latitude 30°S = d’long. cos lat. = 150. cos 30°= 129.9M. d’lat = dep.x cot co. = 54.95. cot 30° =95.18 = 1°35.18°S ‘Lat lefi=30°00'S; Lat reached = 31°35.18°S. ‘Two ships start from the same point in the Northern hemisphere. While the first ship steered 030°(T) at 10 kts., the second steered 000°(T) at 12 kts. for 2 hours and then altered course 090°(T). Calculate the distance between the two ships, 6 hours after starting. lat rade by fist ship ist. cos co = 60. cos 30°= 51.97 dep. made by first ship=60. sin 30=30M_ lat made By 2nd ship =24" dep. made by 2nd ship =4x 12= 48 Miles diff of lat between two ships=51.97' -24'=27.97 diff of dep. between two ships = 48 -30= 18 miles 1G.2.9) tan co, = dep. / d'lat = 18.0/ 27.97 = 0.6435 Co = 32°46.3' Dist. = d’lat. sec co = 27.97. sec 32°46.3' = 33.25 M . From a position in lat 24°17'N, long 17°12" W, acourse was set to @ position 24°54’N, 17°12"W. After steaming for 34 miles, it was discovered that the compass error had been applied the wrong way and the ship had reached the position 24°49°N, 17°24.6°W. Find the actual error of the compass. Hint - True course to bemade good = 000°(T). Find the actual co. made good. The difference between the two gives double the errorof the compass as the error was applied the wrong way. Aus. 9°52.5°W THEORY QUESTIONS 4. Discuss the limitations involved in the use of Plane sailing formulae. Before proceeding to Mercator sailing, it is necessary to understand the principles on which the Mercator charts are constructed. It is therefore necessary to introduce the topic of ‘Charts’ at this stage, We shall return to sailings after this topic is covered.3 CHARTS ‘Maps and Charts are representations of portions of the Earth’s surface, to a suitable scale, on a flat surface. Charts differ from maps in that charts show a large amount of information fornavigational usage. A surface is said to be “developable” if it can be placed flat without being stretched or tomi.e. distorted. The curved surface of a sphere like that of the Earth is ‘non-developable’ since it cannot be placed flat without distortion. Therefore distortion is inescapable in any map or chart representing the Earth’s surface. There are various projections used in map making. A projection is an arrangement of lines representing, meridians and parallels of latitude. A map projection is therefore a representation of the meridians and parallels of latitude, on aplane surface. Itdoes not imply a projection in the geometric sense. The graticule representing meridians and perl b croton erthemaial ni, ino vay conneid with the geometric projection. In choosing a particular projection, for constructing a chart, we first decide as to what kind of distortions least objectionable and as to what particular properties are to be fulfilled by the chart. ‘To anavigator, itis important that his chart should represent the shape of the land correctly in any particular. vicinity (ie. the chart should be orthomorphic). As the most common form of sailing is along rhumb line tracks, it would be advantageous ifrhumb lines can be laid offas straight lines on the chart. Itshould also be fairly easy to measure distances. A projection is said to be orthomorphic, ifn the immediate neighbourhood of any point represented, the scale along the meridian, along any radial line and along the parallel oflatitude areall equal, ° Such a projection will exhibit correctness of shape over small areas. ‘The scale of the graticule may vary from one latitude to another, so that the shape of an entire land mass may differ considerably from its shape onthe Earth. Whatis important to note is that the correctness of shape is always maintained over small areas. For example, on a Cylindrical Orthomorphic projection of the world, the shape of the area around Bombay in India is just as correctly shown as the shape of the area around Cape Farewell in Greenland,but Greenland as a whole appears more than four times the size of India, though India isin fact one and a halfthe size of Greenland. 3.1. MERCATOR CHART Most navigational charts are constructed on the Mercator projection, as they fulfill the important needs of the navigator, as stated earlier, This projection was initially used by Gerard Kremer, the latin form of whose name is Mercator. Among cartographers, the Mercator projection is said to be a “Cylindrical Orthomorphic Projection”. Itis derived mathematically and is nota perspective projection in the geometric sense. Apart from being orthomorphic, the projection is also stated to be cylindrical asit fulfils the conditions foracylindrical projection. In acylindrical projection the meridians are represented by parallel straight lines at right angles to the Equator. They divide the Equator into 360 equal parts, Ona Mercator chart the Equator and parallels of latitude appear as horizontal parallel straight lines at selected distances from the Equator and from each other. The spacing between the parallels is selected on mathematical principle designed to best satisfy the conditions the charts intended to fulfill IG3.1) » ‘On the Earth’s surface the meridians converge towards the poles. The distance between them is therefore ‘maximum at the Equator and reduces asthe latitude increases. On.a Mercator chart however the meridians are represented by equidistant parallel straight lines. Ittherefore follows that the east-west distortion on the chart increases as the latitude increases.W207 70° 0 10" 20? 30" IG.3.2) IG33) ‘Tomaintain the orthomorphic property over the entire chart, itis therefore necessary to deliberately introduce an equal north-south distortion, which like the east west distortion should increase poleward. Itcan thus ‘be seen that the distances between successive parallels of latitude on Mercator Chart will increase towards the pole, : On the Earth’s surface the east-west distance betiten two meridians reduces as the cosine of the latitude, Decausé THE CEparhire off aij EathtGde Ts cual to the dong inaltipfied by the cosine of hat latitude. Ona Mercator Charthowever if the distaiice between the meridians is represented by x cm, at the Equator, it will be represented by the same x cm at all other latitudes also. Thus distortion on the chart at any latitude 4$isequal tox/x cos }=sec $. Since the east-west distortion is proportional to the secant of latitude, the latitude scale should also vary as the secant of latitude to maintain the orthomorphic property. Since secant 0° is 1, it implies that at the Equator the latitude scale =longitude scale.In other latitudes, LatScale=Long. Scale x sec lat. The longitude scale ona Mercator chart is constant throug out ‘the chart. Due to this, the distances and areas on a Mercator chart are exaggerated proportional to secant offatitude ‘The nautical mile has been defined earlier as the length of a meridian between two geographic latitudes which differ by 1'; thatis 1' of d’lat. Ona Mercator chart, the latitude scale is therefore used for measuring distances. Since the lat. scale increases with latitude, the length of a nautical mile on the chart also increases poleward.3.1.1. Meridional Parts The Meridional parts Difference in Meridional parts (DMP) +4 SON L 30 40 50-60 70 80 G04 Long scale constant Lat scale increasing poleward G34) Ona Mercator Chart, since the distance between successive parallels of latitude inereases towards the poles, the length of a meridian between those parallels will also increase towards the pole. For example, the length of the meridian between latitudes 5° and 10° will be larger than its length between 0° and 5° latitudes. The Meridional parts for any latitude isthe length of'a meridian between the Equator and that latitude, on’& Mercator Chart, measured in units of longitude scale i.e. the nutnber of times‘one minute of longitude can be laid along a meridian between the Equator and that latitude, on a Mercator Chart. The meridional parts for navigable latitudes are tabulated in the Nautical Tables, assum the Earth to be spheroidal in shape, DMP between two latitudes is the length of a meridian between those 1atitudes on a Mercator Chait expressed in units of longitude scale. DMP betiieen two latitudes niay be obtained using the meridional part table as the diffeterice or sum of the meridional parts of the two latitudes, similarto obtaining the d'lat. ‘The meridional parts table for the spheroidal Earth has been compiled using the expression, meridional pars for lat. L=7915.7 log,, tan (45 + L/2) - 23.4 sinL + 0.01 sin3 L. For the sphere however, the meridional parts could be obtained using only the first term of the expression. Thus, forthe sphereAdvantages Disadvantages 3.1.2 Natural Scale MP =7915.7 log,,tan (45 + L/2) ‘The properties / features of a Mercator chart may be summarized under advantages and disadvantages of the chart. (1) Rhumb line courses are easily laid offas straight lines. 2) Distances are easily measured as scale of distance = scale of latitude, 3) Shapes of land masses in the neighbourhood of a point are correctly shown, (4) Angles between rhumb lines are unaltered between the Earth and the chart. (6) Directions remain correct though distortions of areas occur. (©) Directions and position lines can be transferred correctly from one part of the chart to another as parallel lines. This facility which is often used by a navigator for obtaining runsing fixes is not available inmostother projections. (1) Great circle courses cannot be laid off easily as they would appear curved. @ Pour regions cannot be represented du to extremely large distor @ ‘he sealeofdstance whichis the scale oflatadeisa varying unit (4). Areas cannot be compared due to the varying distortion. ‘The natural scale of a chart is the ratio that the distance between two Points on the chart bears to the actual distance between them on the Earth. Forexample a natural scale of |/25,000 means, that one unit oflength on the chart represents25,000 units of length on the Earth, In other words 1 cm on the chart represents 25,000 cm on the Earth, or one foot on the chart represents 25,000 f. on the Earth etc, The natural scale of Mercator chart varies from latitude to latitude. Therefore any natural scale stated on the chartis valid fora Particular latitude only. ‘Natural scale is normally expressed as the relationship that one minute of longitude on the chart bears to one minute of longitude on the Earth in that latitude. fone minute of longitude on a chart is represented by Smm in latitude 60°, the natural scale in that latitude can be obtained as follows:3.1.3 Construction of Mercator Charts Example Natural Scale = Chart Distance / Barth Distance ‘The chart distance for I'oflong. = 5 mm ‘Since one minute of longitude on the Earth at the Equator is equal to 1 mile= 1852 m= 1852 x 1000 mm, the length of one minute of tongitude in latitude 60° would be the départure in that latitude corresponding to a difference of longitude of 1' i.e. 1 x 1852 x 1000 x cos 60°. ‘Natural scale = 5/ 1 x 1852000 x ¥% = 10/ 1852000 = 1 / 185200 From the foregoing, it will be realized that a Mercator chart of any areacan be constructed quite accurately to a given natural scale in a particular latitude. ‘Construct a Mercator chart of the area 28°N to 32°N, 15°W to 20°W to anatural scale of 1 / 100,000 in latitude 30°N. ‘We must first calculate the longitude scale from the given natural scale. ‘The length of one, degree of longitude in latitude 30° = 60'x 1852 x 1000 x cos 30°= 96,229,920 mm Toascale of t / 1,000,000 this length on the Earth would be repiesented by 96,229,920 / 1,000,000 = 96.23 mm (approx.) on the chart. Draw in the limiting latitude of 28°N and on it, mark off the meridians 96.23 mm apart. Erect the taeridians perpendicular tothe limiting latitude and parallel to each other. We havé to now calculate the latitude scale. Tobe very correct, the length of each minute of latitude should be calculated separately. Sufficient accuracy can be obtained particularly in fairly low latitudes if the length of each degree of latitude is calculated. The natural scale we have chosen is, 1° of longitude = 96.23 mm. | minute of longitude = (96.23 / 60) mm. From its definition, we know that DMP between two latitudes is the number of times I' ofd’long can be placed along a meridian between those latitudes on a Mercator chart. Ittherefore follows that the distance on the chart between latitude 28°N and latitude 29°N can be obtained, as the product of DMP between the two latitudes and length of 1' of long. to the scale we have already chosen. aerate ST LOR ER RRS set 2) REMP forlat28° = MPforlat29° = — 1808.1 DMP =. 679 Distance between latitudes 28° and 29° on the chart=67.9 x 96.23 /60= 108.9 mm. Mark off this distance of 108.9 mm from the limiting latitude along any meridian, Draw in the 29 parallel of latitude, through the point marked off, parallel to the limiting latitude and perpendicular tothe meridians. Repeat this process successively between 29° and 30°, 30° and 31° and so on tll the other limiting latitude is reached. Itshould be noted that the formula for latitude scale (latitude scale = longitude scale x secant latitude) has not been used for this purpose as it holds good for any particular latitude only and not when dealing with distances between two latitudes. 3.2. GNOMONIC CHART Ifanavigatoris to follow the shortest route between two positions, he must sail along. great circle. It would therefore be convenient to have charts on which great citcles are represented by straight lines. The ‘Guomonic chast has this property. Itis constructed on the griomonic or tangential projection. In this projection, all points ont the surface of a sphere are projected from the centre of the sphere toa plane which is tangential to the sphere. The tangent point chosen is usually around the centre of the area to be represented. G35) aroma 5) somerset s One A SREAs with any projection used, distortions will be present on a gnomonic chart. It can be seen from figure 3.5, that distortion is nil atthe tangent point and increases as the distance from the tangent point increases. Ifthe tangent pointis one of the poles, the chart would be a polar gomonic chart. On a gnomonic chart, all great circles appear as straight lines. Therefore, meridians appear as straight lines converging towards the poles. Small circles and rhumb lines appear curved. Compass roses are not shown on gnomonic ccharts as they would be valid only for that particular location, since meridians are convergent. ; 8 Fa > zg 6° } Ly 2 50° a 1G3.6 G3.) Gnomonic charts are used to plot great circle courses between the departure and arrival positions, as straight lines (Fig. 3.6). Positions are then taken off at convenient intervals of longitude along the track. ‘These positions are then transferred to a Mercator chart and rhumb line: ‘courses are laid off between the successive positions (Fig. 3.7). By sailing along the various rhumb line courses, the ship would make a track which would approximate very closely to the actual great cile course, without having to change course continuously as would have been necessary, if following a true great circle. AdvantagesofaGnomonie 1, Allareas ofthe world including polar regions can be reprsented Chart on gnomonic charts. 2. Great circle courses are easily laid offas straight lines. Disadvantages 1. Rhumb line courses and bearings cannot bé laid off easily as they appear curved. _ armen stteneenana a one ornennammetes °C oe3. 3.3. PLAN CHARTS .. Bearings and positions lines cannot be transferred from one part of the chart to another as parallel lines, because the meridians are convergent. Measurement of distances and courses is difficult. Plan charts are representations of very small areas of the Earth’s surface, such as ant anchorage , a port or harbour. Since the area represented is very small itis considered flat and a plane drawing made, uswally to anatural scale of 1: 50,000 or larger. The plan usually shows a scale of latitude, which is also the distance scale and a separate scale of longitude. ‘The areas represented being very constant over the entire chart. small, on.aplan chart, the scale of latitude and the scale of longitude are On aplan chart, it is usual to state the exact latitude and longitude of some reference point in the area covered by the chart. Examples 1. Find the length of 1° of longitude, if 1° of latitude on a Mercator chart measures 12 cm in latitude 40°S. Lat. scale= long. scale x sec lat. Long, scale= lat. scale x cos lat. 1° of longitude = 12cm x cos 40°=9.192.em . In measuring a distance on Mercator chart, in latitude 45°S, the longitude scale was used by mistake. If the measured distance was 47, find the actual distance. Let I" of longitude, on the chart be zem The distance on the chart=47 zem T'of latitude i.e, 1 mile in lat. 45°S will be =z sec 45°. Actual distance= 47 z.em/zcm. sec 45° = 47/sec 45°=33.235 M. |. One degree of longitude on a Mercator chart measures 2.8 cm. Find the distance in miles, between 2 points in lat 5O°N, 5.6 crm apart on, the chart. 1° of longitude =2.8cm 1° of latitade in SQ°N = 2.8 sec 50° 1'of latitude i.e. 1 Mile in 50° N =2.8 sec 50° / 60 Distance between the points = 5.6 x 60/2.8 sec 50°= 77.135 M.Exercise III L HARDERPROBLEMS 1, If 1° of longitude ona Mercator chart measures 3 cm, find the length of 1° of latitude and 1 Mile in latitude 35°N. . In what latitude will 60 miles on a Mercator chart equal 2° of longitude 9 Assuming the Earth to be sphere, calculate the DMP between latitude 30°S and 32°40’S, without using the meridional parts table. |. If the longitude scale on a Mercator chart is 1° = 2.5 cm, find the chart distance between two positions 20 miles apart in latitude 60°N. ‘The distance between 2 points on a Mercator chart in latitude 32°30°N ‘was 22 miles. How many minutes of longitude can be placed ? Let l'of latitude ie. 1 mile in latitude 32°30'=zem_ ‘Then distance on chart=22zem 1' of long, = lat. scale x cos lat. = z.cm"x cos 32°30" No ofminutes of longitude that can be placed between them = 22 zcm/zem x cos 32°30'= 26.085" .._ The longitudes on a Mercator chart are drawn toa scale of 1°=6 cm. ‘The distance on that chart between the parallel of latitude 24°S and another latitude to the North of it was 22.3 cm. Find the second latitude. 1° of longitude =6 cm 1 of longitude = 6 /60=0.1. cm Distance on the chart between the two parallels = 22.3 cm ‘No.of minutes of long. i.e. DMP between them 22.3 /0.1=223 MP offatitude 24°S- 1474.5 DMP 223 MP ofsecond latitude 1251.5 ‘Second latitude 20°32.5°S. |. Find the distance between parallels of latitude 1° apart, to construct the graticule for Mercator chart of the area 20°S to25°S and 070°E, to 075°E, toascale of 1° of longitude is equal to 3 cm. Give the extreme dimensions of the chart. 1° of longitude=3 em Difference in longitude between 070°E & 075°E =5°Width of chart 5 x3=15 em 1° of longitude is 60’of longitude = 3m V oflongitude = 3 /60=0.05 em @® MPoflat.20°S = = = 1217.14 MPoflat.21°S = = ‘1280.81 DMP = 63.67 Distance between 20° and 21° on the chart = 63.67 x 0.05 = 3.1835 cm. (®) MPoflat.21°S = 1280.81 MPoflat.22°S = 1344.92 DMP = 641L Distance between 21° and 22° on the chart = 64.11 x 0.05 = 3.2055 cm. (©) MPoflat.22°S = ~— 1344.92 MPoflat:23°S = — 1409.49 DMP. = 64.57 Distance between 22° and 23° on the chart = 64.57 x 0.05 = 3.2285 cm, (@® MPoflat.23°S = — 1409.49 MPoflat.24°S = ‘1474.54 DMP = 65.05 Distance between 23° and 24° on the chart= 65.05 x 0.05 = 3.2525 em. (©) MPoflat.24°S = = 1474.54 MPoflat.25°S = = 1540.11 DMP = 65.57 Distance between 24° and 25° on the chart = 65.57 x 0.05 = 3.2785 cm. Dimensions of the chart 15 cmx 16.1485 cm. 4, Twolatitudes are complementary, the latitude scale at one of them is double that at the other. Find the two latitudes. Let one latitude be =x Then the other latitude = (90 - x) If the scale at lat. x is double the scale at lat. (90 -x) sec x= 2 sec (90 -x) sec x =2 cose x sec x//cosee x=2 tanx=2x= 63°26 the other lat. = 26°34" 1. Discuss the Mercator projection and the advantages and disadvan- tages of a Mercator chart. 2. Define Natural scale, Meridional parts, Difference of meridional parts. Theory Questions 3. Describe, how a Mercator chart covering the area 20°N to 25°N and 080°E to 085°E could be constructed. 4. Howwouldacircle of radius 600 miles on the Earth’s surface, with its centre in latitude 60°S appear on a Mercator chart ? 5. Discuss the use, advantages and limitations ofa Gnomonic chat. 6. Describe briefly a Plan chart. EC 3}CALCULATIONS ON NATURAL SCALE Ex. 1. Find the length between meridians 1° apart on a Mercator chart drawn toa Natural Scale of 1 [000,000 in latitude 30°. chart distance Na555 3. AMereator chart is drawn toa scale of 1:1,800,000 in latitude 39° N. Caleulate the distance on that chart between 27°00 'N 52°00 ‘E and 29°00'N 55°00 ‘E Hint: the distance on the Earth varies directly as cos latitude 1 1 Scale inthe M latitude 28", = + 90,000x G2 ~ 2045055 ‘Now find actual distance on the Earth between the positions and then the distance chart. Ans: 180,35 mm ‘seneumematt 3.{ maneneyeetennnenr tee sR3.4 OTHER MAP OR CHART PROJECTION Projections may be categorised into two classes. The first class is obtained from the cone, this includes aif ‘conical, zenithal and cylindrical projections. These projections may be constructed mathematically (asin the case ofthe Mercator chart) and also as true perspective projections. Example ofthese are the Mercator. Gnomonic and Lamberts projections. The second class of projections are the “Conventional” which are constructed only mathematically. Example of these include Mollweides, Bones, Sinusoidal and Equal Area projections. Conical projections are obtained by rolling a plain in the form of a cone over a sphere representing the Earth. All points on the sphere are then projected on to the cone from a chosen center of projection lying on the diameter ofthe sphere, drawn from the vertex of the cone or on the diameter produced. (Fig. a) 7 ate ts i ‘ ' ' Conical Zenithal Olindriest @ oF © ‘Ifthe angle at the vertex is increased, the vertex approaches the’surface of the sphere, When the angle becomes 180°, the cone becomes a plane tangential to the sphere and the vertex becomes the tangent point, The projection is then said to be “zenithal”. Since the true bearings of all places depicted, from the tangent point, will be correct, the zenithal projection is also called on “azitmuthal projection”. An example ofthisis the Gnomonic projection. I the Gnomonic projection, the center of projectiod és the center of te sphere, It will be seen that this is perspective projection and not a mathematical construction. (Figb) When the angle atthe vertex is reduced to zero, the cone becomes a cylinder. [fall points are projected on to the cylinder from the center of the sphere, the projection we obtain is a cylindrical projection. An example of this is the Mercator projection. All zenithal, ie. tangential projections are made by projecting the points on the sphere on ta the tangent plane from a center of projection which lies on the diameter of the sphere drawn from the tangent point or this diameter produced, Some important projections result, depending on the position of the center of projection,y ‘The Gnomonic projection is obtained if the center of projection is the center of the sphere. In this projection, less than halfa hemisphere only can be projected. Distortion is nil at the tangent point, but increases considerably towards the outer points. The direction to any point depicted, from the tangent point is accurate. i The Stereographic projection is obtained ifthe center of projection isthe other extremity of the diameter. In this projection, more than a complete hemisphere canbe projected, without very large distortions. Gnomonic Stereogrphfe Projection Projection 2 The orthographic projection is obtained by moving the ceater of projection to an infinite distance from the center of the sphere, along the diameter produced. The graticule wall then be the appearance of the meridians and parallels of the earth as seen from a fat distance. ‘Where projected from the axis of the ‘Where projected from the piane of the equator Earth producedTHE TRANSVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTION This projection is a Mercator projections tured through 90°. In the Mercator projection, the cylinder touches the earth along the equator. In the Transverse Mercator projection, the cylinder is tumed through ‘90° and touches the earth along a chosen meridian, This meridian is then called the “transverse equator”. A. system of great circles are drawn on the sphere, through the points at which the axis ofthe cylinder cuts the earths surface. These great circles are referred to as “transverse meridians”, A system of small circles are drawn on the sphere, parallel tothe transverse equator (The meridian along which the cylinder touches the arth), These small citcles are referred to as “transverse parallels”. The transverse meridians and the transverse parallels are then transferred on to the cylinder in the same way as the meridians and parallels are transferred onto the cylinder in a normal Mercator projection. Onatransverse Mercator chart, the transverse meridians will therefore appear as straight lines parallel to each other and equidistant from each other, like the meridians appear on a normal mercator chart. The transverse parallels will appear as straight lines, paralle} to each other but at increasing distances apart as their angular distance from the transverse equator increases. This is similar to parallels of latitude ona. normal Mercator chart. ‘The expansion in distance between each transverse parallel will be proportional to the secant of theit angular distance from the transverse equator (similar to the distance between parallels of latitude on a ‘normal mercator chart increasing as the secant of the latitude). ‘The Transverse Mercator projection is therefore orthomorphic. The geographic meridians and geographic pecallels of latitude will appear curved on a transverse mercator projection. Thé distortion in distances and shapes, at points away from the central meridian (the transverse equator) will be exactly the same as those nia normal Mercator chart at points away from the equator. Since the distortion increases as the east- ‘west angular distance from the central meridian increases, this projections is usually used-for depicting areas which are of limited extent in longitude usually about 6° of D'long. ie. 3° on each side of the central meridian, — = aateteatiade: — Equator —~~ i ~ oi Meriaen “4 + S | | Se)[ fronmeee Msi I i Inthe transverse mercator projections, the geographic equator and transverse meridians will be straight lines, parallel to each other, equidistant from each other and lying in the E-W direction. The transverse ‘Parallels willbe straight lines, ying N-S, parallel to each other and at increasing distances from the transverse equator, proportional to the secant of their angular distance ftom the fransverse équator. The geographic ‘meridians will therefore be curves, converging towards the pole. The geographic parallels of latitude will also be curves, concavity facing the pole of the geographic hemisphere. THE UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR SYSTEM ‘The projection used in this system is the transverse Mercator projection, therefore, all geographic parallel of latitude and all geographic meridians, except the geographic equator and the central meridian will appear curved. UTMisasystem of world co-ordinates (like latitude and longitude) covering the entire surface ofthe earth from 80° $ to 84°N. The rectangular co-ordinates or measurement are in meters. The UTM lines are therefore at right angles to each other ie. they are “orthogonal”. UTM easting isthe distance east, inmeters from the chosen central meridian (transverse equator) of the area depicted. UTM northing isthe distance north, in meters, from the geographic equator. Because the distortion increase away from the central meridian, UTM maps ate made of zones, 6° wide in longitude. Sixty such maps of 6° wide zones in Tongitude are made to cover the entire world. UTM northing is devided into 8° high zones and are designated by letters C for the zone 80°S to 72° S, D for the zone 72°S to 64° S and so on to L for the zone 08° § to 00°. The equator is designated M. For areas in North latitude, the 8° high zones are designated from N for the zone 00° to 08° N to X for the zone 80° N to 84° N. the letters A, B and Y, Z are not used in this system as they are used for the universal polar system, in the polar regions. Since UTM easting is the distance east in meters form the central meridians, places to the west of the central meridian would have had negative co-ontinates. To avoid this, a system of “false” easting is intraduced by designating the central meridian of the area depicted as 500,000 instead of zero. Thus the easting co- ordinate of places, say 10m to the east of the central meridian would have'an easting co-ordinate of 500,010. The easting co-ordinate of places 10m to the west ofthe central meridian would have an easting co-ordinate of 499,990. Thus the easting co-ordinates of al positions within the area (6° wide in longitude) ‘cme 3} §)_ sneerdepicted, on that map, will be positive. Similarly, 10,000,000 is added to the negative northing co-ordinates (distance in meters, south ofthe equator) in the south hemisphere, Since the original definition ofthe meter ‘was “1/10,000,000* of the distance from the equator to the pole of the earth” all places in the south ‘hemisphere will also have positive northing co-ordinates. It should be noted that the original definition of themeterisno longer exact. The northing co-ordinate of latitude 45°N, which would have been 3000,000m as per the original definition is actually 4,986,272. Since the map scale increases to each side of the central meridian, ina transverse mercator projection, the scale is reduced to 0.9996 at the central meridian on UTM maps. Thus the scale will be accurate at two ‘meridians, one on each side ofthe central meridian. This improves the average scale accuracy of the entire map. In stating the UTM co-ordinates of a place, the casting co-ordinate is stated first and the northing co- ordinate thereafter.4 SAILING (MERCATOR, MIDDLE / MEAN AND TRAVERSE) 4,1 MERCATOR SAILING Mercator sailing method is used to find the rhumb line course and distance between two positions, the Jatitudes and longitudes of which are known. FIG.4.1) ‘The above figure represents a Mercator chart, with a rhumb line course laid from P to Q. PQis the distance from P to Q and angle OPQ is the course. OQ is the d’long, and OP the d’lat between the two positions. It should however, be noted that the units of OQ, the d’long and OP, the d’ Jat are different. Thus d’long /d’lat cannot be said to be tangent course. If however, OP is also measured in terms of longitude scale, OQ/ OP would be equal to tan course. We have already seen that OP measured in terms of longitude scale is the DMP between the two latitudes. It can therefore be seen that d’long/ DMP = tan course. It can also be seen that since the distance is measured in terms of latitude scale, Distance= lat x sec course, The secant of angles approaching 090° & 270° increases very rapidly. When a vessel is onacourse which isneatly East or West, the secant ofthe course should therefore be obtained with great care when calculating the distafice. : Seer! |!) sacar eee EEE ATExample Exercise IV HARDER PROBLEMS: Find the course and distance from 12°14’N 073°12’E to 23°37’S. 010°19°E. Lat 12°14°N Long. 073°12’E 734.7 Lat. 23°37°S Long. 010°19°E 1449.5 @lat 35°51’S d’long 62°53°W 2184.2 dilong / DMP = tan co. = 3773 / 2184.2 Course = S59°56"W Distance = d’lat xsec co. = 2151 x sec 59°56'= 4293.5 M. 1. Find the course and distance from P in latitude 15°32°N, longitude 024°06°W, to Q in latitde 45°56°N, longitude 064°38 W. 2. Find the course and distance from 38°10°S, 178°00"E to 02°50’S, 881°10°W. 3. Find the course and distance between : Ain 13°48°N, 166°55°E and B in 16°11’S, 157°48°W. 4. A vessel steered 046°(C), from 32°10’N, 178°50°E, and reached 33°34°N, 177° 52.5°W. Find the deviation of the compass, if the variation was 14°E. 1. A vessel sails on acourse 144°(T) from latitude 15°40°N and makes ad’long of 47°50’. Find the distance covered and the latitude reached. Late = 15°40°N, MP = 945.6 (N) DMP —=__d’long cot co. = 2870. cot 36° 3950.2(S) MP of latitude arrived = 3004.6(S) Latitude arrived = 44°.53.8°S Latitude left 15°40,0°N @lat Distance =d’lat x sec co. 2. Avvessel in North latitude sailed from long 60°W, ona course of 036°(T) and made. departure of 160 M, and a DMP of 260. Find departure and arrival positions ofthe ship. d’long = DMP x tan co = 260. tan 36° = 188.90"E =3°08.90°E d'lat = dep.x cot co= 160, cot 36° = 220.22°N = 3°40.22°N dep/d’long = 160// 188.9 = cos mean lat. Mean lat = 32°06.8’N. aMean lat 32°06.8°N -32°06.8"N Yad'lat 1°50.1"° ~ 01°50.1" 33°S6.9°N 30°16.7°N, 60°00.0°W 33°S6.9°N, 56°51.1°W By sailing N44°W for 1600 miles, a vessel artived in position 12°13°S 176°17°E. Find the vessel’s departure position. (Hint - Obtain d’lat to find latitude left. Now obtain d’long as DMP x tan course) Ans. 31°23.9’S 163°45.5°W_ A vessel left lat. 46°50°N and steered 253°(T), making ad’long of 15°31". Find the latitude reached. (Hint - Obtain the DMP as dlong x cot course. Apply the DMP to the MP of the departure latitude to obtain MP of the arrival latitude). = Ans. 43°28.7°N. 4.2 MIDDLE/MEAN LAT SAILING InPlane sailing; the parameters used were departure, distance, course and d’ lat. In Parallel sailing, departure, long and the latitude were used, the course being always East or West. Insailing from one position to another, where d’lat and d’long are involved, Parallel sailing or Plane sailing ‘cannot be used. To solve such problems, Middle latitude sailing may be used. Thus Middle latitude sailing can be used for @ finding the course and distance between two given positions, @_ to determine the arrival position, given the departure position, course and distance. From what has been learnt earlier, it will be recalled that both the above types of problems are solved easily by the Mercator sailing method. Itwill be seen that the Middle latinude method of solving such problems is more cumbersome. Thus for Practical Navigation, Middle latitude sailing problems are redundant. However, academic problems which can be solved only by the Middle latitude method may be encountered. emery} ) tin nS ESS