Unknown Vocabulary Density and Reading Comprehension ‘Marcella Hu Hsueh-chao and Paul Nation TALS, Vieioria University of Wellington, New Zealand VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE AND COMPREHENSION ‘he relaonship between vocabulary knowlege and reading comprehension is ‘amples and dyanic. One way f loking at its to divide up ito t80 major ‘rections of effect the eet of vorabulay knwledae om eading comprchension which ste main focus of this pape) andthe effet of reading compretension on scabulary knowledge ot growth ‘Chal (1987 suggests tht these two effets achieve prominence st diferent times Tor young rtive speakers of English. When hey beg lear how to read ve spoakors" vocabulary krowledge supports tei eading cemprehersion. Tha is ‘Spell they wor th ext tht contin oly knowa vocal. Asratve speakers tpn shoo! with vocabulary approaching §,000 werd ailes hiss noe ict to arrange. After tree or for years of learning to read, te relationship changes. Having gained control of many ofthe skills of reading, reading can become & reine of soeatularygrvath. Thats, the leaner arms new vocabulary tach Feading woads that hae ret been met ekewhere Researchers have suggested several models to descrise the relationship between sctlry knowledge and reading cempetension. The factors involved in these Inodels involve language knowledge (of which vocabulary Knowledge i Dat)-noatedge of the world (Sometimes called hsckground knowlege) and sil in language use (f which reading comprebeasion is one res), A lage numer of diferent types of studs fave shown the strong statistical Felaionship Betseon vocabulary and language use. The causal relationships, however, ee not so clear. Anderson an Fresbody (I9BI) and Nation (1995) distinguish tree views tha ar eet in research The struments view sees vocabulary hreslege 3 being & major prerequisite and causative Tato in comprehension. Good vocabulary knowledge suppers goed Cempreension. Nagy (1991, personal comminciion) sees needa he cas shout adoping his Viewpoint i that it can ead 9 eduction” ew of eading iif you know the vocabalry then tat about ll you ned to be abe to red. ‘Diagrammatcally the instrumentals view can be represented as flows, woeabuliy knowledge > reading comprebension The spitude view sees vocabalary Knowledge as one of many outcomes of having 2 good bran. Good realing compretensin is ls one ofthese oatcmes. Oxher fucomes might nce sila non-verbal pzles an thes to Understand ‘alexplanaons, Digrammalicaly the apd view canbe repesemed as flows, > lage vocabulary mental aptitude > goo reing compreiension See The knowledge view ses vocabulary 48 an indicator of goed werd knowledge. This world knowledge supports reading comprehension ecanse the reader mus bring as much information tothe text as the reader expects to get frm ie It Chiao ead abot astropysis it yoo know ashing about. Dregramatialy, the knowledge view can be represented as follows, reading comprehension knowledge and exporience > Anderson on Freehody(1981) point ou that no serious scholar olds any of hese postions othe exclusion ofthe others and iferent relationship exist t dierent "ages of vocabulary growth and sil development ‘Mezynsi (1983) suggests fur view, Te sce view ofthe elatinship beeen ‘vocabulary knowledge and langage We like the instruentsl we, ses wocehlaty as having eausal elation with comprehension provided thatthe vocabulary ‘on be esily accessed. Aovess can be impeoved through practice. This oes can involve several facts incloing fveney of lexical aces, speed of coping with ze forme, and speed of wend fecopion nina ay Domi nd ring Cope os os no-native-speaers of nguage the relationships re even more complicate, These complications can aise from the leirnersalcady ing able to readin thei cst language the we diferent wring sytem nthe seood language compared tit the int langage (ay for Topanose learmers of Ealish, and the common Situation of beginning to rea the second langunge with vial 0 vocabulary howe in the second language, DENSITY AND COVERAGE, Ther hve bon several ies which atemp to detonine the amount f vocabulary needed by a sscend lange lesmer in order to beable ead wit reasoncble cmpsehcnsion and without ck of vocbulay knowledge becoming amor burden ‘ne approach t this has font ake a commonsense view ofthe issue and to see how the dessity of unknown vocabulary and vocabulary size are cated in various ini of tets. This approach makes assumptions aboot desirable snl undesicable “lensiies. Table I provides the bass fr these sarorptions. Nomber of txt ins per | unfair ocd Demy of unfamier sd fara tokens text conerge 99 1 in 100 0 os 1a s0 5 °° Vins 33 36 in 25 25 95 Vin 20 2 0 Lin 10 t 0 Lins 05 Tuble 1 sow that if eamers have aa 80% coverage ofthe runing Words or tokens ina text, then one in every five runing words i kely co be an unknown word This isthe sate as there being two unknown words per ln, ia ine consis on tveraze about ten words. A density of two unknown worts por ac, particularly ‘vo unknown content words, would make reading Yry dificult and would probably ‘est ia low lve of comprehension, One of the most significant Features of Table the way tat each percentage change ia coverage makes a greater change inte ons of unkrown words aoand the 954 coverage point. Wik 95% coverage, fone in owen runing words is unknown, With 96% coverage this drops to ene in twventytve, and with 97% coverage Yo one in chity-trce. By contrast, moving oan 80% coverage 81% coverage mukes very ite difference inthe density of unkown soabulryLANGUAGE THRESHOLDS These feutres of coverage have le several researchers to consider that there may be a threshold whore vocabulary knowledge becomes sufficient for adequate omprchenson. fhe eter ison onesie ofthe heshol, vocabulary knowledse is not sufficient for adequate comprehension. If the learner is onthe ober side, then the leanerknows enough voabults,oer things ing eal to gin aequte compeehenson of the txt. Before we lok more closely this ides of a language knowledge threshold ews Took at how text coverage and vocabuley size are related, The atsmption which sti this discussion isha vocabulary learning is strongly affected hy word FRequency. Tati, words which occur frequently inthe language tad 0 be earaed hfe words that ccur less Heguestls. There is plenty ot evidence to show tht this largely true. For example, Reed (1088) in a sudo the Vbcabulery Levels Test (Nation 1983 and 1990) found that second language lercers” scores on the “aris levels of the test decreased fm the high Irequeny level othe lower ‘equency level Thai the test had strong impliatonlvealing Laufer nd Nation (1990) found simi effet for prodactve knowledge. The relationship between text coserae and vocabuliry size is strongly affected by fe Lind of text thats looked at The high frequency words of English (West (953) rovide poorer coverage of academic tet than they do of fiction, for example, “able? gies coverage figures for varius kinds of text Ist 1000 2nd 1000 Academie. Others socabulery Conversation MIR 60% 19-78% Novels for younger readers Migs Som 938 Fiction B38 SIG 17% 19m Academe Tae 7% WOK B98 "Academic includes the words from the Academic Word Lis, x sub-technical ‘vocabulary (Coma, 2000), Other” includes lor frequency words and proper names Inthe presen std. we wl ook st ficton texts, There are seer reasons fortis Fist, as Hish apd Naion (1992) show, these tus ae likely to he the mt accesible simplified fxs for second language lsers in ters of vocabulary oad, Secendy. the vas majority simplified graded racing texts re tion ents Setes of graded readers. ike the Oford Book worms series, provide lange quanti (of very readable ction texts at varios vosubulary levels Thirdly graded readers and usmle novels do not usally equine as mach background knowledge 4s scidemic tensor newspupers usally do. hs ction texts ae key to represent ‘Some ofthe mes avonable conaons for ceading Table 2 indicates thatthe mow commen 2000 words of English provide quite high sverige of tion, But krewing the mat frequen 2000 words ill doesnt provide ‘enough coverage fr reading tobe comfortable. Ta rea! wnele and have coverage (0 95-985 of the runing Words, seer ould nee wcabulay sine of stun 5.00 won faniles ish an Nation 1992), an dhs assumes that proper nouns, which typically account for 4-5% ofthe running words Uahenston and Hotlnd 1989; Frames and Kucera 1982) are counted known word tht donot nes be learned fire renga novel WHAT IS THE OPTIMUM COVERAGE LEVEL? We have looked atthe commonsense evidence for having high coverage ofthe ‘ovabulary in ext in order pain adeate comprehension Bt this not the ‘only evidence aval, Tete his been experimental esearch shih loks at his There has been a continuing interes in whether there isa Tangugg> knowledge \hveshold which marks the boundary between aot having enough language knowledge for succesfl lnghige use and having enough language knowkalge Frsuccesful use. Thee are a less Wo Way's of defining whats tres i | Ono way is 0 se threshold asa all-or- nothing pheomenon. Ira lamer has not erossed te resold, then adequate comprehension isnot posible It the learser has crossed the threshold, then, other things being eal, ‘comprehension s possible forall eumers, This the tong siew of thesbold land he one that responds (os atonal mesh. 2 Another way ist se a treshod asa probabilistic boundary. That is if eames has et rose the threshold the chances of comprehending esaely ne low Ifthe lame has rose the threshol, the chances are onthe side of the lear guiing adequate comprehension, This second defistion of = threshold is the way that Laufer uses the term [Lateran Sin 1985) used comprehension questions an inteviews with rere lo deteine a threshold soe whete earner could be sat be able someon na English for Academic Purposes text inthe Fira Cerificate in English exam They concluded that a score of 65-705 was the mininium necessary, Ava resatof interviews which involved seeing bow learners dal withthe ex, and supplying needed items to see how compehension was lected, Laufer and Sim deere iat the most pressing need of the foceign language learner was vocabalry, then subject mater knowledge, and then sync tact, Laufer (1988) then went a stp futher o see what percentage of word tokens ‘sunaing words) acoded tobe undersont in onde ensure “reasonable” reading‘onypeension ofthe text Laufer set reasonable comprehension 2s sere of SSivor more, Percentage of won! hens knw ws fd by geting eames to Uunerine unfamiliar words in the text and adjusting this score by the nunbet of ‘words mistakenly si o be known as determined by 4tanslaon tex. This sa Inch more demanding es thn 4 mlile-choice recognition est. The test Was ‘converted wo «peroentge of tol word tokens in the text which were known This calaltion sould be expressed in 2 sages: 1 The number of words Kowa ia the Is Total words in ex [words reported as unknown + words reported as unknown x umber of discrepancies x 100401 2 The coverages [No.of words known in the fx x 100/ Total no, of werd in west Inthe frst stage ofthe calelation, the aumber of discrepancies x DOO is “the ‘ff index”. what percentage of vocobulary i not reported s unkown. When pte bythe report mur of words, We gt the nuzbes of words tht was ut rpor ts unow but should have boon. Therefore cleat how many ‘word in tex are rally unknown, we add the wumber of repated words to those that should have Been reported. Then fo see how’ many words were known, this ‘sumer is subtracted rom the numer of wor inthe ext ‘The second stage conve the number of known wots into the pereentae of the {oral number of words in he text an tis ste coverage, Let us tke an example. Say a person reprts 20 unknown wonls, den inthe teuslain test wef 10 diserepnles ati ton words sid tobe kno but which were no ratslstedcomectl). So the bla index is 10. 10040 = 28%. This hneans he sould hive reported ax unknown 20 + 20 «25/100 = 25, Ihe wx has Bin words, then the umber of words own s 200-28= 175. The coverages 17S ¥ L0n200 = 575% (Ler, personal communication) Laufer found ths the group that scored 855 and shove on the vocabulary messure had signicaly higher amber of access reer (Scores oF $55 and above fm reading test) han those Scoring Delos 9S. The 95% level dl no ein Sienfiant diferences Between those aoe and hslow. A comparison of the 99% ail above group with the 90-94% group reveled a significant difference in Compretension scores. this say Laer dows not justify the 556 threshold of Somprehensin (does abt apee with the 65-705 threshold determined in fhe Laufer and Sim (1985) sty) except to say 148 the lowest passing ard in the Haifa Univers system "he sex steps wo determine what vocabulary sie (namber of word types, emma, ‘oc fanies) will provide 9% coverage of academic text. Lauer (1989) accepts ‘tyne Godin's (1985: 383) evidence thatthe 4.839 words (ypes? lemmas? temo) nthe Duh school books th they hod ween pov S08 coverage v thee randomly chasen newspaper clippings. There are sever problem with this. Fist, evidence fom Irequeney sis of Diteh s Being pple to English Second. the unit counting Is tot specified ~ 4 types, lemmas, or famlies? Third, esrspapers are not academic text and four, thie newspaper cin rske 3 Wor, sey smal mpin ‘Comps ste of tisha provide eter estimates. Sc tui show tat he nmber of wort farnilies nee 0 cer e percenage, sy 95% of the tokens {text depends on (1) the type of text i C4 noel, newspaper, academic tex 000). The results for both the multiple choice and writen reall questions agree onthe owing pois (On average, leamers’ comprehension scores increase to «predictable degree ase coverage of known wards increases. 2 No leamers reading the 80% coverage version ofthe txt gsned adequate ‘compeehetsion All leat in his rou guned unifermykawcorpreension The rage of scores of lero in the 956 and SOS coverage grou was 4 uwas posible forsome tsamer inthe 9% group ands few more in the 95% 2r0up (gain adequate or close 10 adequate comprebeasio, bat the majority ft eamets dd nn This researc does nt suppost the dea of 95% vocabulary krcwledge threshold ir compreheasion of aura tex, Althovgh adecuae comprehension s possible stn this coverage by knot words only asl roprton oh leaner achieve Tel sons that around 985 coverage may be needed for most lesrnes 19 gain adequate comprehension. 98% coverage would have yield an average score of Sm the mulile choice test anda score of 70.82 onthe cued wien recall fs. Tere are two Teasons for coveluding that there isnot 95% tesold Fs, some learners rending the 90% nd 95% versions could exin adequate ‘omprenension, probably through the exercise ofa range of reading sis and nealh of background knowledge. Secondly. proved possible 19 t4 movel to he ‘aa where on averige an increase im coverage of vocsbury le to a predictable iasease in comprehension If there fsa vocabulary thesbol i itely to be Sein the MOS: and 90S coverage lavels as no leaner ending athe 80% level clove adequate comprehension. Clearly, reading involves mich more than cavalry knowledge, although vocabulary knowledge i very imporant. As abalary coverage increaes, learners may not nce to rely 49 hesvly on bickgrcndKoedge and seading sil although these wl till otro ‘ngehension. A KOS coverage however, skills an background knowledge cannot ‘nly makeup for lack of vocabulary Knowledge.1 esis nd Renny Cor a LEARNERS: PREDICTION OF PERFORMANCE ON THE — oa aE "oe | _ 1% on oe re 7 polat away ee 8 4 [2 points away 4 3 2 B 1B Hi 2 Teale [seus pes a(n 12 4 3 1 | 4 points away 1 1 2 1 5 u 2 2 1 'S points away 1 2 1 6 1, 4 J. 6 points away = Z 2 a : 7 points away 1 1 : = : = 8 points away E 3 4 9 points away 1 1 7 5 ovis 9) of he amare peice eso wn two pias of ie a A Ri sctusl score, snd four-fifths predicted their score within three points. Leamers show ‘ipernity aeee ye eta 2 ofc oy sawp ti Ucar fr inn eading ie 0D son Table 6 shows that so Jarersseading the 100% version pedistd that they would ct ll fourteen maliple choice comprehension qvestions correct. Pour kere predicted tat they sul et one won ‘The pater ofthe predictions generally efits the comprehension sccres, wit eedictedcomsehersion droping fom one coverage level the ex. The eae Impressions of the dificuly of the texts were clearly affected hy the density afl caknoun words Table 7 shows how accurate the learners were in predic thee mop choi comprchension score Five ofthe seventeen leamets reading the 100% ves ccuratly predicted their score. Another ive were only one point ov of foarte shove or low the stl sce A could be expected, the peiton ofthe amber comet on the muiple choice aud the peediton ofthe perventige of the ext understood correlated highly with ach other U.S, p>O0K), As Tale 8 shows there were moderate correlations between the sabjee prediction of heir comprehension and ther subsequent cial mpreension scores. Proton of wanber Prediction of peootage ect ndentond Matiple choice a oer inpehenion sone Cea eal sone oar aeThe predition measures show tht leamers see text cosining more unknown swords as more difficult t comprehend and tbeir predition of their level of Comprehension roughly agrees ith thir actual comprehension scores. Bol performance and itpessioa of eificulky are affected bythe density of urknoway words. CONCLUSION “Ths stay shows thatthe densi of uaknow word has a marked effect on tex compreieasion. The text used inthis study was a fition text with a tong, chronological story lie and was thus aot 4 itheul” Text Other txt types, Patticularly newspapers and academic texts, woud place greater demands onthe Trader However even with hs reasonably cay txt, moat karners wou ned round 98% coverage o gain adequate unassisted compreneasion ofthe text. This Prides experimental soppon forthe positon taken by His snd Nation (1992), amely tha eames noed to hove sround 98% coverage of the Words inthe ox 19 Teabl to read fir pletsur. It wes found that there was a proditblerltonshi ecwoen density of urknown words and comprehension, As Jesiy of unknown ‘words increases comprchension drops, Tow lamorsading tha 95% and 90% Coverage versions seemed able to evereome we ofthe obstcls posed by the ‘known words sod gin adequate o lose to adequute comprehension, Bo they This conclusion mst not be interpreted a saying that with 985 coverage of he ‘scctbulary no oder sls knowledge are necded wo gain aust comprehension [lof the subjects inchs study were readers in heeft augue, had considerable koowedge of English grammar, were experienced in reading English, end broveh éeonsderable background kooviedge fo thet reading These all cenit fo thei SKIT comprehending let and account for sve learerseeading the 95% and 90S versions geting high sores, However as readability stds show, vocabulary oowedge i eral component in reading 1 tae reading text used in this study was aosompned by & glossary a inthe Holley (1973) sy then with this glossary and more dine, lene would have achieved much higher levels of comprehension. The purpose ofthis study howeve ‘was tse wha percentage coverage of ex was acted Tor uns eaing OE Pleasure, where leamers could read without tempting the reuing #0 Kok ods Teachers shoul keep the findings ofthis study in mind when guiding karers i clcening books fr exemsve reading, and when using mieiing focused inp ctv in clas. The findings ace closely with a study of native speakers bf Carver (1954, 432) who concluded "when the material ing reals relatively ean then close 8% ofthe words wil be wrk, ‘hea tbe materials lave hurd hen around 2% or mere of the words wil e unknown, and whem the Aiticuly level ofthe material i approsimstely equal tothe abiiy lve ofthe ‘nihil, then around 15 ofthe words wil be unknown rhe results of this study ave an important message fr teachers ot English. We an divide te reading done by EFL leames ino tree types 1 Inensive rang where leamers Work through texts contin unfamiliar language feuues, but where learners are assed BS teacher guidance and siscusson ory the use of dione, glostares or elaboration in the text 2 Exlemiveredng for language growth where lsrets read texts containing seme unfailar language features but cope with these with only minor inveraptons to understanding the message othe (x 3 Extensive reali for developing fvency in reading skills where learners read texs containing ao unkown language features and where the ea sould net be iter by the need to del with nal Engage ‘The research described inthis study hss oked athe second type of eating. ese reading, fr lagage grown. The results suggest tot Te this Lind Of ain earners need know at east 986 ofthe running words in the text. That tie density of unknown words sould be round one nf Tiss the sae igure tive at by West (1958-21 and Hirsh and Nathon 1992) simply by considering ie amount of interruption 1 the Now of reading. This study as taken & somewhat extreme postion. Thats the earners in the study ta the text withou acces to ction or gloscary, Further resech is ned Jose ow learners cope withthe uakhown wots. Are most unknowa words easily zucse ofthe 98% coverage level? What proportion can be gues fom 9S! overage? When Jeamers ave access 10 dictionaries, what density of unknown onl aks reading a enp ext too Fadensome, 0 tht enjoyment an» Teling ofechievement disappears? Perhaps the most uefa pplication ofthis stady will ome in guiding learners in the selection af graded readers It earner are ead graded veaders for plessure Picking up some new vocabulary a hey read, then they noe ocho ets that de ae have to heavy a vocabulary loa fs weabary lod spear than on "known ward in iy euning words then extensive reading his become intensive "eaing, These Iwo types of reading pratne some smilie and ome diferent ‘kills Teaches nee to ensre tht extensive reading tay is extensive reading, 50 atte unigue sills that develops havea cance fo be practisedREFERENCES, Anderson, RC and Frechaly, P (1981) Vocsbulary knowledge. tn 17. Guth (ed). 7-117, Ama, PSL. and Béjoint, H, (Eas) (1992) Londoa: Maer Nwcabulary and Applied Linguistic ‘Carver, RLP-(1994) Percentage of unknown vocabulry words in text a a fancti the eltve difcully of the text mpistons for instruction. Journal of Reading Behavior, 25), 413-137 Call, 18, (1987) Two vocabularies for reading: recognition and mening. Tl ‘MeKeown and Cur: 7-17 CConbead A. (2000, in press) A new academic wordlist TESOL Quarter 24 Francs, WIN and Kucera, H. (1982) Frequeney Analysis Ents Usage. Boston Houghton Mittin Company Gute, 1. (Ea) (1981) Comprehension ad Teoching: Research Reviews Newark International Reading Asselin. Hil LA and May, D.J. (1978) Appreciation Pieces for Overseas Sten London ‘Gxiord Univers Pres. ind. D and Nation, P.(1992) What vocabulary size needed to ead unsiplii teats fr pleasure? Reading in a Foreign Lanauate, 82), 689-636. Holley. FM.(1975) su of wcabulry earning in context the fest of e-wnd tensity in Gentnan eading materials. Foreen Langucae Annals, 6, 339-349 Johansson S. and Holand, K. (1989) Freyuency Analysis of Enlish Vocobelay ‘and Grammar Noles 182, Oxford: Clarealon Press “Lauter, B. and Sim, B.D. (1985) Measuring sn expaing the reading threshold needed for English for acidetnic purposes tents. Foreign Langage Analy 15), 03-411 Lauter, B, (1989) What percentage of wext- luis essential for compreeasion I ‘CLauren and M, Nordman (Es) Special Language: From Huaeans Thinking to Thinking Machines Clevedon: Mulilingul Mates Laufer, (1992) How much lexis is necessary for reading comprehension? 1a ‘Arma a Bein (1992) 126-132 Laufer, Band Yano, ¥ (in preperation) Leatnes’ est noted. nations of yucabulary as aN ion, LSP (1098) A vocabulary sz test of cont Testing, 11), 3-55 MeKeown, M.G. and Curtis, MLE. (eds) (1987) The Nature of Vocabulary Acquisrion ills, N. Lawrence Exbaum Assocsts Mears, P and Jones, G. (1990) Eurocenies Vocabulary Size Test, 1OKA. Zurich Merynst K. (1983) Isues concerning the action of knowledge: eects of “ocabulary taining on reading compretension. Review of Eacational esearch, 3), 25327, ‘syn, Pad Godin, P1985) RALEX: an akerative speach to language teachin ‘Modem Language Serna, 8818), 586-35, ‘ ‘ation, LS.P (1983) Testing and teaching vocab. Gidelines, (1), 2-28 Nata, LS.P (1990) Teaching an Leamtng Yoatlary Rowley, Mass: Newt Hows. e Nation, LS.P (1993 ) Wcabulry sir, growth an we Weltens (eds) The Bilingual Lexicon Benjamins, 115-134 1 R. Schreuder end. AmsterdanvPhiladsipi John Read. J (1988) Measuring the vocabulary knowledge of sco! anguage "RELC Journal, 19(2), 1225, Surg T, Nation, 1S, Band Meister, GF (1978) Weabularyleaming and reading Sostem, 6), 7278 Nest, Mt (1953) ‘Gren & Co. A General Serice List of English Wort, London: Longana, Mest M. (1985) Learning 1 Read a Foreign Lamguage, London: Longin 20 APPENDICES. Tie scare aABNAN CD0% SERSION) | wasn themida of making a cake for dinner when the telephone ang. wash ny hands and went to answer Hull.’ sidan anxious voice when ha pickod up the recive Mrs. Soot please” could Lspeak w Speaking L answered Mrs, Rosin Scot” the voice wea on, even more ansiously26 tot ch tal “Yes answered, “Whats the mater” By aT as geting it ighensd myself ‘Thovals of my tusband being inaraibeay crash, or oF one othe children beesking his eg playing fotall nthe school-yard ace throogh my min Tiss the Notes Hospital sid the vice. ‘One of our patents has espe andone of his fends heand him ty that he was going il you. We thought We'd ‘Oh-yes—thank you; T answered and stopp! a shink very quickly. ‘Whats the are oF this—er— pation’? then went on There was pl ‘Then, George Hitebeock is his re came the ep and very dangerous: nea the other end, as if someone was searching thc is He's short sel dark-haired ‘But wy does he want teri me? I've never even heard ot him. [A strange sound came from the telephone anit vent dead. Thought of people ‘Sutin telephone wires before stscking a house Hashed though my bran. Would Smad tink of doings thing ike tha 1 is silloldng the receiver when there was knock atthe frontor 1 doped the receiver and ace to tne door {locked it just the man outside was beginning tovopen the cover ofthe leterbox. Then I rushed 1 th back-docr. knocking ‘sll able over on my wy an breaking the Mosercbowon tt pieces, Te wate mad the floor stooth ab slipped ad crashed into a chi. knocking that over foo, However [seabed the back door, leked it and then went around the Rose making sue all the srindows wer shut. They had ao bars on them, sot would be asp to Brak one open Meanie, the tlephone-operator, ning I hadnt pt my telephone down and bearing the ems and Knoeking, hough there ws «ght going on in my House tan telephoned the police. Ina few mines, Read heavy fosteps advancing up the dive and there wa inn sed on the knocker of the toot door. ‘Who's tha I sid n a omni Police’ came the answer, “ls there anything wrong, Lady 1 thought fist. ‘Come rout the window so that Lean see you Isai. Te beay fontsteps cried the garden, and two policemen a police office anda younger policeman-—appeared atthe dining room window. Tran joyfully tothe font doo {ole them in The mailman wis standing afew yrds of, ooking at me in way that struck me as anus, ‘il you catch the amon” Task the police offices. “What madman?” be asked, clearly completly confused iy eon a washing a one Me ce om teal eis (George Hichovek?" sai he officer, even more confused than before. But thts the rune of the Governor ofthe hospital “andi was me that kook at your dot sid dhe iia We looked at each other—the two policemen, the mailan and I right, surprise md suspicion followed each other actos or faces, Then the police office ai ‘Someboay runt hve been having 2 joke with you, lad and a Stupid joke a ha Weal bus into relieved lausher “Tuecunsvren sexe (80% vox) (Not: the unmarked nonsense words ad the nonsense words in bold and italics ‘veal inthe ADS version The nonsense words in bold, and bold and italics were the only nonsense words ithe Hi version The nonsense words in tales wre the only nonsense wor inthe 95% version In the text ted bythe learers pone tf he lonsense words were highlighted in holo lis} {sas in he sepenty of making a rame for pesance when the pilaion whim. 1 premuied my bands and went ore ‘ull. seid serge oice when | had lade yp the tanger, could spss to Ms. Sect please” Speaking’ Tancwered. ‘Mrs. Rosalind Scot” the voice went on, even more stergcally Yes! I answered, ‘What’ the mater?” By now I was geting 8 kineay sorant nysclf-Thovghtsf my busband being ia eubular draco cn of the cilien “sing nn cern ppg mente conan aed gh sis the Norifiolls SUvlan Home” sid the vice, ‘One of our aloes has ‘alized, and one of his emsleards heard him say that he wae going alesnd 1 We theght wd Btier get yu, : ‘Ohyes—yeard you! answered and stopp to deed my atments “What's he ane of thie er—glise?” Tthen went on There was a faburpet at the olor end, aif someone was swanding trough 3 ance, Then, “George Hitchcock i is name came the feldination. "He's stort mn datkaied and very unizacy But why does he want to—er—lesnd me’ I've nove even herd of him,A strange elairy sound came fom the piliaton and it ent piually. Though ff people cating pluton undiments before acing hose srizzied tough ny ecolion, Would a elgan tink of doing ting ike tha? | was sil holding te tangerty when here wan rang atthe ren-doorTantelasel the tngeity and delta 9 the door. I Younced it jas a Une man ouside wa besinang to epen the rajer of he leter-box. Then i gberizd to te buck-doom pentraing& small table over on my way a igoning the flower pallard on ict Tacramens. The wer made the alamatsadanned sn [rang abd dracted ita 2 sai pertding tat ver to. Howese, [reached the buck-doo,rouned i then eat aroun the house making sural the windows Were garmage. They fad no enegaes a thers would be ey 10 TACOMIz= one OPE CCutheronst, the piation qveon, finding Thad aot put my pluton down and fearing the dractments and erangs thous here was &pesbutt going enn my rose and pllted he ceca, In few mines, heard heavy footsteps feuding up the drive and there wos a pened sound on the petruder of the font doo “hos hats gramonons voice ‘orean came the answer “Is there anything wrong stragar’ ought fis. "Come roundta the windows tht Tcan see you Tsai. The aka footsfps scalanded the queners, and wo ofcians-—an oeian cheltlan and a smiracan —sppeared athe morie-room window [ra roy 0 the nt doo folet them in The drippers eaking sf curanders of oo ooking at min 2 way tha pevanated meas utermous ‘Did you spo the vesblan” Taste he ercian-ehellan. What vesbian?” he wkd, em cals completely paygamt “Why. the one that a enanging at may door He escaped fom the elglan tarda. and his name's Hichoosk George Hitehoock ‘Geoege Hitehooek” side eheltan even more paygan hn before, “Bas the name ofthe phatropis ofthe sivian home Adit ws me that peridot your deo said the ripple. \We looted at each other—the ovcian-cheltan, the mivean, the drippler and Sorance, surprise td sanctianee mzyiated each ote across our faces. Then he ‘orcian-cheltlan suid, “Sompebody most have been having a shoreng ith YoU, ‘agar, ats prolarcshareng lsat" Well Iuay into salerzedprinalmen Tus scsi cwoics sions ‘Thc coments in brackets werent seen bythe ts tubers. They indieate whether nd inten thn the nse Wa inthe Cop of the rank information unis, sRfadeatestop nee qaarer: op half and |. Mis. Scot worse a the begining ofthe telephone call ecsuse Gimp, 4) her sand was in lay cas hl br Hs is person speaking (o her was very worried ie eden were ot a Home 2. The telephone eal eld Mrs, Scot that (explicit 4) ‘oncone was going to atck her house Sammcene wanted w kil her She bl to wo the Noniielés Home, er husband bad espe jeonge Hitchcock implicit 49 twas Mrs, Scots usa Ws talking Mes, Set onthe telephone was a close frend of Mis. Sot Wea supped to Bea eazy’ person, 4. Mis Scot topped king on te telephone because (phi) the wires tthe house were ct she could not ear the oder perscn atthe othe end ste dropped the pone Someone eae the door 5 Mrs Seo othe door Gp.) gti leer a js aod ell scone ant he ecpone mesoge ‘to let hee husband in. ss Some things in Ms. Seo hows were broken (explicit, hy George Hitchcock by Mis. Soot ty the postman. by an unknown person The leterbox was bring opened by (explicit 4 the posto Min Seat sn onknowa person the police8 The pce came to he house be ‘Geonge Hitchcock called them. the telephone opeatr called ten Mis: Scot ealed them. 9. Me police were called because as ryng to kll Mes. Scot Mis. Scofts phone de not work 10, When the police they could nor fnd the house at Hist they could not find Mis. Scot they eaght George Hicheock 11. The postman (implicit, %) ‘as helping the ple derstand bs, Scot's behavior, lly Goorge Hitchcock wis fiend of Ms, Soot 2. The policemen (explici 6) id not know about the me {id not know Geoege Hitch aout the posiman ‘woe looking fr George Hutches 13. Mrs. Scatt (implicit, 4) had been ticked finaly met Goons itchenek, hele Catch the mada id ot know what had hppened, 4 Brerybody laughed Because inlet there was no serious prolem. the police were at the wrong house ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to expres our gratitude to Dr Brian Davkins of de Shoo! af Mathematical and Computing Sciences Victoria Universiy of Wellington fr hel withthe tated procs