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2003 - Jacobs - Assessing Aggressive Behaviour in Dogs A Review of The Literature
2003 - Jacobs - Assessing Aggressive Behaviour in Dogs A Review of The Literature
To cite this article: C. Jacobs , T. De Keuster & P. Simoens (2003) Assessing the pathological
extent of aggressive behaviour in dogs. A review of the literature, Veterinary Quarterly, 25:2, 53-60,
DOI: 10.1080/01652176.2003.9695145
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction 54
57
Other classification methods 57
Discussion 58
Conclusion 59
References 60
54
SUMMARY
In this review the variety of parameters used for evaluating the pathological extent of aggressive
behaviour is summarised and the practical usefulness of each parameter is discussed. The selected
parameters are: the objective analytic description of the aggressive behaviour, the function of the
aggression, the presence of the three phases of a normal aggression sequence, the number of bites per
attack, the duration of the attack and the frequency of the aggressive behaviour. Other criteria such
as the appropriateness of the aggression in relation to the context, the predictability of the aggression
and the severity of the caused injury are biased because of the variation caused by numerous external
factors. The relevance of the most suitable parameters will be assessed in a further study in which the
distribution of aggression modulating neurotransmitter receptors will be determined.
Keywords: Aggression; Aggressive behaviour; Behavioural diseases; Bites; Dog behaviour; Dog diseases;
Dogs; Review.
such as genetic predisposition, environment spayed females than in intact bitches (7,22,33).
including experience and learning processes, The role of the male sex hormone testosteron in
(patho)physiology and disease processes (8,12,32). these gender-related behavioural differences cannot
The wide range of aggression promoting factors be ignored (22).
illustrates the low specificity of the term Hoerlein (13) however states that castration of
aggression (6). male dogs only affects the intermale aggression
type while territorial and fear-induced aggression
Genetic predisposition remain unaltered.
The significantly higher incidence of behaviour According to Voith and Borchelt (33) the higher
problems involving aggression in certain canine incidence of aggression in neutered females could
breeds indicates a genetic background. Blackshaw have three different causes. First, neutered bitches
(7) and Roll and Unshelm (27) mention that the are present in increasingly higher number in our
German Shepherd dog and the Bull Terrier are modern society. A second explanation for the
most frequently involved in aggressive incidents. higher aggressiveness in spayed females could be
Sherman et al. (29) and Uchida et al. (31) add the the fact that sterilisation is often the first therapeu-
Doberman Pinscher and the Lhasa Apso to this tical approach to behaviour problems involving
list. Ushida et al. (31) mention the English aggression. A third explanation could be that some
Springer Spaniel additionally. bitches are androgenised in utero and spaying of
Voith and Borchelt (33) perceive a higher these animals may facilitate the expression of their
aggressiveness in pure-bred dogs compared to masculine behaviour (22,33).
mixed breed dogs. In contrast, Beaver (6) descri- The expression of masculine behaviour in neutered
bes a higher incidence of aggressiveness in mixed females is more pronounced when sterilisation is
breed dogs. performed before the age of 12 months (19,26).
Other aspects with aggression promoting
Environment characteristics are neurochemical dysfunctions (23)
An important environmental factor in the genesis and aging, especially when allied to a loss of
of canine aggressive behaviour is a lack of early visual and hearing acuity (19).
experience during the socialisation period (3,12).
Adult dogs are more aggressive towards species Disease processes
with which they have had little contact in early Medical conditions that may affect aggressiveness
life, especially 3 to 12 weeks after birth (12). include neoplasia of the central nervous system,
Another environmental factor with a considerable infectious diseases (canine distemper, rabies),
influence on the development of aggression is the epilepsy, developmental disorders (lissencephaly,
teaching of positive and negative behaviour by the hydrocephaly), metabolic (hyper- or hypothyroidy)
owner or by certain training programs. Aggressi- and cardiovascular disorders, trauma and pain
veness can for example be taught intentionally to processes (6,12,13,32). Disorders of the central
fighting dogs, whereas behavioural therapy may nervous system can induce aggressive behaviour in
have an appeasing effect on hyperreactive dogs several species, especially when located in the
(12). frontal cortex, the hypothalamus, the thalamus, the
amygdaloid body, the medial mamillary nucleus,
Other potential aggression promoting factors are the habenular nuclei, the hippocampus and the
the restraint from exerting breed-specific tasks caudate nucleus (9,14,16,17,21,24). These regions
such as hunting or herding, or food scarcity during are illustrated in figures 1 through 4. The specific
gestation (10). involvement of the frontal cortex (1),
hypothalamus (15) and amygdaloid body (2,13) in
(Patho)physiology behavioural changes in dogs has been established.
The higher aggressiveness presented by male dogs The behaviour modula-ting properties of the
is very suggestive for the importance of the caudate nucleus in dogs can be assumed because of
physiological state in the expression of behaviour its connections with the frontal cortex (30).
(12,26,31,33). Furthermore, aggression is often
more pronounced in intact males compared to Classification of aggressive behaviour
castrated dogs and, although in a lesser amount, in There are different ways to classify aggressive
56
Figure 1. Medial view of the right brain half of a dog Figure 2. Rostrolateral view of the canine brain. The
showing important brain regions involved in aggression. left frontal lobe has been removed to visualise the
caudate nucleus (9).
Figure 3. Rostrolateral view of the canine brain. The Figure 4. Medial view of the right hemisphere with a
rostral part of the left hemisphere has been removed by lateral view of the dissected left hippocampus (8).
a transversal incision through the piriform lobe (10).
The position of the amygdaloid body (5) has been tinted
for better visualisation.
dogs that most likely exhibit a pathological form strongly dependent on public opinion and on the
of aggression, defined as a form that does not extent to which the environment is familiar with
comply with the normal behaviour code. To the behavioural patterns of dogs in general. This
determine the pathological state of the aggression a perception is liable to a subjectivity that needs to
specific set of criteria should be applied for each be avoided in scientific research. This does not
subpopulation. For example, aggression of a dog exclude the fact that functional classification
belonging to a more aggressive breed or strain schemes are highly valuable in this context for
-
may not be evaluated with equal measures as the practical diagnostics where therapy and prognosis
same degree of aggression performed by a dog are of prior interest.
from a less aggressive breed or strain.
It is obvious that the predictability of aggressive
Therefore numerous factors such as breed, gender,
behaviour, which is suggested as a criterion for the
early experience and the ability to perform breed
classification of aggression by Reisher et al. (25),
specific tasks need to be taken into account for
suffers from the same shortcomings as mentioned
each individual dog. For example, aggression by a
for the appropriateness of aggressive behaviour.
hunting dog should be considered less severe when
Aggression will be more predictable to a person
the dog is not used for this purpose.
who is familiar with canine behaviour patterns in
Another issue is the appropriateness of the general and who can distinguish subtle signals.
aggression in relation to the context. The tolerance The considerable amount of subjectivity undermi-
for a certain aggressive behaviour pattern is nes the reliability of this parameter.
59
The severity of the caused injury as proposed by behaviour repertory and are capable to correctly
Reisner (26) and Sacks et al. (28) is also a dubious interpret subtle signals. This is in particular the
parameter for assessing the pathological extent of case for fear-induced aggression which is
aggressive behaviour, because it is strongly characterised by a limited warning phase and could
influenced by various additional factors such as the therefore be falsely defined as instrumentalised
strength of the attacking dog and of the victim, the aggression. However, the warning phase of
predictability of the assault, the relative degree of fear-induced aggression can be recognised by
inhibition or disinhibition of the dog, and the facial and/or postural expressions and autonomic
duration of the attack. nervous reactions.
The descriptive classification is essential for an The number of bites per attack as suggested by
unbiased evaluation of animal behaviour in order Reisner et al. (25) could be a reliable parameter
to avoid false determination of different behaviour because it yields information about the relative
patterns as aggression. It forces the evaluator to degree of bite inhibition of the dog. Since some
set up a clear and objective description of the dog strains are genetically selected for a reduced
behaviour patterns before any interpretation is bite inhibition, one may assume a considerable
made. Therefore this classification should be
genetical determination of this parameter.
included in every evaluation protocol.
Other factors, such as the duration of the attack as
There is also a strong motivation for determining mentioned by Reisner (26) and the frequency of
the function of aggressive behaviour using a aggressive behaviour as suggested by Blackshaw
functional classification because the various (7) and Reisner et al. (25), could also be related to
functional aggression types are suggested to have a the pathological extent of aggressive behaviour and
specific neurological and/or endocrine basis (18). should therefore be taken into account for research
Because many factors affect
purposes. However, the frequency of the assaults
aggression, a
simplified approach is desired for the practical is often difficult to determine because some dogs
evaluation of the pathological extent of aggressive are euthanised after the first aggressive incident
behaviour. A suitable method is given by Beata (5) while in other cases attempts are made to solve the
who describes a functional classification system problem by behaviour therapy and/or medication.
combined with a descriptive class of
instrumentalised aggression which is characterised Conclusion
by the absence of a warning phase and/or stop Several criteria described in the literature are
signal. Each functional class can evolve to this suitable for the practical classification of
instrumentalised aggression. A major advantage of aggressive behaviour. Some of these parameters
this approach is the fact that it offers for all the could give information about the pathological
functional classes a general threshold, namely the extent of this behaviour. They include the objecti-
loss of the aggression sequence integrity, by which ve description of the behaviour pattern, the deter-
the pathological level of the aggression can be mination of the function of the aggression, the eva-
determined and a prognosis can be made. luation of the presence of the three phases of the
The aggression sequence can be altered either at normal aggression sequence, and the assessment of
the first aggressive assault or after an evolutionary the degree of inhibition or disinhibition. Additional
process in which a dog that previously exhibited a parameters include the duration of the attack and
normal aggression sequence undergoes a gradual the frequency of the aggressive behaviour.
reduction of the warning phase and/or the stop The presence of a normal aggression sequence is
signal over a certain period of time until these the only parameter of which a direct link to the
phases become absent. pathological level of the aggression is mentioned.
The approach of Beata (5) has the additional Other features such as the appropriateness of the
advantage that canine aggressiveness can be aggression in relation to the context, the
assessed under various conditions (different predictability of the aggressive assaults and the
breeds, sexes, environmental factors), since dogs severity of the caused injury interfere with a
with a high intrinsic aggressiveness are still uniform classification because they are strongly
expected to exhibit the normal aggression dependent on several external factors.
sequence. Further neurochemical research is planned for
It is important, however, that the classification of studying the link between the various parameters
dogs with instrumentalised aggression is performed and the pathological extent of aggressive behaviour
by experts who are familiar with the normal canine in dogs.
60
15. Kaada B. Brain mechanisms related to aggressive 32. Voith VL and Borchelt PL. Introduction to animal
behavior. Aggression and defense : neural mechanisms behavior therapy. Veterinary Clinics of North America.
and social patterns, 1967. Clemente & Lindsley, Small Animal Practice 1982; 12: 565-570.
University of California Press, California. 33. Voith VL and Borchelt PL. Diagnosis and treatment of
16. Lewin W. Observations on selective leucotomy. Journal dominance aggression in dogs. Veterinary Clinics of
of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1961; 24: North America. Small Animal Practice 1982; 12:
37-44. 655-663.