UNIVERSIDAD POLITÉCNICA DE AGUASCALIENTES

Degree and group: IMA05A

INDICE
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 3
Summary: ............................................................................................................................................ 3
Dimensional Tolerance.................................................................................................................... 3
Hole based system: ......................................................................................................................... 5
The end mills ................................................................................................................................... 7
Countersink drills............................................................................................................................. 8
Bottoming taps ................................................................................................................................ 8
Reamer ............................................................................................................................................ 9
Counterbore: ................................................................................................................................... 9
Chip Formation .............................................................................................................................. 10
Cutting Speeds and Feeds Formulas ................................................................................................. 10
Speed Formula .............................................................................................................................. 11
Feed Formula ................................................................................................................................ 11
Tap Feed Formula.......................................................................................................................... 12
Conclusions: ...................................................................................................................................... 13
Bibliography: ..................................................................................................................................... 13

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Introduction:
In this summary I will talk about what we saw and learned during these class sessions, as
well as the main things we saw in them were quite a few meanings of technical words in
English, in such a way that they helped a lot to our learning, on the other hand it was also
seen properties of holes and shafts, in the same way we saw hardness of materials, fits and
tolerances, in the next section I will talk more in depth about each thing that was seen in
class.

Summary:
We begin to see the fits & tolerances, this is an issue of utmost importance within the world
of manufacturing and CNC since as such this section is a quality standard which all parts
must meet, in this case we will talk about holes and shafts, these are very important processes,
since in many pieces we can appreciate them, then I will show an image (Imagen 1.1) which
can explain and make this subject more understood, there is a fairly large extension of fits
and tolerance, going from the most quality to less, and with more quality I mean precision,
when the measurements start with a capital letter it means that it will be a hole, then the
number together with the letter say the precision it will have, on the other hand when it is a
letter lowercase means this will be a shaft.
Dimensional Tolerance
Some of the dimensional tolerances terms are defined as follows:
1. Dimension (A dimension is "a numerical value expressed in appropriate units of measure
and indicated on a drawing and
in other documents along with lines, symbols, and notes to define the size or geometric
characteristic, or both, of a part or part feature")
2. Size (It is a number expressed in a particular unit in the measurement of length)
3. Basic size (the theoretical size used as a starting point for the application of tolerances)
4. Actual size (of a part) (the measured size of the finished part after machining)
5. Design size (The ideal size for each component (shaft and hole) based upon a selected fit)
6. Limits of size (the maximum and minimum sizes shown by the tolerance dimension)
7. Maximum limit of size (Is the maximum size permitted for the part)
8. Minimum limit of size (it is the minimum size permitted for the part limit of size)
9. Maximum material limit (condition) (is the condition of a part when it contains the most
amount of material. The MMC of an external feature (such as a shaft) is the upper limit. The
MMC of an internal feature(such as a hole) is the lower limit)
10. Minimum material limit (condition) (is the condition of a part when it contains the least

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amount of material possible. The LMC of an external feature is the lower limit of the part.
The LMC of an internal feature is the
upper limit of the part.)
11. Tolerance (Tolerance is the difference between maximum limit of size and minimum
limit of size)
12. Zero line (Basic size) (it represents the basic size)
13. Upper deviation (It is the algebraic difference between maximum limit of size and its
corresponding basic size)
14. Lower deviation (It is the algebraic difference between minimum limit of size and its
corresponding basic size)
15. Tolerance zone (a region representing the difference between the upper and the lower
limits)
16. Unilateral tolerance (In this method of presenting the limits, variation is allowed only on
one side of the zero line)
17. Bilateral tolerance (Here the limits variation is allowed on either sides of the zero line)
18. Shaft (it refers to any external feature of a part, including any non cylindrical features as
well)
19. Hole (the term used for any internal feature of a part including any non cylindrical as
well)

Imagen 1.1: In this image we can see the

parameters of the holes and shafts of the ISO
system.

Imagen 1.1.1: In this image we can see the

parameters of the holes and shafts of the METRIC
system.

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In the system of holes and shafts we have to take into consideration three parameters, these
parameters tell us if the shaft is clearance, transition and interference.
Hole based system: This system tells us that the size of the hole is kept constant, shaft size is
varied to get different fits, for the other hand the shaft based system tells us the size of the
shaft is kept constant, hole size is varied to get different fits. In the next image (Image 1.2)
we can to appreciate that.
An interference fit results in an interference between two mating parts under all tolerance
conditions.A clearance fit results in a clearance between the two mating parts under all
tolerance conditions. A transition fit results in either a clearance or an interference condition
between two assembled parts.
Basic Size: is the size from which limits or deviations are assigned. Basic sizes, usually
diameters, should be selected from a table of preferred sizes. Deviation: is the difference
between the basic size and the hole or shaft size. Upper Deviation: is the difference between
the basic size and the permitted maximum size of the part. Lower Deviation: is the difference
between the basic size and the minimum permitted size of the part.

Image 1.2. In this image we can to appreciate the

hole basis system.

Below I will show examples of holes and shafts. The first one will be an example of the hole.
(image 1.3), and the second one will be a shaft (image 1.4).

Image 1.3 Image 1.4

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In such a way, below I show an example of how to obtain the fits and tolerances (Image 2.0)
in this section, they are quite easy calculations which bring very good advantages for the
design of parts and for the manufacture of the same.

Image 2.0 In this image we can see how can we do the fits and tolerance.

After seeing this topic, we saw the hardness of the materials, with this we were able to enter
the world of drills and milling machines, it is a quite extensive and great world.
For materials most hardness we need to use a drill more (achatado) in the point of contact.
To start talking about all this I would like to go in and talk about bits, these are of utmost
importance within manufacturing, as engineers we must know what type of bits to use for
specific materials, since we get into the hardness section of the materials, the more hard a
material has from which we want to make a hole or a shaft, the tip of the drill must be more
flattened, that is, it must not be pointed or have a very large angle since when we start to
Putting it into the material will have to break, while if in a material with great hardness we
put one that has a flattened tip we will have better resistance in the drill, in such a way that
we will have holes and shafts with better quality and precision, on the other On the other
hand, the effectiveness of the liquid is of utmost importance, which cleans the burrs that result
after drilling, since these chips can cause problems with the piece in terms of precision. Since
instead of cutting with the bit, the chips will begin to be cut, that is why we have to take into
account the cleaning liquid and the angle of the bit to avoid this type of problem (Image 2.1).

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 Image 2.1 In this image we can to appreciate the drill`s grade

The end mills are types of drills which we can use (image 2.2)

Image 2.2, In this image we can to appreciate

four types of drills.

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The first one flat nose mills are used for milling 2D contours and pockets. Ball nose mills are
used for 3D milling. Bull nose end mills have a radius corner. They are used to create a fillet
on the bottom of a wall. Because they are sturdier than an end mill they are also sometimes
used for roughing operations. Chamfer mills have an angled nose used to create a chamfer or
to de-burr parts. After that we know the A face mill (Image 2.3) has cutting inserts that are
replaced when worn. They are rigid, may have up to eight or more cutting edges, and can
remove material quickly. They are often used for the first machining operation to quickly
create a flat finished face on the part.

Image 2.3 In this image we can see a face

mill.

Countersink drills (image 2.4) are used to create the conical face for a machine screw.
Combined spotting-countersinks are used to create a screw clearance hole and countersink in
one operation.

Image 2.4 In this image we can to

appreciate the countersink drills.

Bottoming taps are used to tap blind holes. Spiral point taps push the chip ahead and out the
bottom of a through hole (Image 2.5). Taps require a hole drilled to the correct size to ensure
the thread is formed properly. For example, a 1⁄4-20 cutting tap requires drilling a .201 (#7)
hole. Refer to the drill chart in Appendix A to find the correct drill size for a specified thread
size and fit. Most CNC Machines support rigid tapping, which means the tap can be held in
a rigid holder. The tap is advanced at a feed rate that matches the thread lead into the hole.
The spindle then stops, reverses, and backs out of the hole. Machines without rigid tapping
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require special tapping attachments. Always refer to the manufacturers’ instructions as the
speed, feed, and other machining parameters for tapping attachments may be different that
those for rigid tapping.

Image 2.5 In this image we can to appreciate the

bottoming tap and spiral point tap.

Reamer
Use reamers to create holes of precise shape and excellent surface finish. Reamed holes are
usually accurate within .0002 inches diameter (image 3.0). For example, a reamer is used for
holes used for ground pins and bushings. Reamers require a specific size hole be drilled
before use. Cutting speeds and feeds are also important. Remove too little or too much
material and the hole will not be the correct size.

Image 3.0 In this image we can to appreciate the

reamer.

Counterbore:
A counterbore looks similar to a end mill with a pilot in the center. It is used to spot face
holes, and the pilot ensures the spot face is centered on the hole. Counterboring is not
necessary when using a CNC machine. Rather, create a spot face using a pocket or circle mill
tool path. This saves having to buy and stock counterbore tools and pilots, and the time
required to load and set up the counterbore.

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Chip Formation
Cutting tools remove metal by shearing action (Image 3.1). As the tool advances into the
material it causes a small amount of the material to shear away, forming a chip.
The thickness of material sheared away by each cutting tooth is called the feed per tooth, or
chip load. As the chip is ejected from the work area it carries with it some of the heat
generated by the shearing process (Figure 3.2).

Image 3.1 Chip formation Image 3.2 Chip load

Cutting Speeds and Feeds Formulas

The tool moves through the material at a specified rotational speed, defined in revolutions
per minute (RPM), and feed rate, defined in inches per minute (IPM). difficult on a CNC
than a manual mill because, with a manual mill, the operator can feel the cutting pressure and
alter the feed based in part on the cutting force. CNC mills require calculating speeds and
feeds in advance. adjusted at the machine based on chip shape and color, cutting sound, and
machine horsepower meter readings.

The best source of data about cutting speeds and feeds for a specific tool, application, and
material is the tool supplier. Much of this data is found on manufacturer’s web sites or printed
tooling catalogs. a knowledgeable representative. Another source of speeds and feeds data is
CAD/CAM software. sophisticated and often provide good cutting data. Yet even the best
speed and feed data is just a starting point. many factors including the maximum spindle
speed or horsepower of the machine, rigidity of work holding, and the quality and condition
of the machine tool itself.

The following pages provide cutting data for the most machined materials and a methodology
for calculating speeds and feeds. If the part is held by double sided tape, feeds.

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Speed Formula
Milling machine cutting speeds are derived from the following formula:

Speed is the rotational frequency of the tool in revolutions per minute .SFM is the speed at
which the material moves past the cutting edge of the tool in feet per minute. SFM values
depend on the tool type, tool material, and material being machined.
How Speed Formula is Derived
Because cutting tools are defined by their diameter in inches, this formula is rewritten and
simplified as follows:

Feed Formula
Cutting feeds are in (IPM) and use the following formula:

Feed is the linear feed of the tool through the material in inches per minute.
Speed is the result of the speed formula (Figure 15) in revolutions per minute.
CL is the chip load, or how much material each cutting edge of the tool removes per
revolution. Chip load is
sometimes referred to as feed per tooth (FPT) or inches per rev (IPR).
NumFlutes is the number of cutting flutes. (For a twist drill, this value is one.)

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Tap Feed Formula
For tapping operations, feed rate is based on the number of threads per inch and feed rate:

Feed is the linear feed of the tool through the material in inches per minute.
Speed is the result of the previous formula in revolutions per minute.
TPI is the threads per inch of the tap. For example, the TPI of a 1⁄4-20 tap is 20.
Problem: Calculate the cutting speed and feed for a milling operation given the following
values:

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Conclusions:
In these classes I learned a lot about the process that we must follow to make holes or
shafts, in the same way I learned the types of bits that exist and what parts they are made
for, this is of the utmost importance, since in the business field or factories use milling
machines a lot, for this we must know what type of bits to use for certain materials that we
are using.

Bibliography:
Leonardo Z. (2021) “Fits and tolerances”. Recuperado de
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1n273NrKywcILnzDjQI3jRX09bIYq7WKT/view
AutoDesk CAM (2014) “Fundamentals of CNC machining”. Recuperado de
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1BC0fov6j01fb7soM3mDjebbob2kkEE-U/view

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