Reading the City

The Situationists, Music & Architecture

Nathaniel Burrows

BA (Hons.) Architecture, PDA3

Student ID No. 000491615-8
the University of Greenwich
2009

Except where stated otherwise, this dissertation is based entirely on the author’s own work.

i
 Front cover illustration: Authors own, Musical Psychogeography, 2009.

ii
Contents

Illustrations IV

Introduction 1

Chapter 1: Shared History & Language

1.1: Mathematical Beginnings 5

1.2: Rhythm and Rhyme 14

Chapter 2: Order and Representation

2.1: Melody as Ordering Device 27

2.2: Notation of the Path 30
2.3: Musical Interpretation of Place 35

Chapter 3: Music and the Situationist International

3.1: Creative Beginnings 41
3.2: Psychogeography, Music and Play 48

Conclusion 55

Bibliography 61

Appendices Appendix 1: A Blackheath Drift 65
Appendix 2: Melody as an Orientation Device 71
Appendix 3: Local Rhythms in London 77
Appendix 4: Situatinist Mapping 81

Word Count: 7000

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 Illustrations
Chapter 1
1-1: Authors own illustration, based on Leon Battista Alberti’s
building ratios, 2009.
1-2: Leon Battista Alberti, Santa Maria Novella church, Florence,
Italy, 1456-70. Authors own illustration, original photo by Donald
Corner and Jenny Young from www.greatbuildingsonline.com/
cid_2461243.html.
1-3: Authors own illustration, The Golden Rectangle, 2009.
1-4: Peter F. Smith, Phi Rectangle, from Peter F. Smith, Architecture
and the principal of harmony, London: RIBA Publications, 1987,
pp.69.
1-5: Authors own illustration, The Fibonnaci Squares, 2009.
1-6: Le Corbusier, Modulor, 1948, from
http://alluu.files.wordpress.com/2008/12/t1_n145_a2_modulor.
jpg.
1-7: Iannis Xenakis, table with progressions of rectangles
with increasing widths drawn from the Modulor. Taken from
Resonance: Essays on the Intersection of Music and Architecture,
Ames: Culicidae Architectural Press, 2007, pp.26.
1-8: Le Corbusier, Monastery of La Tourette, Eveux-sur-Arbresle,
near Lyon, France, 1953-56. Photo by Donald Corner and Jenny
Young from http://www.GreatBuildings.com/cgi-bin/gbi.cgi/
Convent_of_La_Tourette.html/cid_2463890.html.
iv
1-9: GLC Architects Department, Ferrier Estate, Kidbrooke,
London, 1967-72. Authors own illustration, original photo from the
BBC, http://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/images/2007/11/22/
ferrier_23_400x300.jpg
1-10: Michael Searles, The Paragon, Blackheath, London,
1795.1806. Authors own illustration, original photo by The
Greenwich Phantom from http://www.thegreenwichphantom.
co.uk/uploaded_images/DSCF0094-718580.JPG.
1-11: Ibid.
1-12: Ibid.
1-13: Authors own illustration, original illustration by Niels L.
Prak, The Visual Perception of the Built Environment, Delft: Delft
University Press, 1985, pp.24.
1-14: Blackheath Park, Blackheath, London. Authors own
illustartion and photo, 2009.
1-15: Clockwise from top left: Lee High Road, Lewisham, London;
Lee Park, Lee, London; Cordwell Road, Lewisham, London.
Authors own photos, 2009.
1-16: Lee High Road, Lewisham, London. Authors own photo,
2009.
1-17: (both) Longhurst Road, Hither Green, London. Authors own
photos, 2009.

1-18: Authors own illustration, Laws of proximity and equality,
based on illustration by Niels L. Prak, The Visual Perception of
the Built Environment, Delft: Delft University Press, 1985, pp.19.
1-19: Law of proximity. Eastdown Park, Lewisham, London.
Authors own photoand illustration, 2009.
1-20: From left to right: Trinity Close, Lewisham London; College
Park Close, Lewisham, London; Kingsway Place, Lewisham,
London. Authors own photos and illustration, 2009.
1-21: Sir Christopher Wren, The Royal Naval College, Greenwich,
London, 1696-1751. Photo by Colin Gregory Palmer, 2005, from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:United_Kingdom_-
_England_-_London_-_Greenwich_-_Old_Royal_Naval_College.
jpg
1-22: Michael Searles, The Paragon, Blackheath, London, 1795-
1806. Authors own photos and illustration, 2009.
1-23: (left) Peter F. Smith, Amsterdam, from Peter F. Smith,
Architecture and the principal of harmony, London: RIBA
Publications, 1987, pp.54. (right) Authors own, Manor Park,
London, 2009.
1-24: Ennersdale Road, Hither Green, London. Authors own
photo and illustration, 2009.
Illustrations
Chapter 2
2-1: Constant Nieuwenhuis, New Babylon Nord, 1959.
2-2: Appleyard, Lynch and Myer, Orientation Diagram, The
View from the Road, Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, 1964.
2-3: Appleyard, Lynch and Myer, Confinement Diagram, The
View from the Road, Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, 1964.
2-4: Appleyard, Lynch and Myer, Interpretive drawings of a
proposed expressway route, City Sense and City Design:
Writings and Projects of Kevin Lynch, London: The
MIT Press, 1990, pp.88-89.
2-5: Rudolf von Laban, Labanation Scores, Resonance: Essays
on the Interaction of Music and Architecture, Ames: Culicidae
Architectural Press, 2007, pp 97.
2-6: Galia Hanoch-Roe, Rhythmic Patterns, Resonance: Essays
on the Interaction of Music and Architecture, Ames: Culicidae
Architectural Press, 2007, pp 122.
2-7: Galia Hanoch-Roe, Enclosure and Confinement Symbols,
Resonance: Essays on the Interaction of Music and Architecture,
Ames: Culicidae Architectural Press, 2007, pp 123.
2-8: Galia Hanoch-Roe, Score of the Shakespeare Garden,
Central Park, NY, April 2006, Resonance: Essays on the Interaction
of Music and Architecture, Ames: Culicidae Architectural Press,
2007, pp 128.
v

2-9: Kim Cow-Morris and Ian McBurnie, Queen 501 soundscape
score, Resonance: Essays on the Interaction of Music and
Architecture, Ames: Culicidae Architectural Press, 2007, pp 153.
2-10: Kim Cow-Morris and Ian McBurnie, Queen 501 soundscape
score overlaid onto an aeriel view of Toronto , Resonance:
Essays on the Interaction of Music and Architecture, Ames:
Culicidae Architectural Press, 2007, pp 150.
2-11: John Cage, Variations VII, 1966.
2-12: Anthony Braxton, Titles for Composition #69Q, #105A,
#110D, #122 and #142. Images from Graham Locke, “What I Call a
Sound”: Anthony Braxton’s Synaesthetic Ideal and Notations for
Improvisers, Critical Studies in Improvisation, vol.4, No.1, 2008,
pp.2-3.
vi
Illustrations
Chapter 3
3-1: Gabriel Pomerand, Saint ghetto des prêts, 1950. The
Situationist City, London: The MIT Press, 1999, pp.96.
3-2: Paul-Henri Chombart de Lauwe, Plotting of Student from
the 16th Arrondissement over a year, Paris et l’agglomération
parisienne, vol.1, 1952. The Situationist City, London: The MIT
Press, 1999, pp.94.
3-3: Guy Debord and Asger Jorn, Guide Psychogéographique de
Paris, 1956. http://imaginarymuseum.org/LPG/Mapsitu1.htm
3-4: Paul-Henri Chombart de Lauwe, The residential units of
the sector, Paris et l’agglomération parisienne, vol.1, 1952. The
Situationist City, London: The MIT Press, 1999, pp.84.
3-5: Guy Debord and Asger Jorn, The Naked City: illustration de
l’hypothése des plaques tournantes en psychogeographique,
1957. The Situationist City, London: The MIT Press, 1999, pp.60.
3-6: Guy Debord and Asger Jorn, 3 pages from Memoires, 1959.
The Situationist City, London: The MIT Press, 1999, pp.76, 81,
109.
3-7: Anthony Braxton, composition #108B. Image from Graham
Locke, “What I Call a Sound”: Anthony Braxton’s Synaesthetic
Ideal and Notations for Improvisers, Critical Studies in
Improvisation, vol.4, No.1, 2008, pp.2-3.
3-8: John Cage, Fontana Mix, 1958.
Illustrations

Conclusion & Appendix

Appendix 1 2006, pp.45. Author’s own illustration, 2009.

A1-1: Authors own, Map of Cator Estate, 2009. OS Map from A3-2: Eric Lyons, South Row, Blackheath, London, 1963. Photo
http://edina.ac.uk/digimap/ by Tim Crocker, Eric Lyons and Span, London: RIBA Publishing,
A1-2: Eric Lyons, South Row, Blackheath, London, 1963. Photo 2006, pp.121. Author’s own illustration, 2009.
by Tim Crocker, Eric Lyons and Span, London: RIBA Publishing, A3-3: Chamberlain, Powell and Bon. The Barbican, City of London,
2006, pp.121. 1969. Author’s own Illustration, 2009.
A1-3: Map of Pond Road, 1895, http://blackheathbugle.wordpress. A3-4: Sir Denys Lasdun, The Royal National Theatre, London,
com/. 1967-76. Author’s own illustration, 2009.
A1-4: Site of old Pond, Pond Road, Blackheath London, photos by
Appendix 4
The Blackheath Bugle, http://blackheathbugle.wordpress.com/.
A4-1: Authors own, Naked City 2009, 2009. Map from Google
A1-5: Map showing Span housing in Blackheath, Eric Lyons and
Earth.
Span, London: RIBA Publishing, 2006, pp.204.
A4-2: Authors own, Movement Mapping, 2009.
A1-6: Various, Cator Estate, Blackheath, 2009. Authrs own
A4-3: Authors own, The Music is in Control, 2009. OS Map from
photos.
http://edina.ac.uk/digimap/
Appendix 2
A2-1: Authors own, Map showing route of walk to be studied, OS
Map from http://edina.ac.uk/digimap/.
A2-2: Authors own, Orientation Elements Map, 2009.

Appendix 3
A3-1: Eric Lyons, The Keep, Blackheath, London, 1957. Photo
by Tim Crocker, Eric Lyons and Span, London: RIBA Publishing,

vii
viii
Introduction

It seems that a growing proportion of city inhabitants, The Situationist International were an avant-garde group,

commuters and visitors spend their lives traversing the city formed in 1957, who endeavoured to create a new society,

plugged in to their own personal soundtrack. Personally I find which would be free from the negative effects of capitalism

that my experiences of the city and the built environment are and the reduction of life to a mundane cycle of production

linked to my chosen musical soundtrack. This combination and consumption. They saw the current developments in Paris

started me thinking about whether there are further interactions as a destructive act, the homogenisation of the city was seen

and connections between music, architecture and the city. to restrict and control the population. They believed that the

routine of everyday life destroys a persons sensations and

On occasion I have found myself altering my route, extending
creativity and for change to take place everyone needed to
the length of my walk, to allow the current soundtrack to run
take control of their own lives. Through the construction of
its course. In doing so the musical accompaniment dictates
situations individuals are able to obtain pleasure and realise
my course and takes me away from my regular and expected
their own potential, people must stop being spectators and
route. The choices at junctions along this route are influenced
become involved in every aspect of their lives. To begin with
by the music and the emotions it communicates. Although
the Situationists developed methods of reading the city and its
these emotions and directional choices can be seen as purely
emotional and behavioural effects through play resulting in the
subjective they bring to mind Psychogeography, and in particular
dérive and détournement, as defined by Guy Debord in 1957.
the theories of the Situationist International and Guy Debord.

1
 Taking my experiences of the effects of music on my journey composers have been said to sculpt and build sounds and

and the connections to the Situationists promotion of reading the music. In the 1960’s, the producer, Phil Spector developed a

city through play I began to research the connections between studio recording technique of layering multiple recordings,

music, the situationists and reading the city. In this work I will which became known as the ‘Wall of Sound’. They have a shared

attempt to show through the study of the language, interactions language but does this language have the same meaning, are

and translations between music, architecture and the city that they just shared words or are the experiences directly related.

they have a shared phenomenology. I believe that they are both

In the second chapter I will be exploring how urban melodies
related disciplines, and that the study of the built environment in
can be utilised as an orientation device and can act as a guide
musical terms will reveal useful methods of reading the city and
to the city. I will then be looking at how the path through the
theories for future urban design.
city can be represented and how this can relate to and be

In the first chapter I will be looking at the shared theories and informed by the notation of music. I will then conclude the

language of music, architecture and the city and the historical chapter by looking at musical representation of an urban path.

importance of the relationships between the two disciplines. The interaction between the techniques employed by urban
Both music and architecture have a shared language and are designers, architects and composers to map compositions,

evaluated according to their form, structure, harmony and journeys and urban areas will be explored. Can the techniques

rhythms. Music can have form and weight and producers and of one discipline translate and apply to the other disciplines?

2
 The third chapter concentrates on the Situationist International

and in particular Guy Debord. I will be exploring the interactions

between music and Situationist theories and the development

of free play they share. Finally I will look at the recording and

representation of Situationist research.

In the conclusion I aim to show the strong connections

between music and the city and through the use of the explored

methodologies I will demonstrate their value to future urban

design.

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 fig. 1-1
Leon Battista Alberti’s musical numbers and ratios for producing well
proportioned and balanced architecture.

Musical Numbers
The names of the consonants are; diapente (also known as the sesquialtera) 2:3 There is also tonus (also called sesquioctavus) 8:9
diatesseron (also known as the sesquitertia) 3:4 (the difference between a fifth and a fourth).
diapason (the double) 1:2
diapason diapente (the triple) 1:3
disdiapason (the quadruple) 1:4

Giving us the musical numbers: 1 2 3 4 8 9

Short Areas

square unit - 1:1 sesquialtera fifths diapente - 2:3 sesquitertia fourths diatesseron - 3:4

Middle Areas

double square - 1:2 sesquialtera doubled - 1:4:9 sesquitertia doubled - 9:16

Long Areas

double sesquialtera (triple) - 1:3 double sesquitertia - 3:8 quadruple - 1:4

4
1: Shared History and Language
1.1: Mathematical Beginnings
The belief that there is a correlation between architecture
and music is not a new concept; as far back as Ancient Rome
they were both regarded to be branches of the mathematical
sciences. Musical understanding was considered to be of great
importance to an architect, as acknowledged by the Roman
architect Vitruvius.
Let him be educated, skilful with the pencil, instructed
in geometry, know much history, have followed the
philosophers with attention, understand music, have
some knowledge of medicine, know the opinions of
the jurists and be acquainted with astronomy and the
theory of the heavens.1
The Ancient Greeks developed proportional systems based
on naturally occurring and aesthetically pleasing mathematical
ratios. They believed that the principles of beauty found in the
human body, nature, art and music were universal. Initially, in
the 5th century B.C. Pythagoras, and his followers, discovered
that by dividing a taut string by simple ratios pairs of constant
sounding tones could be produced; 2:1 will produce an octave;
3:2 produces a fifth; 4:3 produces a fourth. Proportional systems
based on these theories were later developed by Renaissance
architects. One such architect, Leon Battista Alberti (1407-1472)
was convinced of the truth of Pythagoras’ harmonic theory
and believed that the “very same numbers that cause sounds
to have concinnitas, pleasing to the ears, can also fill the eyes
and mind with wondrous delight. From musicians therefore who
have already examined such numbers thoroughly, or from those
objects in which Nature has displayed some evident and noble
quality, the whole method of outlining is derived.”2 Alberti defines
musical numbers, based on the harmonic ratios discovered
by Pythagoras and then goes on to set out ratios, which he
believes should be utilised to produce harmonically balanced
architecture3 (fig.1-1).
5
 fig. 1-2
Harmonic ratios present in the façade
of Alberti’s Santa Maria Novella
church.

These ratios include the harmonic ratios discovered by

Pythagoras along with a few additions of his own. The use of

these proportions can be seen in Alberti’s façade on the Santa

Maria Novella church (fig.1-2).

Another mathematical discovery attributed to Pythagoras

is the golden section, which equates to the ratio of

1:1.6180339887498948482 and is represented by the Greek letter

Phi. This was seen to be the most perfect ratio and naturally

occurs in nature.

If you create a rectangle using this ratio and remove a square of

the shorter edge you will always be left with a golden rectangle

(fig.1-3). Psychologists have suggested that Phi “represents the

ideal displacement between two identifiable but related bits of

information – the point at which there is least uncertainty about

the information being conveyed.”4

6
fig. 1-3
The removal of a square form a golden rectangle always leaves
a golden rectangle.

Golden rectangle 1: Golden rectangle 2: Golden rectangle 3: Golden rectangle 4:

60 x 97.082034 60 x 60mm square removed 37.082034 x 37.082034mm 22.917966 x 22.917966mm

leaving another golden  square removed leaving a square removed leaving a
rectangle measuring: golden rectangle measuring: golden rectangle measuring:

60 x 37.082034mm 22.917966 x 37.082034mm 22.917966 x 14.164068mm

7
 fig. 1-4
The Phi rectangle is the first rectangle where there is no uncertainty
about it being a rectangle

This means that if you take a square and begin to distort it

be increasing the length in one direction the ambiguity about

its shape (is it still a square?) is present until the transformed

square becomes a golden rectangle (fig.1-4).

The Fibonacci sequence, created in an attempt to reverse

engineer the divisions of golden rectangles, is a sequence where

each number is the sum of the previous two numbers. Although

the sequence is not exact the ratio of the two sides becomes

closer to Phi as numbers get higher (fig.1-5).

8
fig.1-5
The rectangles produced by the Fibonacci squares get closer to Phi
as the series goes on.

The Golden Ratio

1:1.6180339887498948482

The Fibonacci Sequence

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597, 2584, 4181, 6765, 10946, 17711....

The Fibonacci Squares

The rectangles produced by the addition of squares,

generated by the fibonacci sequence, gets closer to the golden rectangle as sequence goes on.

1:2, 2:3, 3:5, 5:8, 8:13 (1:1.625), 13:21 (1:16153846).. 233:377 (1:1.6180258).. 6765:10946 (1:1.618034)

9
 fig. 1-6
Le Corbusier, The Phi based Modulor, 1942-1948, revised 1954.

The golden section and Fibonacci sequence have been used

in the design of numerous buildings through the ages, including

the Parthenon in Athens and the pyramids in Egypt through to

more modern times in the work of Le Corbusier. Le Corbusier

developed the Modulor (fig.1-6), which was a figure which when

divided up adhered to Phi.

When designing the Monastery of La Tourette, Le Corbusier

wanted the west face to be a windowed outer skin, but

the budget would not cover large glass panels. It was

decided that smaller glass panes would be used but Corbusier

didn’t want equal sized panes because of the uninteresting

façade they would create. He asked Iannis Xenakis5 to

experiment with the spaces and rhythmic pattern of the panes

and concrete casings. “Xenakis drew up a table with progressions

of rectangles with increasing widths in golden sections drawn

from the Modulor”6 (fig.1-7). By playing with the mix of dense

10
fig. 1-7 fig . 1-8
Iannis Xenakis’ Modulor based study of rectangular progressions. Le Corbusier’s Monastery of La Tourette, 1953-56, showing the west façade.

upright window casings and sections with more spacing he Taking the harmonic theory, golden section and the Fibonacci

created an undulating rhythmic effect. There are three levels sequence as a starting point I began to look at buildings in the

of windows created in this way and together they produce a local area to find out if they conformed to these ratios and if not

polyrhythmic study in light and shade (fig.1-8). what ratios are present in their design.

11
 fig. 1-9 (top) fig. 1-11
Harmonic ratios found in a façade on the Ferrier Estate, London. Other ratios found in the façade of The Paragon, Blackheath, London.

fig. 1-10 (bottom)

Harmonic ratios found in the façade of The Paragon, Blackheath, London.

As shown it is possible to find the harmonic ratios present

in many buildings (fig.1-9, 1-10), but they are not the sole ratios

that are present (fig.1-11). The buildings show that although not

adhering to the ratios, historically regarded as the absolute

measure of perfection, they still display compositional

harmony.

12
 fig. 1-12
The ratio of space, openings and space immediately around the building, to
building is approximately 40:60. This is roughly the golden mean.

The perceived harmony, in the case of the Paragon, may be

down to the relationships between the openings (windows

and doors) and the solid building mass. In the classical sense

this would be when the façade is split so that there is around

60 percent wall and 40 percent openings.7 This ratio is roughly

the golden mean (this would actually be about 37%8) although

this can be reached by perceptual weight as well as relating to

dimensions. The windows and doors account for about 17% of

the overall area but if the spaces created above the colonnade

are included the ratio is around 60 percent to 40 percent

(fig.1-12).

13
 1: Shared History and Language fig. 1-13
Niels L. Prak’s three main distinguishable rhythms.

1.2: Rhythm and Rhyme

Harmony in terms of the city, buildings observed in relation to

the other buildings in the field of sight, can be looked at in terms

of rhythm and rhyme.

R E G U L A R
As in music, repetitive sequences of equal forms and lines in

architecture are known as rhythms. Niels L. Prak states that there

are three main types of rhythm that we are able to distinguish

between, these are regular, increasing and irregular9 (fig.1-13).

I N C R E A S I N G

Regular rhythms can consist of either a repeated element

or a repeated group of elements. Single repeated elements

need fewer repetitions to become obvious, whereas repeated

rhythms of groups of elements require more repetitions to I R R E G UL A R

reduce ambiguity. Increasing rhythms (fig. 1-14) can also be

seen as regular rhythms if the sequence or increasing spaces patterns even when there aren’t any. An example of an irregular

are repeated. The irregular rhythms are the hardest to design rhythm can be seen in the Xenakis design windows, from Le

due to the tendency to create order and find regularities within Corbusier’s Monastery of La Tourette (fig.1-8).

14
fig. 1-14
Increasing rhythm found on the Cator Estate, Blackheath. Although, in
this example, without any repetition is it a rhythm or just an increasing
pattern?

15
 Fig. 15
Regular Rhythms in London

16
Fig. 16 Fig. 17
Replacement building acts as a fill and creates a break from the major Harmony is lost when an addition disregards the rhythm of the street.
rhythm.

In London regular rhythms are the most common (fig.1-15)

although breaks are common where buildings have needed to

be replaced10 (fig.1-16). These buildings can be regarded as a fill,

which in musical terms is a variation of main rhythmic pattern

at the end of a phrase.11 If the fill has no relationship, through

rhythm, materials or features, to the existing buildings harmony

is lost (fig.1-17), so it is important some elements from the existing

are utilised in the addition.

17
 fig. 1-18 fig.1-19 (bottom)
The top row is perceived according to the law of proximity and a rhythm Example of the law of proximity
consisting of pairs is seen. Due to the difference in size of the lower sequential
elements, the law of equality is utilised and rhythms consisting of pairs of
equally sized elements is perceived.

Another pair of rhythms found in architecture can be viewed

Law of proximity according to the law of proximity and law of equality (fig.1-18),

and these laws can be observed in London buildings (fig.1-19,

1-21). While looking for examples of rhythms that adhere to the

Law of equality
law of equality I noticed that height has the same visual effect as

size (central example in fig.1-20).

18
fig. 1-20
Examples of the law of equality

19
 fig. 1-21
The viewer is drawn through the, Sir Christopher Wren designed,
Royal Naval College in Greenwich (1696-1751) towards Queen’s House
(designed by John Webb, 1664-69) by the columns of the colonnade.

Rhythm also has symbolic force. It is life affirming,

particularly when the beat is strong and at high
frequency. Similarly, a rapid rhythm of columns in
a building induces a strong compulsion towards
movement.12

This quote has particular resonance when viewing the Royal

Naval College in Greenwich (fig.1-21). The columns on the front

edge appear strong and stationary while the columns on the

receding sides appear as if in motion. The effect is much like

passing the front edge in a car, and this motion compels you to

travel through the space towards Queen’s House and Greenwich

Park.

from South Row they appear well spaced, powerful and static.
This effect is also present when looking at The Paragon in
While facing the buildings it is the high density of horizontal
Blackheath (fig.1-22) but this time the motion that the columns
lines above the columns, which induce the feeling of motion.
encourage is juxtaposed with the solid brick houses that the
The overall balance between light (white colonnades) and dark
colonnades connect. The columns only encourage movement
(red brick buildings), as well as the solidity, motion and space,
when walking down The Paragon, while looking directly across
produce a sense of harmony.

20
fig. 1-22
The horizontal and vertical rhythms of The Paragon, Blackheath, designed by
Michael Searles, 1795-1806.

At its most obvious level, rhythm is a form of ordering This instinct to see rhythms and organise visual elements into
which achieves a high level of patterning – for example,
poetry is much easier to remember than prose because patterns is where rhyme comes into play. Elements, which have
of its predictability; the number of word options is a similarity however small it might be will form a connection and
greatly reduced by metrical constraints. The mind
instinctively seeks out rhythms, and tends to organise be read as part of the rhythm.
random data into metric patterns.13

21
 fig. 1-23
Harmony produced by rhyming elements in Amsterdam (left)
and London (right).

Harmony is normally associated with two or more

entities which have certain common properties and yet
a significant level of difference – that is, they rhyme.
Harmony can also take shape out of the extended
counterplay between the two ends of the information
spectrum, variety and pattern.14

Smith uses Amsterdam as an example and similarities can be

seen with the example on Manor Park, London (fig.1-23). The

streets consist of a variety of designs, but a rhythm through

rhyming elements can be extracted. The rhymes present include;

consistent grouping of windows with strong white surrounds;

the building widths, which are different but are close enough

for the eye to see a rhythm; and the gables which share, on the

most part a similar style.

22
 fig. 1-24
Subtle variation is present in streets, which initially appear to contain no
differences. For example, in Ennersdale Road, London, every fifth house has
a forward facing peaked roof instead of a receding peaked roof.

The criticism of Architects of monotonous buildings is there is nothing memorable for the walker so navigation is still
thrown in relief when it is compared to Moles’ (1971)
criticism of light music. According to Moles, Light music difficult.
is so easily enjoyed because it has such a low information
content. We catch onto it because of its many redundant
elements: a simple melody, a few chords, many
repetitions. But these same elements start to bore us
after we have heard the same piece a few times over.
‘Difficult’ music contains much more information, which
is why we can listen to it many times, because we extract
new information from every repeated performance.15

Roads that consist only of one house design, with no variation,

may have an initially pleasing rhythm but I find I tire of them

quickly and my walk becomes void of any visual interest. Roads

like this have much in common with Moles’ views of light music.

They are also more confusing to navigate through a lack of

identifiable landmarks to give orientation. On closer inspection

a road, which at first glance appears to have no variation, often

has subtle changes, a secondary rhythm (fig1-24). Due to the

subtlety of the variation and the familiarity of building styles

23
 1: Shared History and Language

References

1. Vitruvius, Ten Books on Architecture, trans. Morris Hicky 8. Percentage has been rounded down to the nearest whole
Morgan, New York: Dover Publications, 1960, pp.5-6. number.

2. Leon Battista Alberti, On the Art of Building in Ten Books,
trans. Joseph Rykwert, Neil Leach, Robert Tavernor, London:
The MIT Press, 1988, pp.305.
3. Alberti, The MIT Press, 1988, pp.306.
9. Niels L. Prak, The Visual Perception of the Built Environment,
Deflt: Deflt University Press,1985, pp. 23.
10. This may be due to either bomb damage during the war or
through demolition of unsafe buildings.

4. Peter F. Smith, Architecture and the principle of harmony, 11. In dance music fills often occur at the end of a 16 bar section
London: RIBA Publications Ltd, 1987, pp.69. to add variety and maintain interest.

5. Xenakis was a musician who attended Le Corbusier’s studio, 12. Smith, 1985, pp.58.
between 1947 and 1959, to learn about architecture. While
at the studio he had become familiar with the Modular and 13. Ibid, pp.57.
golden section, even using these proportions in his 1953
composition ‘Le Sacrifice’. 14. Ibid, pp.53.

6. Sven Sterken, Music as an Art of Space: Interactions between 15. A. A. Moles, Informationstheorie und ästhetische
Music and Architecture in the Work of Iannis Xenakis, in Wahrnehmung, Köln, 1971, referred to in Prak, 1985, pp. 71.
Mikesch W. Muecke, Miriam S. Zach (eds.), Resonance:
Essays on the Interaction of Music and Architecture, Ames:
Culicidae Architectural Press, 2007, pp.26.

7. Smith, 1985, pp.75.

24
25
26
2: Order and Representation

2.1: Melody as Ordering Device

Movement across the city is experienced as a linear more complex, melodic, sequences. The more complex

sequence, with space perceived as a combination of voices each sequences are imagined by Lynch to “be the developing pattern

representing a different element. Polyphony of urban melodies, of elements rather than elements themselves – just as we

individual elements layered to produce harmonies. As well as a remember melodies not notes.”2 The use of simple sequences

sense of consonance the combination of urban features, possibly is more commonplace when negotiating the city, these

the juxtaposition of neighbouring buildings, can produce a monophonic sequences are concerned with one voice at a time,

feeling of dissonance. It is the elements that stand out from the for example turn left at the church, past the chip shop then

harmony and rhythms, which become the landmarks that allow turn right to the coach and horses. These monophonic
us to successfully navigate the city. sequences are a guide, simply a set of instructions in how to

get to our destination. The equivalent of a lyric sheet, which tells

A sequential series of landmarks, in which one detail
calls up anticipation of the next and key details us what the song is about but not what it sounds like.
trigger specific moves of the observer, appeared to
be a standard way in which these people travelled
through the city. In such sequences, there were trigger Lynch takes a scientific approach to reading the city with the
cues whenever turning decisions must be made
and reassuring cues that confirmed the observer in aim of developing an urban design theory, which will result in
decisions gone by.1 legibility of elements and aid orientation. This is the reverse of

In ‘The Image of the City’, Kevin Lynch talks of city time series, the Situationist’s experimental, playful approach and desire to

including simple casual sequences of detailed landmarks and design labyrinth networks with the aim to disorientate (fig. 2-1).

27
 Fig. 2-1
Constant Nieuwenhuis and the labyrinth networks of North New Babylon.

28
Where Lynch concentrates on the physical design aspects the and what are the elements of visual rhythm?

Situationists focus on the emotional and behavioural impacts of

In ‘The View from the Road’, Lynch, Donald Appleyard and
the city.
John R. Myer write that “tempo and rhythm are the primitive

“The linear structure of roads, paths and streams become essence of any sequence”, that the road should have a basic

ordering devices for an experience as well as a place from which to beat, which is varied but also displaying “a regular frequency

view the space.”3 Lynch notes that, for most people, roads and with which decisions and interesting visual impressions are

paths are the predominant elements within the city. Much like presented.”5 The path-scape in the city should also have a similar

the rhythm section in music, roads and paths control the pace of basic beat but the visual impressions should be more frequent

our experience. Sharp changes in direction provide the walker to allow for the slower pace of the pedestrian. When Philip Thiel

with a sense of drama on the path and affect the change of views, studied the frequency of visual elements experienced in the city

through the act of concealing and revealing. It is possible for the along three different paths; an elevated freeway, a city street

built environment to control rhythm and pace through design, and a garden path; he discovered that although the frequencies

columns as mentioned earlier can influence pace.4 Questions are were different by distance they were almost the same when

raised when experiencing architecture such as: how fast does comparing the time series in relation to the average speeds.6

the architect want you to move; what does he want you to look

at; what route does he want you to take; are there resting points

29
 2: Order and Representation fig. 2-2 (left)
Confinement Diagram,. Confinement is shown through drawings of cross
sectins of the path. The lines showing the path get wider as the path goes
up.
2.2: Notation of the Path fig.2-3 (right)
Orientation Diagram showing landmarks, edges and visability.

Lynch, Appleyard and Meyer developed a notation system to

score the visual sequences of the road (fig.2-2, 2-3, 2-4). In their

case the visual sequences are experienced from the viewpoint

of a motor vehicle and these sequences can be perceived as the

melody of the road.

Galia Hanoch-Roe developed a linear sequence notation to

describe, unlike Lynch, Appleyard and Meyer, the experiences

of a path as a pedestrian.7 Initially Galia looks at the evolution

of scoring music beginning with stave notation and its

limitations. Although stave music can represent pitch, pace,

duration, dynamics, attack, touch and expression it still leaves

some elements to the musician. She uses the example that “In

classical music one can obey all the rules of the interpretation of
the notation, and still not give a moving performance, as even the

most explicit score remains symbolic, and therefore cannot fully

convey the intentions of the composer.”8

30
Fig. 2-4 The middle diagram shows the paths characteristics, for example
Route diagrams showing a proposed expressway. confinement.

On the left experiences are recorded, these include the visual field and The final diagram represents the rhythm of the road. In the case of this road
view of interesting landmarks, the height of the road (widening lines the pattern is interchange, visual climax, visual climax, intersection, visual
show as it is rising and narrowing lines when it is falling). climax, visual climax, etc.

31
 fig. 2-5 fig. 2-6
Rudolf von Laban’s Labanation. Hanoch-Roe’s method of recording rhythms on each side of the path.
The vertical stave is read from bottom to top and gives directions for actions
(through the symbol’s shape), level (by depth of shading) and time (shown
by the length of the symbol).

This ambiguity can be reduced by taking the ideas of open

(graphic) notation, as pioneered in the Jazz genre in the 1950’s.

Further diminution takes place by incorporating the ideas

of dance notational systems, including Rudolf von Laban’s

‘Labanotation’ (fig.2-5).

Similarities can be seen between Laban’s vertical score and

Lynch, Appleyard and Meyer’s highway scores. Laban initially

studied architecture before becoming interested in the human

form and its movement through space9 and this may explain

the similarities to architectural linear sequence notation.

Hanoch—Roe then developed notation to show the rhythm of

the path (fig.2-6) and confinement (fig.2-7).

32
fig. 2-7 (top)
Hanoch-Roe’s method of recording confinement.

fig.2-8 (bottom)
The notation of a walk in Shakespeare Garden, Central Park, New York.

The resulting notation system (fig.2-8) records mode of

transport (in this case pedestrian), time of year (seasons),

enclosure, confinement, pace, path elements, direction of

movement, rhythmic events, inclines, declines and sensual

stimuli (odours, sounds, views). This notation system develops

those seen from Lynch, Appleyard and Meyer and is intended

to be open, allowing any users to add additional elements and

experiences enabling the recording of any situations not raised

during the project.

In ‘The Image of the City, Lynch proposed that the way cities

are experienced is through linear sequences, temporal patterns,

and he goes on to say that these types of patterns are well

known within the fields of music, drama, literature and dance.10

These sequences could range from “the classic start-climax-finish

form to others which are more like the essentially endless, and yet
continuous and variegated, patterns of jazz.” Lynch suggests that

33
 fig. 2-9 (top)
Kim Cow-Morris, Ian McBurnie, Queen 501 score (read right to left), 2006

fig. 2-10 (bottom)

Morris, McBurnie, Queen 501 Score, overlaid onto a map of Toronto, 2006

when designing urban areas using a network of sequences they

should be tested “to see if each major path, in each direction and

from each entry point, was possessed of a formed sequence of

elements.”11 He understood that this form of sequential design

was likely to become extremely complex in a large urban area;

sequences would have to be read from both directions, be

interruptible (the sequence might be accessed form a mid point

via a connecting path) and work in conjunction with intersecting

sequences.

Lynch’s suggestion of designing the city so that it is formed

from intersecting patterns of elements creating sequential

continuity and enabling it to be mentally negotiable in any order

is possibly idealistic. It would only be possible when designing

a city from scratch, to try and alter the linear paths of a city,

like London with its long history, would be harder still. Lynch
does mention that some zones may be felt more intensely or

34
2: Order and Representation fig.2-11
An example of graphic notation. John Cage, Variations VII from 1966.

2.3: Musical Interpretation of Place

The phenomenon of music is given to us with the sole

purpose of establishing an order in things, including,
and particularly, the co-ordination between man and
time….. One could not better define the sensation
produced by music than by saying that it is identical
with that evoked by the contemplation of architectural
forms.12

Kim Chow-Morris and Ian MacBurnie attempted to create

a piece of music to embody the sensations and responses to

architectural forms when they scored an urban journey, their

Queen 501 project (fig.2-9, 2-10). The resulting music represents

the route taken from east to west across Toronto following

Queen Street.
Street, and the cross roads in particular were used as a major

To produce this composition a visual analysis of the street was feature in the structure of the composition. Each district was

performed and the resulting map of topographical features was given a pitch set but the musicians decided which note from

read as a form of graphical notation13 (fig.2-11). The structural the set to sound at the next junction on the notation. These

weight of features and the density of the urban fabric are improvised choices mean that the music will be played differently

important within this sonic translation, the junctions off Queen every performance.

35
 Traditional instruments from three cultures were selected
to perform the composition. These instruments were Euro-
North American, Chinese and African in origin and were
chosen to represent the cultural diversity of Toronto. The
finished composition was performed live with a pre-recorded
soundscape, which was recorded from a street car travelling
along Queen Street. The recording was taken from the window
capturing both the interior sounds and exterior street sounds.
Although Ian McBurnie’s original aim, with the Queen 501
project, was to “render the structures of Toronto sonically
accessible in an empirical or objective manner,”14 there are too
many subjective choices involved. The choice of instruments,
pitch sets, tempo, orchestration and location were all
subjective choices, but with this sort of interpretation
subjectivity cannot be avoided entirely. The project can be seen
as a basis for a musical psychogeography, an attempt to reveal
36
Queen Street’s ambiances and emotions through music.
The translation of the path in the Queen 501 project can be
seen reversed in the work of the composer Anthony Braxton.
Braxton claimed to be able to see music as three-dimensional
forms, possibly due to a synaesthetic condition.
synaesthesia (NAm synesthesia) n,
a sensation in one part of the body brought about by a stimulus
in a different part.
synaesthetic adj.15
In Braxton’s case, the sensation of sight (eyes) is
brought about by stimulus of sound (ears). This condition is
Chromaesthesia, which allows subject to literally see sound as
colours and shapes. And this three-dimensional view of music
was carried through to the titles of his compositions (fig. 2-12).
In the compositional process Braxton sees the form of the linear
path, music, and visualises the connections and route through
 fig. 2-12
Examples of Anthony Braxton’s composition titles, which show assembled
forms and colours and the way they connect. (top row) Colour and perspec-
tive is used in composition #69Q’s title (left) and figuration in composition
#105A (right). (second row) He uses subtitles for#110D (left) and a story im-
age for #122 (right). (bottom) A complete landscape is used as a title for a
Braxton’s composition #142.
the three-dimensional world he is creating.

This ability to visualise sound (Braxton) and sound out what

can be seen (Chow Morris and MacBurnie) have connections to

situationist psychogeographic observations of the city. All three

representations are concerned with the senses and how the

source material affects the individual.

Psychogeography The study of the specific effects of the

geographical environment, consciously organized or
not, on the emotions and behaviour of individuals.16

37
 2: Order and Representation
References
1. Kevin Lynch, The Image of the City, London: The MIT Press,
1972, pp.83.
2. Ibid, pp.107.
3. Galia Hanoch-Roe, Scoring the Path: Linear Sequences in
Music and Space, in Mikesch W. Muecke, Miriam S. Zach
(eds.), Resonance: Essays on the Intersection of Music and
Architecture, Ames: Culicidae Architectural Press, 2007,
pp.81.
4. Ibid, 2007, pp.123.
5. Kevin Lynch, Donald Appleyard, John R. Myer, The View From
the Road, Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, 1965, pp.17.
6. Philip Thiel, People, paths and purposes: Notations for a
participatory environtecture, Seattle, WA: University of
Washington Press, 1997, refered to by Galia Hanoch-Roe,
Scoring the Path: Linear Sequences in Music and Space, in
Mikesch W. Muecke, Miriam S. Zach (eds.), Resonance:
Essays on the Intersection of Music and Architecture, Ames:
Culicidae Architectural Press, 2007, pp.105.
7. Hanoch-Roe, 2007, pp.77-135.
38
8. Hanoch-Roe, 2007, pp.88.
9. Hanoch-Roe, 2007, pp.96.
10. Lynch, 1972, pp.113.
11. Ibid, pp.114.
12. “The phenomenon of music is given to us with the sole
purpose of establishing an order in things, including, and
particularly, the co-ordination between man and time. To be
put into practice, its indispensible and single requirement is
construction. Construction when completed, this order has
been attained, and there is nothing more to be said. It would be
futile to look for, or expect anything else from it. It is precisely
this construction, this achieved order, which produces in
us a unique emotion having nothing in common with our
ordinary sensations and our responses to the impressions
of daily life. One could not better define the sensation
produced by music than by saying that it is identical with
that evoked by the contemplation of architectural forms.”
Igor Stravinsky, Igor Stravinsky, An Autobiography, New
York: W. W. Norton & Co, 2007, pp.54.
13. The use of graphical notation in musical composition can be
seen in the work of composers of improvisational music like
John Cage 1912-1992 (fig.2-11), Charlie Parker 1920 – 1955 and
Anthony Braxton born 1945 (fig.3-3).

14. Kim Chow-Morris, Rhythm of the Streets: Sounding the

Structures of the City, in Resonance: Essays on the Interaction
of Music and Architecture, Ames: Culicidae Architectural
Press, 2007, pp 160.

15. The Penguin Concise English Dictionary, London: Penguin

Books, 2002, pp.906.

16. Guy Debord, International Situationiste #1, 1958. reprinted

in Lbero Andreotti, Xavier Costa (eds.), Theory of the Dérive
and other Situationist writings on the city, Barcelona: Museu
d’Art Contemporani de Barcelona, ACTAR, 1996, pp.69.

39
40
 fig. 3-1
3: Music and the Situationist International A page taken from Gabriel Pomerand’s book Saint ghetto des prêts from
1950. The title when read out aloud can be interpreted as “our ghetto of
lendings” and refered to the idea that Saint Germain-des-Prés had created its
3.1: Creative Beginnings own economy of goods and language.

The Situationist International group were formed from

the merger of three groups; the Lettrist International1, the

International Movement for an Imaginist Bauhaus and the London

Psychogeographical Association. The Lettrist International’s

parent group, the Lettrist group, were fascinated by language

and in 1950 Gabriel Pomerand produced ‘Saint ghetto des prêts’,

a pictographic book depicting a tour of Saint-Germain-des-Prês

in Paris (fig.3-1). Pomerand’s graphical language, which echoed

the graphic notation being developed by Jazz composers, was

to cause the Lettrist International to break away.

Debord felt that the experience of language should

revolutionise our consciousness of the city and not, as he felt

was happening with the lettrists, the other way around.2 In a

response to the question “What is Poetry” Debord answered

that “It is written on the faces of adventures and in the form of

cities”.3

41
 fig. 3-2
Plotting of all the trajectories effected in a year by a student inhabiting the
16th Arrondissement, 1952. Paul-Henri Chombart de Lauwe aimed to illustrate
that the space an individual actually inhabits is very small. Debord believed
that this type of example would be useful in the development of the dérive.

After moving away from the Lettrist movement, the Lettrist

International launched a journal, Potlatch. This journal brought

Debord’s work to the attention of Asger Jorn, founder of the

International Movement for an Imaginist Bauhaus, and the

friendship that they formed would lead to the formation of the

Situationist International.

The Situationist International endeavoured to create a new

society, which would be free from the negative effects of

capitalism. They blamed capitalism for reducing life to a mundane

cycle of production and consumption and viewed the cycles of

everyday life as having a destructive effect on both our sensations

and creativity. The recording of these negative habitual routines

can be seen in the work of Paul-Henri Chombart de Lauwe (fig. 3- of provoking sharp emotional reactions (in this case, indignation
2), which shows repetition of movement within a confined area at the fact that there are people who live like that)”4, and was in
by a student. This image was looked at with disgust by Debord, sharp contrast to the ideal of the drift and dérive.
who said “Such data – the examples of a modern poetry capable

42
 fig. 3-3
Guide Psychogéographique de Paris, Guy Debord with Asger Jorn, 1956. The
map split Paris into sections, which are spread across the page in an apparently
random fashion. These sections are then connected by multiple arrows,
which allow the map-reader to select the route of their dérive according to
the desired emotional context they want to assign to it.

Dérive A mode of experimental behaviour linked to the

conditions of urban society: a technique of transient
passage through varied ambiances. Also used to
designate a specific period of continuous deriving.5

Although Guy Debord defined the theory of the dérive its

origins can be traced back to Thomas De Quincy (1785–1859) over

100 years earlier. De Quincy was the original urban wanderer, an

obsessive drifter, and his book ‘Confessions of an Opium Eater’

is concerned not with producing an account of drug use but

an exploration of how imagination and dreams can shape our

experiences and interactions with the city.

In a dérive one or more persons during a certain period

drop their usual motives for movement and action,
their relations, their work and leisure activities, and let
themselves be drawn by the attractions of the terrain
and the encounters they find there.6
The Situationists believed that it was only by letting go and
completely disregarding your habitual processes that it would
be possible to determine the emotional zones of the city. Ivan
Chtcheglov was an advocate of zoning and described whole
cities with “the whole diversity of feelings that one encounters
by chance in everyday life. Bizarre Quarter – Happy Quarter
(specially reserved for habitation) – Noble and Tragic Quarter (for

43
 fig. 3-4
The zoning idea from Henri-Paul Chombart de Lauwe’s Paris et l’agglomération
parisienne vol.1, 1952 (left) is developed by Guy Debord and Asger Jorn in the
Naked City, 1957 (right).

good children) – Historical Quarter (museums, schools) – Useful psychogeographic maps (fig.3-3, 3-4).

Quarter (hospital, tool shops) – Sinister Quarter etc.”7 A year

earlier, in Paris et l’agglomération parisienne vol.1, Chombart
de Lauwe split the city into zones and this idea was developed
by Debord and Jorn and utilized in the production of their
Détournement Short for: détournement of pre-existing
aesthetic elements. The integration of present or past
artistic production into a superior construction of a
milieu.8

44
fig. 3-5
Pages from Guy Debord and Asger Jorn’s Memoires book. motif, soft porn images. The body is compared to the city and is viewed as
The left page shows primitive and picturesque architecture. The middle plays suitable for psychogeography exploration.
with images, ink and text, while the last one uses, a frequent Situationist

These maps use existing material, a technique defined by Bachelard, a French philosopher, considered the dialectics

Debord as détournement, and this technique was developed of time9, and this search for the truth about time seems

and culminated in the production of the book Memoires to be amplified by the act of drifting. “Bachelard felt that

(fig.3-5). Through its combination of images, text and ink it time is experienced not as a linear continuum but rhythmically,

creates, a collection of rhythmic détournements. In 1950 Gaston in durations (durées) of more or less intensity and activity

45
 as mind, body, people and society interact.”10 Each page of Henri Lefebvre believed that rhythm was inseparable from

Memoires can be viewed as another durée of time showing the concept of time, especially through repetition. He talks of

varying levels of interaction between mind, body, people and two forms of repetition, linear and cyclical rhythms, which he

society. regards as inseparable, although to analyse them they must first

be separated. The linear rhythms are “the daily grind, the routine,
The idea of time, and everyday life, being rhythmical was
therefore the perpetual, made up of chance and encounters.”
pondered by another French philosopher, briefly associated
Lefebvre goes on to say that cyclical rhythms are made up from
with the Situationist International, Henri Lefebvre. Lefebvre, as
“large and simple intervals, at the heart of livelier, alternating
with the situationists, believed that you had to let go to find and
rhythms” and that it is the interaction of these rhythms that
analyse a city’s rhythms.
animate the street and neighbourhood.12

In order to grasp and analyse rhythms, it is necessary

to get outside them, but not completely: be it through Lefebvre observed the city from a philosophical direction,
illness or a technique. A certain exteriority enables
the analytical intellect to function. However to grasp concerned with the rhythms of the everyday, of the people, of
a rhythm it is necessary to have been grasped by it;
time, the biological and social. The connection to music with
one must let oneself go, give oneself over, abandon
oneself to its duration. Like in music and the learning Lefebvre’s work is one of language, he speaks of the triad of
of a language (in which one really only understands the
meanings and connections when one comes to produce melody, harmony and rhythm, but there are also connections
them, which is to say, to produce spoken rhythms).11
between the working methods, and representational techniques

46
of the Situationist International and music, in particular

improvisational Jazz.

47
 3: Music and the Situationist International

3.2: Psychogeography, Music and Play

Chow Morris and MacBurnie’s Queen 501 project can be seen the city are removed giving a feeling of space. I am in my world,

as musical psychogeography it cannot be regarded as completely my London, not just another person trying to negotiate a path

situationist. The playing of the routes ambient sound during the through England’s London.

performance can be regarded as a form of détournement but

The idea of breaking from the routine can be directly related to
the route show no attempt to break from the habitual. My walks
the experimental musical performances of the improvisational
driven by a soundtrack do represent a break from routine and
jazz musicians. The musicians were encouraged to let go and
this ability for music to effect the direct movement towards our
feel the music, using the notation to guide them, while not
destination, to pull me away from my habitual path, is supported
prescriptively instructing which notes to play and how to play
by Yi-Fu Tuan.
them. Artists like Anthony Braxton developed graphical musical
Music can negate a person’s awareness of directional
time and space. Rhythmic sound that synchronises notation to acts as a guide (fig.1-8) allowing the musicians to
with body movement cancels one’s sense of purposeful find their own interpretations of the music. The result was that
action, of moving through historical space and time
towards a goal…13 the same piece of music is played differently every time. The

musical wanderers have to discard the prescriptive qualities of

Tuan supports my experiences, I am still aiming for the same
traditional notation and allow themselves to be led by hidden
goal but the music is in control, I will reach my destination when
factors, such as personal interpretation and emotion. The
the music concludes. Time loses importance and the noises of
notation structures situations, in the same way as the

48
fig. 3-6
The graphic score for Anthony Braxton’s composition #108B acts as a
giude to the musicians in much the same way as Debord and Jorn’s Guide
Psychogéographique de Paris (fig. 3-3) and The Naked City (fig. 3-4).

situationists, that “will allow certain things to happen, and each

individual will be able to establish their own relationship with

it.”14 Guy Debord defined the terms constructed situation and

Situationist in 1958 as;

Constructed situation A moment of life concretely and

deliberately constructed by the collective organization
of unitary ambiance and a game of events.15

Situationist Having to do with the theory or practical

activity of constructing situations. A member of the
Situationist International.16

49
 This shared aim to create situations can be seen continued receive the information simultaneously and cannot plan ahead.

in the later work of Lawrence ‘Butch’ Armstrong17 and the Morris believed that each musician performing must “take

development of his conduction language and technique. responsibility for the direction of the music – and to surrender to

the music.”20
Conduction® (conducted interpretation/improvisation)
is a vocabulary of ideographic signs and gestures
activated to modify or construct a real-time musical John Cage’s Fontana Mix, 1958, consists of twenty-two
arrangement or composition. Each sign and gesture
transmits generative information for interpretation, physical elements, which when combined generate the
and provides instantaneous possibilities for altering
or initiating harmony, melody, rhythm, articulation, performance score (fig. 3-6). A curved line sheet and dot sheet
phrasing or form.18 are combined first, followed by the grid. A point within the grid

is then connected with a point outside with the straight-line

Instead of notation Armstrong would use hand gestures to
transparency. The intersections between the straight and curved
direct the musicians. He provides the musicians with directions,
lines with the grid provide the measurements (time bracket) and
or in Debord’s case connections between zones of ambiance,
actions (such as volume, pitch, tone, colour, etc). This structure
without ever being able to take control. His aim is to “determine
is then used to perform a piece of music. It is a tool to guide the
boundaries then let them go”19 in the same way as the Naked City,
performance in a similar way to the use of an unrelated map to
where zone boundaries and connections are established and the
guide a drift in Germany.
interpretation left to the reader. By using hand gestures instead

of notation Morris ensures spontaneity, all of the musicians

50
Fig. 3-7
John Cage, Fontana Mix, 1958.
The 22 physical elements of Fontana Mix are made up from ten sheets of paper
and twelve transparencies. The paper sheets each contain drawings of six
curved lines, which vary in thickness and texture. The first ten transparencies
contain different numbers of randomly placed dots (the number of points
shown are 7, 12, 13, 17, 18, 19, 22, 26, 29 and 30). The next transparency has a
two by ten inch grid and the final one a straight line (103/4“ long). The performance guide provides a new way to perform music

and the map of London provides an alternative way to navigate

and explore the Harz region. The use of these alternative guides

is an aid to letting go and encouraging new discoveries. The

use Fontana Mix results in the détournement of an existing

composition.

The technique of détournement to create an improved piece

of work has now become commonplace in music. Beginning

in the 1980’s, as technology developed and became more

affordable, the use of sampled material was regularly used in

conjunction with drum machines and synthesizers to produce

music. This was especially prevalent in the emerging hip-hop

A friend recently told me that he had just wandered music scene, with pioneers like Steinski, which can be viewed as
through the Harz region of Germany following the
directions of a map of London.21 a musical situationist movement. This détournement of music

would culminate in 1996 with DJ Shadow’s ‘Entroducing’ album,

which was produced using solely sampled material.

51
 3: Music and the Situationist International
References
1. Debord was an influential member of the Lettrist
International.
2. Simon Sadler, The Situationist City, London: The MIT Press,
1999, pp.95-96.
3. Guy Debord, Résponse a une enquête du groupe surréaliste
belge, Potlatch #5, Paris, 1954, trans. Gerardo Denís, Greil
Marcus, Reuben Keehan, Situationist International online,
http://www.cddc.vt.edu/sionline/presitu/potlatch5.html
4. Guy Debord, Theory of the Derive, Les Lêvres Nues #8, 1956,
reprinted in Internationale Situationiste #2, 1958, reprinted
in Lbero Andreotti, Xavier Costa (eds.), Theory of the Dérive
and other Situationist writings on the city, Barcelona: Museu
d’Art Contemporani de Barcelona, ACTAR, 1996, pp.22.
5. Ibid, pp.22.
6. By habitual processes the situationists mean the day to day
routine; being a slave to work, being stuck in the same cycle
day after day, with no time for play.
7. Ivan Chtcheglov, Formulary for a new urbanism, 1953,
reprinted in Internationale Situationiste 1, 1958, reprinted in
Andreotti, Costa (eds.), 1996, pp.17.
52
8. Guy Debord, Situationiste Internationale #1, 1958, reprinted
in Andreotti, Costa (eds.), 1996, pp.70.
9. Gaston Bachelard, La dialetique de la dúree, 1950.
10. Sadler, 1999, pp.98.
11. Henri Lefebvre, Rhythmanalysis: space time and everyday
life, trans. Stuart Eldon, Gerald Moore, London: continium,
2004, pp.27.
12. Lefebvre, 2004, pp.30.
13. “…Walking purposefully from A to B is felt as leaving
so many steps behind and as having much more ground
ahead to cover. Change the environment by introducing
band music and, objectively, one still marches from A
to B with seeming deliberation. Subjectively, however,
space and time have lost their directional thrust under
the influence of rhythmic sound. Each step is no longer
just another move along the narrow path to a destination;
rather it is striding into open and undifferentiated space.
The idea of a precisely located goal loses relevance.”
Yi-Fu Tuan, Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience,
London: Edward Arnold, 1979, pp.128.
14. Anthony Braxton quoted in Graham Locke, Forces in Motion:
Anthony Braxton and the Meta-reality of Creative Music,
London: Quartet Books, 1988, pp.232.

15. Guy Debord, Internationale Situationniste #1, June 1958, 13.

reprinted in Andreotti, Costa (eds.), 1996, pp.68.

16. Ibid, pp.68.

17. Lawrence ‘Butch’ Armstrong is a American jazz composer/

musician who was born in 1947.

18. Definition of Lawrence ‘Butch’ Morris’ Conduction technique,

Press release for BLACK FEBRUARY 2005: 20TH ANNIVERSARY
OF CONDUCTION®.

19. Testament: A Conduction Collection, booklet in Lawrence

“Butch” Morris, Testament: A conduction Collection, 9.

20. Testament: A Conduction Collection, booklet in Lawrence

“Butch” Morris, Testament: A conduction Collection, 8.

21. Guy Debord, Introduction to a critique of urban geography,

Les Lèvres Nues, 1955, reprinted in Andreotti, Costa (eds.),
1996, pp.20.

53
54
Conclusion

I set out with the aim of demonstrating that music could ambiguity between the three elements of the triad? Should a

also be of use to the Situationist International and their row of houses be read as a melody, harmony or rhythm? Are the

psychogeographic experiments, and have now come to the houses; a melody in the sense that it is a rhythmic succession

conclusion that writing this essay has been a situationist of single houses; a harmony because they are seen as a whole,

experience. I have had to let go of what I thought I knew about playing simultaneously to the eyes; or a rhythm through

the design of the city and have found new ways to look at it. repetition of elements?

I have let go of my habitual processes to question the urban

In the completion of this work I concluded that melody
environment through the eyes, or ears, of music. In doing this
acts as the navigational element of the triad. The memorable
I have found myself raising questions about the relationship of
instructions that allow you to successfully get from A to B, but
the key musical triad, melody, harmony and rhythm, and how
rhythm is important too. There is a point where the distance
they relate to each other as well as the city.
between successive reassuring or trigger elements becomes
Lefebvre thought it important to theorise music as a
relation of terms – melody, harmony and rhythm...1 to far. Doubt is raised whether you are on the right path so

feelings of disorientation may follow. I have not been able to

There is no clear definition that completely separates one discover an optimum rhythm for these visual elements, as Lynch

term from another and because of this I have found myself suggest there is, and believe that this optimum would vary from

questioning what I am looking at. Is there a way to reduce the person to person.

55
 Harmony is the element, which allows us to judge whether
a building sits in accord with its surroundings. Although in this
case both of the other elements can be regarded as relevant.
The building as a note within the melody, the question would
be whether it is in tune with the other notes? Rhythm holds
relevance through the question, is the rhythm of the existing
buildings continued or does it act as a fill? If it acts as a fill
does it still share any aspects of the melody of harmony?
In this way the more you look at the relationship between
the triad the more ambiguous their definition becomes.
I find myself agreeing with Lefebvre the rhythm is present
in everything, from the biologic, the social and especially
architecture. Rhythm may be the most important of the triad,
because through successful use of rhythm both melody and
harmony can be produced.
56
Through looking at the relationship between music,
architecture and the city it has become apparent to me that
they share more than language. Architecture and music are both
temporal arts, and the relationship between body, time and
space is the key element.
All of these three depend on an understanding of time –
melody being a sequence of notes in temporal succession,
harmony relying on notes sounding at the same time and
rhythm being the placement of notes and their relative
lengths.2
I agree with Vitruvius’ recommendation that architects have
an understanding of music, but I feel that it is concepts and
theories are important as opposed to being able to play a musical
instrument.
 I have also shown how the ideas of the Situationist International In conclusion music, architecture, the city and the Situationist

live on in music, through the détournement of music by modern International have far more in common than I originally

musical genres (hip hop, acid house, dance, etc.) There ideas can expected.I have found music has provided a new method

also be found in groups including Reclaim the Streets (creating of situationist exploration, but private nature of listening to

situations) and Adbusters (the détournement of adverts). The music through headphones prevents the construction of social

idea of the flash mob, the use of phones and the internet to situations. Although I would like to give clear definitions and

arrange large spontaneous gatherings of people in random delineations between the musical triad, the ambiguity between

public places, is an perfect example of modern day situationist the terms and their uses is too great. With further studies it
practice. may be possible, but I feel any clear definitions will be purely

subjective.
Through the study of notational forms (situationist, urban

linear sequences, improvisational jazz, etc.) I have discovered

useful concepts with which a site, and its surrounding area, can

be studied in preparation for design work. I feel that all of the

study techniques have potential to improve architectural design

and would recommend, and will utilise myself, a combination of

them all.

57
 Conclusion

References

1. Stuart Eldon, Rhythmanalysis: An Introduction, Henri

Lefebvre, rhythmanalysis: space, time and everyday life,
London: Continuum, 2004, pp.xi.

2. Ibid, pp.xi.

58
59
60
Bibliography
Books
Alberti, Leon Battista, On the Art of Building in Ten Books,
trans. Joseph Rykwert, Neil Leach, Robert Tavernor, London:
The MIT Press, 1988.
Libero Andreotti, Xavier Costa (eds.), Theory of the Dérive and
other situationist writings on the city, Barcelona: Museu d’Art
Contemporani de Barcelona, ACTAR, 1996.
Donald Appleyard, Kevin Lynch, John R. Myer, The View from
the Road, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1964.
Tridib Banerjee and Michael Southworth (eds.), City Sense and
City Design: Writings and Projects of Kevin Lynch, London: The
MIT Press, 1990.
David P Brown, Noise Orders: Jazz, Improvisation and
Architecture, Minneapolis/London: University of Minnesota
Press: 2006.
Guiliana Bruno, Atlas of Emotions: Journeys in Art, Architecture
and Film, London: Verso Books, 2007.
Merlin Coverley, Psychogeography, Harpenden: Pocket
Essentials, 2006.
Adrian Forty, Words & Buildings: A Vocabulary of Modern
Architecture, London: Thames & Hudson, 2000.
Simon Foxell, Mapping London: Making sense of the City,
London: Black Dog Publishing, 2007.
Henri Lefebvre, Rhythmanalysis: Space, Time and Everyday Life,
London: Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd, 2004.
Graham Locke, Forces in Motion: Anthony Braxton and the
Meta-reality of Creative Music, London: Quartet Books, 1988.
Kevin Lynch, The image of the city, Lonodn: The MIT Press:
1960
Kevin Lynch, What Time Is This Place, London: The MIT Press,
1985.
Elizabeth Martin (ed.), Architecture as a Translation of Music,
Pamplet Architecture 16, New York: Princeton Architectural
Press,1994.
Mikesch W Mueka. & Miriam S Zach, Resonance: Essays on
the Intersection of Music and Architecture: 1, Ames: Culicidae
Architectural Press, 2006.
Anthony Osborne, Keyboard Connections: Proportion and
Temperament in Music and Architecture. Equal Temperament,
the Golden Section and a Few Other Mysteries, Milton Keynes:
AuthorHouse, 2006.
61

Niels L Prak, The Visual Perception of the Built Environment,
Delft: Delft University Press, 1985
Sadler, Simon, The Situationist City, London: The MIT Press,
1999
Mitchell Schwarzer, Zoomscape: Architecture in Motion and
Media, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2004.
Iain Sinclair, City of Disappearances, London: Penguin, 2007.
Iain Sinclair, Lights Out for the Territory, London: Penguin,
2003.
Barbara Simms (ed.), Eric Lyons & Span, London: RIBA
Publishing Limited, 1988.
Peter F Smith, Architecture and the principle of harmony,
London: RIBA Publications Limited, 1987.
Igor Stravinsky, Igor Stravinsky, An Autobiography, New York:
W. W. Norton & Co, 2007.
Yi-fu Tuan, Space and Place: the perspective of experience,
London: Edward Arnold: 1977.
Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, trans. Morris Hicky
Morgan, New York: Dover Publications, 1960.
62
Bibliography
Journals
Rudolf Haase, Harmonics in Architecture, Abacus, 1980, pp.92-
113.
Gregory L. Klosowski, The Architecture in the Music, Spring
1994, pp.38-41.
Max Lock, Music and the Architect, AA Journal, Dec. 1957,
pp.136-139.
Graham Locke, “What I Call a Sound”: Anthony Braxton’s
Synaesthetic Ideal and Notations for Improvisers, Critical
Studies in Improvisation, vol. 4, no. 1, 2008.
Kevin Lynch, A Tribute to Donald Appleyard, Places, vol. 1, no. 1,
http://repositories.cdlib.org/ced/places/vol1/iss1/KevinLynch_
etal.
Tomas Maldonado, Architecture and Music, Casabella, vol. 45,
no. 473, October 1981, pp.9-63.
Sir John Summerson, Music and Architecture, Royal
Incorporation of Architects in Scotland, May 1955, pp.46-50.
Stephen Trombley, Sound and Vision, Building Design, No.746,
5 July 1985, pp.14-15.
Bibliography
Websites
Great Buildings, http://www.greatbuildings.com.
Lawrence ‘Butch’ Morris, Press release for BLACK FEBRUARY
2005: 20TH ANNIVERSARY OF CONDUCTION®, http://www.
conduction.us/press.pdf
Situationist International Online, http://www.cddc.vt.edu/
sionline/
The Situationist International Text Library, The Library at
noyhingness.org, http://library.nothingness.org/articles/SI/all/
Bibliography
Films
MatheuKassovitz (dir.), La Haine, 1995, Tartan Video, 2001.
Patrick Keiller (dir.), London, 1994, Bfi Video, 2005.
Patrick Keiller (dir.), Robinson in Space, 1997, Bfi Video, 2005.
Dziga Vertov (dir.), The Man With a Movie Camera, 1929, Bfi
Video, 2000. (original soundtrack, Alloy Orchestra soundtrack,
Nursery soundtrack and Cinematic Orchestra soundtrack)
63
64
Appendix 1

A Blackheath Drift

65
 fig.A1-1 (previous page) fig.A1-2
Map showing the Cator Estate, Blackheath. The remaining pond on the edge of Blackheath, in front of the Span
development South Row.

While drifting through the Cator Estate in Blackheath the

juxtaposition of the varied architecture is immediately apparent.
This private estate with its wide tree lined streets (some no
more than dirt tracks), large houses (old and new), St. Michael’s
church (once known as the needle of Kent due to its long thin
spire) and old priory tower is far removed from the London
that surrounds it. While walking through there is peace, quiet
and a feeling of space. While strolling down the dirt track that
is Parkgate it I could almost hear the hooves of horses pulling
carriages in a bygone age. The aim of my drift was to discover
London but it appears I have actually found a place to escape on the edge of the heath (fig.A2-2). After further investigation it
all that is London; no speeding cars, dirty lorries, bendy buses, appears on a map from 1895 by the kink in the road. After looking
shouting people, general bustle of people in a hurry. closer at this location it becomes more obvious that there was
something here. The trees emerge from the ground, as if trying
There is definitely a feel of history of what came before, in to escape, from part way up the trunks indicating that they were
Ivan Chtcheglov’s words “you cannot take three steps without present before the pond was filled in. The curved path traces the
encountering ghosts bearing all the prestige of their legends. edge of the pond and can also be seen on the map.
We move within a closed landscape whose landmarks constantly
draw us towards the past. Certain shifting angles, certain receding As I continued wandering the difference between the Span
perspectives allow us to glimpse original conceptions of space”. developments and larger houses became more apparent.
There are of course elements missing like the pond of Pond Road, The Span developments seem to be much more Situationist
originally I assumed that it was the pond near the end of the road in both design and use. Firstly the Span developments have

66
fig.A1-3 fig.A1-4
The two ponds shown on a map from 1895. The pond site as it is now with trees seemingly bursting through the ground.

The curved path hints at the shape of the original pond.

67
 fig.A1-5
A map showing the high density of Span developments on the Cator Estate.

communal gardens, places to meet and play, and also they

are run in a cooperative fashion. The residents have been
empowered and are responsible for their own lives. This has
resulted in the houses, flats and gardens being kept in good
condition. The developments are well cared for and there is a
sense of community, a place where situations happen. This can
be compared, in stark contrast, to the Ferrier Estate, which is
located just beyond the boundary of the Cator Estate. A council
maintained housing estate which has been allowed to fall into
disrepair and is now earmarked for demolition. Over 90% of
the flats lay empty and boarded up, leaving the estate feeling
uninviting. Also in contrast to the communal Span housing is
the large private housing on the Cator Estate. Drives and gates,
privacy, locking out the world, in much the same way as listening
to music using headphones cocoons the listener, keeping them
safe from the city.

The streets have no solid rhythm, a collection of different

architecture, which with the exception of the Span developments
have few houses the same. Although this should mean that it
feels completely disjointed and even disturbing to the eyes,
there is an attraction. I find myself drawn back on further

68
 fig.A1-6

A variety of architectural styles found on the Cator Estate.

walks, always finding something new to look at. Maybe, like

Moles’ description of music, easy basic road rhythms become
boring quickly whereas complex combinations of buildings stay
interesting because new elements can always be found.

Maybe they have a rhythm through difference

The Span developments have regular rhythms, giving a sense of

belonging, being part of something, while still having enough
variation to be personal. Although some of the developments
were originally scorned for their large windows and lack of privacy,
they have grown into desired locations, with communities who
care for them. Their social rhythms are strong while the rest of
the estate gives the impression that its rhythms are private.

69
70
Appendix 2 fig.A2-1

The route taken from Dermody Gardens, Lewisham, London SE13 to

St Michael’s Church Hall, The Cator Estate, Blackheath, London SE3.
Melody as an Orientation Device

71
72
73
 fig.A2-2 (previous page)

The route converted into a linear path with trigger elements, confirmation
elements, road wirth and changes in height of the path.

There are two types of elements, which are important to
consider when looking at the melody of a linear path and its role
as an orientation device.
1) Trigger Elements
These elements serve as a trigger to remind you
when have to turn off your present path and change
direction.
I have chosen to refer to them as the melody of the path
because they, as in music, are the memorable part.
I also noticed while considering the melody of the path that it
is not always reversible. The prominent directional elements can
be different dependant on the direction of travel. Sometimes the
directional and confirming elements swap over when the path is
experienced in reverse.

2) Reassuring Elements

These elements confirm that you are on the right

path.

These elements may differ from person to person; the choice

of elements is a subjective one. Usually they will be elements
that stand out, that break with the rhythm of the path. They
can be regarded as discordant features as opposed to melodic
because of the way they stand out, in much the same way as a
wrong note stands out.

74
75
76
Appendix 3 fig.A2-6
Two Span developments displaying different rhtyhms.
The Keep (left) with its regular rhythm through clear grouping of elements.
South Row (right) with its fairly regular openings but more complex window
Local Rhythms in London frames provides more visual interest.

77
 fig.A3-3
Vertical and horizontal rhythms of the Barbican, London.
Abstract rhythms provide interest in this concrete development.

78
fig.A3-4
Studies of the vertical and horizontal rhythms of the Royal National Theatre,
London.
The building displays strong rhythms in both directions, harmony is present
through the balance of directional forces and through the use of one
material.

79
80
Appendix 4 fig.A4-1
Naked City: Blackheath, Kidbrooke and Lee.
The results of a dérive and experiment in
Situationist Mapping trying to read emotional connections.

81
 fig.A4-2 1) Paul-Henri’s mapped student in Paris over a 1 year period.
Mapping my movements over a 3 month period to compare to the findings of 2) Main points visited
Paul-Henri Chombart de Lauwe in 1952. 3) November
The result surprised me due to the restricted zone I was found to inhabit. 4) December
5) January
6) All months combined.

82
fig.A4-3 path social situations were not possible. This was due to being shut off, by the
Music as a Situationist Aid. music, from my surroundings and any people I might have interacted with.
My walk from the Waterloo Station to 7 Millbank plotted over the course
of two months. I allowed the music to guide me and didn’t arrive at my
destination until the music had finished.
Although an interesting experiment and the fact that I strayed from my usual

83