ANHP 00221 Dairy Technology Full Notes

BARATON COLLEGE IN
COLLABORATION WITH UNISA
DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HEALTH AND PRODUCTION
E-LEARNING COURSE
DAIRY TECHNOLOGY
00221 ANHP / 00221ANPR (Certificate)
by
Dr. Machira D. N.
Machira.dickson@gmail.com
+254704670347
July 2020
ANHE 00221: Dairy technology Page 1 of 57

MAIN INFORMATION PAGE
COURSE PRELIMINARIES
ANHP 00221: Dairy Technology
Is this course for you?

This course has been designed for second year certificate students pursuing
a career as animal health professionals. It aims to introduce the learner to
aspects of dairy technology including aspects of milk production, dairy
hygiene and composition, dairy processing and laws governing the dairy
subsector. This course is essential for the professional who is to work for
dairy farmers groups, factories, government or non-governmental
organizations in the dairy subsector.
You are expected to complete this course in 30 hours, 10 hours of which are
practical. Before starting this course, you are expected to have gone through
all courses in year 1.
Introduction to the course

This course aims to introduce students to dairy technology. In specific we
will cover the secretion of milk, milk composition and properties, dairy
hygiene: specifically, sources of milk contamination, microorganisms of
importance in milk, milk borne diseases and handling of raw milk. Under
milk processing we will cover quality control, common milk processes, dairy
products, processing, processing equipment and machines and Marketing of
milk and milk products. Dairy Legislation and Control.
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ANHP 00221: Dairy Technology
There will be a deliberate attempt to link all course content to what
is happening in the field through practical assignments as well as
laboratory practicals. We hope that you enjoy the course!
Course content
There are seven (7) topics in this course, namely:
Topic 1: Introduction
Topic 2: Milk secretion (Anatomy and Physiology)
Topic 3: Physical properties of milk and Milk composition (Gross and

chemical)
Topic 4: Milk hygiene

Topic 5: Milk processing and products
Topic 6: Marketing of milk and milk products
Topic 7: Dairy legislation and regulation
The course will also have the practicals undertaken when schools
resume:
Course learning outcomes
At the end of this course, the learner should be able to:
1. Explain how milk secretion takes place
2. Describe the gross and chemical composition of milk and its physical
properties
3. Demonstrate skills and knowledge in milk hygiene.
4. Describe the methods applied in milk processing and products
obtained.
5. Explain the processes involved in milk marketing
6. Have knowledge on dairy industry regulation in Kenya
Need Help?
This course was developed in July 2020 by Dr. Machira D.N. phone:
+254 704 670 347, email Machira.dickson@gmail.com. Dr. Machira
is a tutor at the department of animal health and production. You
may contact me between Monday to Friday within normal working
ANHP 00221: Dairy Technology Page 3 of 57

hours in the school portal chat and discussion forums.
For technical support e.g. lost passwords, broken links etc. please
contact tech-support via e-mail baratonacademic@gmail.com
Assignments/Activities
Assignments/Activities are provided at the end of each topic. All
assignments/ activities will require submission.
Course Learning Requirements
Timely submission of the
assignments 2 CATs (30%).
Final Examination (70% of total score)
Core Reading Materials
Core Textbooks
1. Dairy processing handbook – Tetrapak
2. IDF/FIL, 1990. Handbook on milk Collection in warm Developing Countries. IDF
Special issue No. 9002. 1990.
3. Occonor C.B, Rural Dairy Technology, ILRI Training Manual, ILRI 1995
Topic 1: Introduction
Milk is defined as the normal mammary secretion derived from complete milking of a healthy
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animal without addition or extraction. It is made of several constituents which can be broadly
classified under two categories: water and total solids. Further total solids have two
components: fat and solids not fat (SNF).
Milk and milk products have been used by man since prehistoric times. There is evidence that
butter as made as far back as 2000 BC. It is thought that cheesemaking was discovered
accidentally and initially developed in Iraq circa 7000–6000 BC and spread with the
migration of populations due to famines, conflicts and invasions. Fermented milks have been
prepared for more than 2000 years.
The development of the milk separator in the 19th century made centralised milk processing
possible. Today, up to 60% of the milk produced in the world is converted into dehydrated
milk products and foods containing a large proportion of milk solids. In countries with
commercial dairying these processes are carried out in large-capacity processing plants.
In Africa, milk is produced in most agricultural production systems. It is either sold fresh,
consumed as fermented milk or manufactured into products such as butter, ghee and cheese.
Sour milk is the most common product, and milk is usually soured before further processing.
While there are several milk processing plants in Africa, much of the milk produced by rural
smallholders is processed on-farm using traditional technologies. It is important, therefore, to
consider these processes and look to possible technological interventions at this level when
considering dairy development in the rural sector.
Farmers in many African countries produce sour milk, butter and cottage cheese for home
consumption and sale. The Maasai in Kenya make ghee from sour milk. Fermented milks are
made throughout sub-Saharan Africa, and concentrated fermented milks are made in some
parts of the continent. While the processes used have not been subject to extensive scientific
investigation, they appear to be effective methods of converting milk into stable marketable
products and have long been used for processing surplus milk.
Milk is processed primarily to convert it into a more stable product, e.g. fermented milk can
be stored for about 20 days compared with less than one day for fresh milk. Milk products are
more stable than fresh milk because they are more acidic and/or contain less moisture.
Preservatives, e.g. salt may also be added to milk products. Thus, by increasing the acidity
and reducing the moisture content, the storage stability of milk can be increased.
Kenya has a vibrant dairy industry with an estimated value of 4% of gross domestic product
(GDP). This vibrancy is anchored on the increasing domestic milk production (averaging
5.3% per year), processing capacity (averaging 7% per year), annual per capita milk
consumption (averaging 5.8% per year, currently at 110 litres) and export potential. The
country is experiencing a growing demand for milk and dairy products driven by expanding
urbanization and a rising middle class. This attracts both domestic and international investors
who seek to seize opportunities in the domestic and export market. The expanding sector is
characterized by an increasingly sophisticated supply chain. Chain actors include producers
consisting of small-, medium- and large dairy farmers, with the majority consisting of about
1.8 million households who own one to three cows. They are served by diverse public and
private agro-input suppliers and service providers. Aggregators include milk bulking and
chilling facility operators. Four out of 27 active processors control 85% of the milk intake,
with 616 million litres processed in 2015. The scale of retail operations varies from small
shops to large supermarkets. The dairy value chain is broadly divided into informal and
formal market channels, based on compliance with regulatory frameworks for quality and
safety standards and payment of statutory revenues. The bulk of marketed milk is raw fresh

milk (ca. 70%), which is sold to consumers through informal market channels. Growth of the
formal channel is possible via the chilled, processed chain by targeting capacity building and
enabling policies. In Kenya milk is sold on volume basis rather than compositional quality.
Figure 1: A small scale farmer milking her animal.
Topic 2: Milk Secretion (Mammary gland anatomy and physiology)

Introduction
The objective of this distance learning course is to understand the basis of mammary gland:
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physiology and anatomy. A healthy mammary gland is one the basis to product
commercialisable dairy products, in terms of quality and quantity. Also calves, the future
heifers, depend on the mammary gland, via the colostrum and milk. An understanding of the
basis of the working of mammary gland is essential to a good performance of dairy farmers.
The contents of this distance learning course were adapted from: “Principles of dairy
science”
(Schmidt, Van Vleck and Hutjens, 1988), “The lactation Biology” (Hurley, 2010).
1. Anatomy of mammary gland
The development of the mammary gland starts early in the fetal life. Already
in the second month of gestation teat formation starts and the development
continues up to the sixth month of gestation. When the calf fetus is six months,
the udder is almost fully developed with four separate glands and a medial
ligament, teat and gland cisterns.
The development of milk ducts and the milk secreting tissue take place
between puberty and parturition. The udder continues to increase in cell size
and cell numbers throughout the first five lactations of the cow, and the milk
production capacity increases correspondingly.
To begin studying the anatomy of mammary gland, some anatomical
landmarks in the inguinal region must be identified; including the teats, four
mammary quarters (two fore and two rear), mammary groove, and fore and
rear quarter attachments (suspensory system).
A strong udder suspensory system is required to maintain proper attachments
of the gland to the body. The mammary gland is a skin gland, and is external
to the body cavity. A Holstein cow may have 50 kg of weight hanging from
her body when she walks into the milking parlor to be milked. So the system
of ligaments and other tissues which attach the udder to the cow are critical for
successful lactation.
There are seven different tissues that provide support for the udder:
1. The skin covering the gland, most superficial tissue, is a minor support (Figure 1);
2. The superficial fascia, or areolar subcutaneous tissue, attaches the skin
to underlying the tissue and is another minor support for the cow's
udder;
3. The coarse areolar, or cordlike tissue, forms a loose bond between the
dorsal surface of the front quarters and abdominal wall. Weakening of
these causes the udder to break away from abdominal wall. This is part
of what is referred to as the fore quarter attachments when evaluating
dairy cattle conformation. These are important for keeping the fore
quarters closely attached to the body wall; however are not the major
supports of the udder.

4. The subpelvic tendon is not actually part of the suspensory apparatus,
but gives rise to the superficial and the deep lateral suspensory
ligaments. It is not a continuous tissue sheet but is attached to the pelvic
bone at several points. This tendon does not support the udder directly,
however it gives rise to the lateral suspensory ligaments.
5. The lateral suspensory ligament are mostly composed of fibrous tissue
(with some elastic tissue), arising from the subpelvic tendon. They
extend downward and forward from the pubic are. When it reaches the
udder it spreads out, continuing downward over the external udder
surface beneath the skin and attaching to the areolar tissue (Figure 1).
6. The deep lateral suspensory ligament (lamellae) is an inner part of the
lateral suspensory ligament also arises from the subpelvic tendon,
however is thicker than the superficial layer, mostly fibrous tissue. It
extends down over the udder and almost enveloping it. The ligament
attaches to the convex lateral surfaces of the udder by numerous
lamellae which pass into the gland and become continuous with the
interstitial framework of the udder. Collectively, the lateral suspensory
ligaments provide substantial support for the udder. The left and right
lateral suspensory ligaments do not join under the bottom of the udder,
and the fibrous nature of these ligaments means that they do not stretch
as the gland fills with milk. So, the center of the udder tends to pull
away from the body as the gland fills (Figure 1).
7. The median suspensory ligament is the most important part of the
suspensory system in cows. It is composed of two adjacent heavy yellow
elastic sheets of tissue that arise from the abdominal wall and that attach
to the medial flat surfaces of the two udder halves. The median
suspensory ligament has great tensile strength. It is able to stretch
somewhat as the gland fills with milk to allow for the increased weight
of the gland. It is located at the center of gravity of the udder to give

balanced suspension, so that even if rest of the layers are cut away
except for the median suspensory ligament, the gland stays balanced
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under the cow (Figure 1).
Figure 1 - Diagram of a cross section of the supporting structures of the mammary
glands of the cow as viewed from the rear.
1.1. Teats
The only exit for the secretion from the mammary gland and the only means
for the calf to receive milk are the teats. Teat size and shape are independent of
the size, shape or milk production of the udder. Average size for the fore teats
is about 6.6 cm long and 2.9 cm (in diameter, and for the rear teats is 5.2 cm
long and 2.6 cm in diameter (Figure 2).
Figure 2 - Diagram of the duct system in one quarter of the mammary gland
of the cow with a single lobe illustrated.
Four quarters are fused into a single gland
complex.
About 50% of all cows have supernumerary teats (extra teats). Some of these
extra teats open into a "normal" gland, but many do not. Generally they are
removed before one year old. A pseudo-teat has no streak canal, and therefore,
no connection to the internal structures of the gland.
The only orifice of the gland between internal milk secretory system and the
external environment is called streak canal or teat meatus. The teat meatus is
made up of three to five convex epithelial projections that lie close together to
make a star-shaped slit. The projections are held closed by involuntary
sphincter muscles around the orifice. The teat meatus prevents the escape of
milk between two milkings and is the main physic protection against bacteria
and foreign material, preventing intramammary infection. When a cow is
milked, the sphincter muscles relax allowing the orifice to open. The teat
meatus remains open for an hour or more after milking. This provides ready
access of bacteria to the inside of the mammary gland. Post-milking germicidal

teat dips are designed to help minimize the chance of bacteria gaining access
to the mammary gland after milking. Keeping cows standing for a time after
milking, such as providing access to fresh feed, also helps minimize teat end
contamination before the teat meatus closes again. The rate of milking of a
cow is partially dependent on the size of the teat meatus. Faster-milking cows
usually have a teat meatus of larger diameter.
During the dry period (nonlactating period), the epidermal tissue lining the teat
meatus forms a keratin plug that has antibacterial properties, this is an
effective seals off the orifice.
1.2. Secreting tissue and connective tissue

The mammary gland consists of secreting tissue and connective tissue. The
amount of secreting tissue, or the number of secreting cells, is the limiting
factor for the milk producing capacity of the udder. It is a common belief that a
big udder is related to a high milk production capacity. This is, however, not
true in general, since a big udder might include a lot of connective and adipose
tissue. The milk is synthesized in the secretory cells, which are arranged as a
single layer on a basal membrane in a spherical structure called alveolus
(Figure 2). An alveolus is the discrete milk producing unit and the diameter of
each alveolus is about 50-250 mm. The lumen of the alveolus is lined by a
single layer of secretory epithelial cells. Several alveoli together form a lobule
and each lobule contains 150-220 microscopic alveoli. Groups of lobules are
surrounded by a connective tissue sheath and form a structure called lobe. The
anatomy of this area is very similar to the anatomy of the lung. The milk which
is continuously synthesized in the alveolar area, is stored in the alveoli, milk
ducts, udder and teat cistern between two milkings. The most part of the milk
(60-80%) is stored in the alveoli and small milk ducts, while the cistern
contains 20-40%. However, there are relatively big differences between dairy
cows when it comes to the cistern capacity.
A large proportion of ducts that are the tubing are presents in the mammary
gland. These ducts allow the milk moves from the alveoli to the teat for milk
removal. In addition, between the teat and the large ducts are open areas called
teat cisterns. A teat cistern is a cavity where milk can collect between two
milkings.
The gland cisterns or sinus lactiferous, also called the udder cistern, opens directly into
the teat cistern.
The gland cistern and teat cistern are separated by the annular fold. The gland
cistern function for milk storage (holds 100-400 ml). The gland cistern varies
greatly in size and shape. There are often pockets formed in the cistern at the
and of the larger ducts.
2. Neural system of the mammary gland
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Milk ejection is important during milking or suckling to obtain the alveolar
milk fraction, which can represent more than 80% of the milk stored in the
udder of dairy cows. In response to tactile teat stimulation, either manually or
by the milking machine, milk ejection is induced by the release of oxytocin,
release from the pituitary gland, resulting myoepithelial contraction. The time
from the start of a tactile stimulation until the occurrence of milk ejection
spans between 40 s to >2 min and increases with decreasing degree of udder
filling. Milk ejection is disturbed under several conditions such as during
milking in unfamiliar surroundings or for several weeks immediately after
parturition in primiparous cows. Disturbed milk ejection is due to a reduction
of or absence of oxytocin.
The milk ejection reflex (let-down) actually is a neuroendocrine reflex (Figure
3). The reflex has an afferent pathway (neural) and an efferent pathway
(hormonal, blood-borne). Few nerves go to the interior of the udder. That
means that performing a biopsy of the gland to collect tissue can be done with
only local anesthetic administered to the skin.
Figure 3 - The milk ejection reflex (The Babcock Institute, University of

Wisconsin-Madison).
Afferent Pathway
The greatest amount of innervation in the mammary gland is in the teats,
where there are pressure sensitive receptors in the dermis. Mechanical
stimulation of the teats activates pressure sensitive receptors in the dermis
where the pressure is transformed into nerve impulses that travel via the

spinothalamic nerve tract to the brain. These nerves synapse in the
paraventricular nucleus and in the supraoptic nucleus in the hypothalamus.
When the cell bodies of the oxytocin-containing neurons are stimulated by
these impulses originating in the teat, an action potential moves down the
oxytocin- containing neurons from the cell body in the hypothalamus down
the axon to the neuron ending in the posterior pituitary. This causes release of
oxytocin into the blood. The efferent pathway starts at this point.
Efferent pathway
The efferent pathway begins with the release of oxytocin into the blood (Figure
3). The oxytocin then travels to the mammary gland via the blood, binds to
oxytocin receptors on the myoepithelial cells, causing the myoepithelial cells to
contract, and resulting in increased intra-lumenal (intramammary) pressure and
ejection of milk from the alveolar lumen. Oxytocin receptors are associated with
the myoepithelial cells, not the smooth muscle of the mammary gland.
Other mechanisms of milk ejection:
Myoepithelial cells will also contract in response to vasopressin (ADH or
antidiuretic hormone). Vasopressin has about 20% the oxytocic activity of
oxytocin;
Visual or auditory stimuli can cause milk ejection. Milk ejection is a
condition response; Stimulation of the genital tract such as vaginal
distention causes release of large amounts of oxytocin;
The mechanical tap stimulus does not involve oxytocin. It will occur
under anesthesia or denervation of the udder. It is not inhibited by
epinephrine. Kneading or butting of the udder by the young may elicit
this response. This may involve distortion of the alveolar structure or the
myoepithelial cell structure, resulting in milk ejection.
Inhibition of milk ejection
Various stressful stimuli that inhibit milk ejection are associated with increased
activity of the sympathetic nervous system. Oxytocin action can be blocked by
the hormones catecholamines, which are made by the adrenal glands localized
above the kidneys. The main catecholamines are dopamine, norepinephrine
and epinephrine (which used to be called adrenalin). These hormones are
released in response to stressful situations and increase the tone of the smooth
muscles of the mammary ducts and blood vessels. This results in the reduction
of oxytocin reaching the myoepithelial cells and partial occlusion of the
mammary ducts (Figure 4). Moreover, epinepherin directly blocks oxytocin
from binding to myoepithelial cells. This is termed peripheral inhibition of
milk ejection. Therefore, in animals exhibiting peripheral inhibition a dose of
exogenous oxytocin will not cause milk ejection
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Figure 4 - The inhibition of milk ejection reflex (The Babcock Institute,
University of Wisconsin-Madison).
A common cause of failure to milk ejection is associated with stress of milking

in the early postpartum period especially for primiparous cows. The stress
inhibits the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland. This is
termed central inhibition of milk ejection. Exogenous oxytocin is usually
administered in these cases causing milk ejection. Based on the above
discussion about peripheral and central inhibition of milk ejection, it can be
stated that milk ejection occurs as a result of oxytocin release, which is
normally couples with inhibition of the central and peripheral inhibitory
controls.
3. Blood supply
The blood supply to the mammary gland is extremely important for mammary
function. All of the milk precursors come from blood. To produce 1 liter of
milk 500 liters of blood have to pass through the udder. When a cow produces
60 liters of milk per day, 30,000 liters of blood are circulation through the
mammary gland. This represents a blood flow of 1250 liters per hour.
There is a 2-6 fold increase in blood flow in the mammary gland starting 2-3
days prepartum. The decrease in production with advancing lactation is not
due to decreased blood flow, rather it is due to the loss of secretory epithelial
cells through a process programmed cell death, this process is called apoptosis.
3.1. Arterial system

Blood leaves the heart and flows towards the rear of the cow by the abdominal
aorta (Figure 5). Two major arteries carry the blood to the udder, on for each
half of the udder. These arteries, pudendal arteries, enter the udder through the
inguinal canal. The inguinal canal is the orifice in the body cavity in the
inguinal region where blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves enter and leave
the body cavity to supply the skin in the posterior part of the animal. The
pudendal arteries are branches of the external iliac arteries, which are branches
of the abdominal aorta. The external iliac artery becomes the femoral artery
(supplies leg muscles). The external pudendal arteries become the mammary
arteries as mentioned above pass through the inguinal canal. The mammary
arteries divide into caudal and cranial branches, which rebranch many times
and end in small capillaries surrounding each alveolus. The pudendal arteries
make S-shaped curves (sigmoid flexures) as they emerge from the inguinal
canal. This allows for downward distension of the udder as it fills with milk,
without stressing the blood vessels. Perineal arteries supply blood to a small
portion of the posterior dorsal part of the udder.
Figure 5 - Blood circulation to and from the udder.
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RA= right atrium LV= left ventricle CA= caudal aorta CVC= caudal vena
cava
EIV= external iliac EIA= external iliac EPA= EPV=
vein artery externa externa
l pudendal artery l pudendal vein
CMA&V= caudal CrMA&V= cranial SAV= subcutaneous
mammary artery and mammary artery and abdominal vein
vein vein
3.2. Venous system

Veins leave the mammary gland anti-parallel to the arteries. There are three
veins on each side that carry blood away from the gland:
1. External pudendal vein leaves the udder parallel to the external pudendal arteries;
2. Subcutaneous abdominal vein (milk vein) exits the gland at the
anterior end of the front quarters and passes along abdominal wall. This
is the large vein that is visible under the skin on the belly of the cow. It
enters the body cavity at the xiphoid process via "milk wells", and
eventually empties into vena cava.
3. Perineal vein leaves the rear of the gland parallel to the perineal artery
and carries less than 10% of blood leaving udder.
3.3. Venous circle

Venous circle is formed by anastomoses between anterior and posterior
mammary veins. It prevents pinching off of areas of venous outflow when the
cow is lying down.
3.4. Lymphatic system

The lymphatic system carries lymph from the tissues toward the heart.
Because many molecules of all sizes leave the capillaries but not all return to
the venous blood drainage at the tissue level. Especially the larger molecules
like proteins. These, along with cellular metabolites and some secretory
products are in the interstitial (extracellular) spaces. If they stayed there, they
would disrupt with the normal balance of osmotic pressure in the tissue,
upsetting trans-capillary fluid exchange. Excess fluid (called extracellular
fluid) would accumulate in the interstitial spaces. The lymph is drained toward
the upper posterior part of the udder, where they converge on the convex
surface of the supramammary lymph node.
3.5. Functions of lymphatic system:

The extracellular fluids are drained from the tissue and conducted back
to the circulatory system via the lymphatic network;

Also, the lymphatics contain concentrated areas of leukocytes
(particularly lymphocytes and macrophages) in lymph nodes; these
leukocytes can mount an immune response to bacteria and foreign
material;
The lymphatic network serves to transport some elements in the body
(vitamin K, lipids absorbed in the intestine).
3.6. Lymphatic network

Lymphatic network originates in tissue spaces as very thin, closed endothelial
tubes (lymphatic capillaries). These are analogous to blood capillaries, but are
much more permeable, with little resistance to passage. They have no
basement membrane. Lymph capillaries converge to form larger vessels.
Lymph flow is unidirectional from the tissues through lymphatic vessels,
eventually dumping lymph into the vena cava.
Lymph is a clear, colorless liquid with a composition similar to blood plasma.
Changes in plasma composition will change lymph composition. Protein
concentration of lymph is lower than in plasma, 1.5% vs. 6%, respectively.
Specific proteins differ, for example albumin is a smaller molecular size than
globulins and leaves the capillaries more readily than globulins, so the
albumin: globulin ratio is 1.8 in plasma, 2.5 in lymph. Protein concentration in
lymph varies inversely with rate of formation.
Lymph flow rate is usually low. It is influenced primarily by the rate of lymph
formation. For example, if blood capillary pressure is increased by arterial
vasodilation or venous constriction, the flow rate of lymph increases. Also,
the flow rate is affected by compression of lymphatics by contraction of
neighboring musculature and by negative intrathoracic pressure (breathing).
Valves in the lymph vessels prevent retrograde flow similar to those in veins.
3.7. Udder edema

Edema is swelling of the udder. Although it occurs to some degree in most
cows at calving time, heifers calving for the first time are especially prone to
having udder edema. Fluid accumulates between skin and glandular tissue, as
well as in the gland. Severe edema can strain supportive structures of udder.
Udder edema is often caused by an imbalance of hydrostatic and osmotic
pressures, increasing fluid flow out of the capillaries into the interstitial spaces.
This may occur because of damage to the capillary walls or obstruction of the
lymphatic system.
4. Galactopoiesis
Galactopoiesis is the maintenance of lactation once lactation has been

established. Two key interrelated components contribute to the maintenance of
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lactation, galactopoietic hormones and removal of accumulated milk. Because
of the importance of galactopoietic hormones in milk production, sometimes
the word galactopoiesis also is used to indicate enhancement of lactation,
especially in dairy animals. Inhibition of secretion of key galactopoietic
hormones will depress milk production to varying degrees depending on the
species, stage of lactation, and the particular hormone being suppressed. The
role of galactopoietic hormones such as prolactin in maintenance of lactation is
well established. Prolactin is released at the time of milk removal in ruminants
and nonruminants, and it remains a key systemic modulator of milk secretion
during lactation. Conversely, growth hormone is generally considered to be the
predominant galactopoietic hormone in ruminants. Inhibition of prolactin
secretion or administration of prolactin to lactating cows has little effect on
milk yields.
Regardless of the hormones involved, all attempts to evaluate milk secretion
must account for continued removal of milk. This is a reminder of the critical
role of local mammary factors in maintenance of milk secretion. One such
factor that plays a major role in regulating milk secretion in many species is a
feedback inhibitor of lactation (FIL) found in milk. FIL is thought to be
produced by the mammary cells as they synthesize and secrete milk.
Accumulation of FIL in the milk-producing alveoli results in feedback
inhibition of milk synthesis and secretion.
Frequent removal of milk from the gland minimizes local inhibitory effects of
FIL and increases milk secretion. Milk removal involves several mechanisms
that impact milk production, including removal of local inhibitory
components, regulation of local blood flow, and even physical factors in the
alveolus. The effects of frequency of milk removal are tied closely with the
local regulation of milk secretion.
5. Lactation curve
The cow reaches her peak milk production approximately 3 to 6 weeks after
parturition, and then a gradual decline in the yield takes place. A lactation
period of 305 days is recommended to take advantage of 60 days of dry period
and yearly calving interval. The body condition at calving of the cow is
determines peak milk yield. Good body condition at calving and adequate
feeding program after calving tend to increase peak milk production. There is a
high correlation between global lactation and peak milk production.
The rate of decline in yield after calving is called persistency. Cows that have
a sharp decline in milk yield after the peak have a low persistency. Cows must
have high persistency as well as high production

for high-lactation milk yields. The rate of decline is accentuated by pregnancy,
particularly starting at the twenty-second week of pregnancy, which occurs
during the seventh to eighth months of the normal lactation period if the cow is
bred back 60 days after calving.
There is a general inverse relationship between milk yield and milk protein and
milk fat contents. As yield increase, the percentage composition of these two
elements decrease. The protein and milk-fat percentages are at a low point
during the peak of lactation and then gradually increase toward the end of
lactation. Lactose content shows a very slight decline toward the end of
lactation and ash content shows a very slight increase with advancing lactation.
6. Dry Period
The mammary gland of the dairy cow requires a nonlactating (dry) period prior
to an impending parturition to optimize milk production in the subsequent
lactation. This period is called the dry period, and it includes the time between
halting of milk removal (milk stasis) and the subsequent calving. This period
allows regenerating secretory tissue of mammary gland. In a 5-points notation
scale for body condition score in dairy cows, the goal for ideal body condition
score for the dry cow is 3.5. To achieve satisfactory health and performance
early in the subsequent lactation condition score must fall between a minimum
of 3 and a maximum of 4. Cows having a thin body condition at the end of
lactation require a dry period to replenish their body supplies. Body fat can be
utilized for milk production: 1 kg of body fat supplies energy to produce
approximately 7 kg of milk. However, overconditioning may be detrimental,
especially for heifers entering the dairy. A cow that is overconitioned at
calving is also more susceptible to metabolic diseases, particularly ketosis.
The normal procedure to dry off a cow is to withdraw all grain and reduce the
water supply several days before the start of the dry period. This drastically
reduces the milk production during that time. Then milking is halted about 45
to 50 days before expected date of parturition. Infusion of the udder with
antibiotics can help prevent infections that may occur in early involution. After
milking is stopped intramammary pressure increases, milk products
accumulate in the gland, and further milk secretion is inhibited. Sometimes if
the udder becomes extremely congested, it may need to be re-milked.
However, this practice stimulates further milk synthesis because
intramammary pressure is reduced and pituitary hormones (oxytocin and
prolactin) are released.
Pay attention during the dry period
There is an optimum length of dry period;
A dry period shorter than 40 days will decrease subsequent production
18
(also long dry periods over 70 or 80 days will result in lowered
production in the next lactation);
Changes occur in the mammary gland during the dry period which
influence mammary cell proliferation and mammary function in the
subsequent lactation.
Conclusion
A healthy mammary gland is one the basis to product commercialisable dairy

products, in terms of quality and quantity. The knowledge from this distance
learning course is essential to understand the functions of mammary gland and
its anatomy.
Resource credits
Figure 5 - Blood circulation to and from the udder. p. 8

Reece et al., 2004

Topic 3: Physical properties of milk and Milk composition (Gross
and chemical)
Introduction
According to the Kenya Bureau of Standards milk is the normal, clean and fresh secretion
obtained by practically emptying the udder of the healthy cow properly fed and kept but
excluding that got during the first seven days after calving.
This definition is narrow because it does not include other animal species which are also
important sources of milk in many parts of the world and Kenya such as camels, dairy goats,
buffaloes etc.
Clean milk has a normal flavour with low bacterial count and is safe for human consumption.
The biological function of milk is to supply nutrition and immunological protection to the
young mammal.
Milk is most commonly derived from the cow which is widely distributed throughout the
world. Other important sources are the buffalo, goats, camels, sheep and reindeer. Currently
Kenya has about 3.3 million heads of cattle producing about 4 billion liters of milk annually.
The main dairy cattle breeds kept include the Friesian, jersey, Ayrshire, Guernsey, local
breeds and crosses thereof. Most of the milk in Kenya is produced by small holder farmers.
Kenyans consume 20 – 120 liters of milk per person per year. Milk is undoubtedly the most
complete single food and is intended for the young of the species. In human beings milk is
recommended for infants, the sick and debilitated, old people and those facing malnutrition.
Milk hygiene and control is important for four reasons (WHO):
1. To prevent transmission of diseases from animals to man
2. To prevent transmission of communicable diseases of man and toxic substances
though contaminated milk
3. To prevent diseases or physical defects that may arise from malnutrition
4. To improve the nutritional status of man in general, and infants, children and mothers
in particular
3.1. Physical properties of milk

The physical properties of milk can be divided into the following aspects:
1. The pH
2. The oxidation reduction potential
3. Density / specific gravity
4. Freezing point
3.1.1. Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)
The pH of milk ordinarily falls between 6.6 and 6.8. In milk testing a pH of below 6.6
denotes presence of colostrum or fermentation by lactose fermenting bacteria while a pH of
above 6.8 usually denotes presence of mastitis. Freshly drawn milk has got “Amphoteric
Reaction” i.e. it changes red litmus to blue and blue litmus to red.
There are two ways to measure the pH of milt. These are through direct and indirect means.
Direct methods include:
1. Use of indicator dyes
2. Use of pH meter
3. Titratable acidity – quality test commonly performed on raw milk. It assesses the total
acid (lactic) in milk. Sometimes pH meter do not give full results because organic
20
acids do not dissociate 100%.
Indirect methods
Lowering the pH of milk alters the physical stability of its constituents. This usually can be
detected by protein precipitation. Indirect methods include:
i. Clot on boiling test – In this test milk is heated to 75 – 80 C in a water bath.
If the lactic acid level is above or equal to 0.24% the milk clots
ii. Alcohol test – this is a rapid test and is good for accepting or rejecting milk
on the platform. In this test one-part milk is mixed with one part 68%
ethanol. Milk with low pH will clot.
3.1.2. Oxidation Reduction Potential of milk
The oxidation reduction potential of milk ranges from +0.2 to 0.3 volts. Fresh milk owes this
to the amount of oxygen in it.
Microorganisms growing in milk use up oxygen altering the oxidation reduction potential of
milk. The larger the number of bacteria present, the faster the changes occur. Oxidation
reduction potential indicator dyes methylene blue and resazurin are commonly used to assess
the hygienic quality of milk. These dyes owe their color to the unstable state of their outer
shell electrons. Gain or loss of electrons indicates a change in color. E.g. in resazurin it
changes from blue to purple to pink and finally to colorless. If this change occurs in a short
time this indicates high bacterial count and low keeping quality of milk.
3.1.3. Density / Specific gravity
In milk quality testing the density of milk is calculated as the weight divided by the volume
of the milk at 20C. The specific gravity is calculated as the density of milk divided by the
density of water all at 20C. According to KEBS the density of milk should be 1.026 – 1.032.
Specific gravity, however, is the density of a substance divided by the density of water at the
same temperature. The density of milk decreases as temperature is increased, but the specific
gravity remains relatively constant at range 1.025 to1.032 at 15.5 0C. Variations in Sp.
gravity are due to variation in amount of various constituents e.g., Milk fat has a Sp. gravity
of 0.935 to 0.945, milk sugar 1.67; salts about 4.0; and proteins 1.31 to 1.346.
There are two ways of measuring the density of milk
1. Weighing milk that has been heated then cooled to 20C.
2. Use of a lactodensimeter (lactometer)
If milk temperature is not 20C a correction factor of 0.00025 per 1C difference is used.
3.1.4. Freezing point depression
The freezing point of milk is its most constant physical property. It usually depends on the
amount of solute particles present. The normal value is between -0.525C to -0.565C. Milk has
lower freezing point is than water due to the presence of lactose and salts in aqueous phase.
The freezing point is affected by :~ Increased acidity (Decrease FP)~addition of preservatives
(Decrease FP) ~addition of water.
3.1.5. Boiling Point
Milk is slightly heavier than water because of its solute content and boiling point of a liquid
is influenced by factors responsible for its Sp. gravity. Milk boils at a temperature slightly
higher water boils at 100.2 0C) at sea level, while average milk boils at (100.17 0 C).
3.1.6. Viscosity
It is the resistance to flow and is the reverse of fluidity. It can be expressed in only relative
terms and for convenience the relative viscosity of any fluid is compared with water. Water
flows with ease, Syrup and honey pour much more slowly and posses greater viscosity. Milk
is 1.5 to 1.7 times more viscous than water owing to the presence of solids in milk.

3.1.7. Adhesiveness of milk
A piece of paper moistened with milk sticks to a flat surface of wood, glass or metal. This
property is undoubtedly due to casein, which is used in large quantities in the manufacture of
casein glue, one of the strongest glues made.
3.1.8. Refractive index
Milk has a R.I. of about 1.35, that of water being 1.33. Addition of water would therefore
lower the refractive index of milk. But since considerable variation is found in values for
genuine milk, it is not possible to use this property alone as a criterion for the genuineness of
milk samples.
3.1.9. Colour
Milk is a liquid of yellow white colour which varies from bluish white to light yellow,
depending upon the breed of the cow, the feed fed to the cow, and the quantity of fat and
other solids present in it. Cow milk is yellow white that of buffalo sheep, goat and other Spp.
is white. Yellow colour of the milk is due to a pigment known as carotene which is
synthesized from the green feed fed to the cow that chiefly occurs in liver. The white colour
(apolescence) of milk is due to reflection of light by the fat globules, colloidal casein &
calcium phosphate
3.1.10. Taste / Flavour
Milk is slightly sweet in taste. This is due to the presence of lactose (Milk Sugar) in it. The
Sweet taste of lactose is balanced against the salty taste of chloride in Milk and some
proteins.
3.1.11. Smell
Milk has got a characteristic odour of its own, when it is drawn from the udder. Freshly
drawn milk has a “cowey” odour which disappears when kept exposed for some time. Milk
has got the capacity to acquire odour from the surrounding and also from the feed etc. but
these are abnormal.
3.2. Gross Composition of Milk
In broad terms milk is composed of five main constituents some of which occur in solution
and others in suspension as emulsions or colloids. These are:
• Water
• Proteins – in suspension and in solution
• Lipids (fats) in emulsion
• Carbohydrates (mainly lactose) in solution
• Ash (minerals)
• Other inclusions e.g. somatic cells
The gross composition of cow’s milk varies widely between breeds, individual animals and
under different conditions.
Common terms used in describing the composition are:
Total solids – this includes the fats, protein, lactose and ash (mineral content).
Solids not fat – This is the total solids but not including the fat component.
Water content is just the total volume of the milk less the total solids.
22
3.2.1. Factors affecting the gross composition of milk
1. Difference due to breed
2. Difference in composition between one milking and another
3. Changes in composition during milking
4. Variability of milk from different quarters
5. Changes during the lactation period
6. Feeds and nutrition
7. Environmental temperature
8. Infection of the udder
9. Other factors
3.2.1.1.Difference due to breed
Fat is the most variable milk component between different breeds. Guernsey and jersey
breeds produce fat averaging a little more than 5%. Friesians produce milk with butterfat
content at around 3.4%.
3.2.1.2.Difference between one milking and another
Fat percentage is most affected by this phenomenon. The highest fat percentage is in milk
drawn after the shortest milking interval, if intervals are not equal.
3.2.1.3.Changes during lactation period
Colostrum is richer in all milk components except lactose, water, potassium and pantothenic
acid. There is a gradual change to normal milk with lactation. According to KEBS after 7
days the udder secretion is considered normal milk and can be marketed. Considerable
changes in composition occur with the progress of lactation with the greatest changes at the
beginning and at the end of lactation. Gestation affects composition of milk indirectly by
hastening the lactation period. SNF start increasing from the 4th month of pregnancy and
continues up to the end of pregnancy. In non-pregnant cows, no such change is observed.
3.2.1.4.Infection of the udder
Mastitis or inflammation of the udder has great influence in the composition of milk.
Principle effects are decreased SNF, casein and lactose, increased serum proteins, sodium
chloride and other salts. Presence of anti-trypsin, nagase enzyme, serum albumin, catalase
and somatic cells.
The osmotic pressure of the milk in the udder and that of blood is at equilibrium at all times.

Lactose is mostly responsible for maintaining the osmotic pressure of milk and other
constituents like casein. When the udder is inflamed, synthesis of lactose, casein and fat is
impaired and because the osmotic pressure with blood must be maintained salts of blood and
other constituents flow into the milk. In addition, inflamed tissue seems to become permeable
to blood proteins.
3.2.1.5.Feeds and nutrition
If you reduce the amount of feed to lactating animals by half the milk volume and SNF are
reduced. SNF returns to normal with restoration of the full ration. There is usually little effect
on fat.
3.2.1.6.Environmental temperature
Increased environmental temperature has been shown to decrease the amount of milk
produced by the cow.
3.2.1.7.Variability of milk from different quarters
The rear quarters have been reported to produce more milk with higher fat, protein and
lactose content than the front quarters.
3.2.1.8.Changes in composition during milking
The concentration of fat, FFA, and TS has been shown to increase with the course of milking,
however, lactose and density present opposite trends.
3.3. Chemical composition of milk
3.3.1. Lipids
Lipids are important in milk composition because of the economic importance given to them.
In addition, lipids have nutritive value because they are a rich source of energy, are a carrier
of the fat soluble vitamins and contain significant amounts of essential fatty acids. In
addition, fats impart a rich pleasing flavor to milk.
Composition of fats
Lipids comprise of compounds of varying complexities which include cephalins, lecithins
and sterols. Triglycerides are more plentiful and important in milk because 98% of the lipids
in milk are triglycerides.
Glycerides in general are formed as a result of the combination of glycerol with a saturated or
unsaturated fatty acid. Combination of glycerol with one fatty acid (at one position) gives a
monoglyceride, at two positions gives a diglyceride and at three positions gives a triglyceride.
Diglycerides and triglycerides containing 2 or three molecules of the same fatty acid are
reffered to as simple glycerides. If different fatty acids are present, they are called mixed
glycerides.
Occurrence of fat in milk
Fat occurs in milk as an emulsion made of microscopic fat globules with a membrane. These
globules are dispersed within the milk phase presenting a large surface area. There are about
60 types of fatty acids in milk. They can be divided into saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
Saturated fatty acids in milk include:
1. Butyric acid
2. Capric acid
3. Caprylic acid
4. Caproic acid
5. Myristic fatty acid
6. Palmitic fatty acid
7. Stearic fatty acid
24
These saturated fatty acids are important because they are highly significant in flavors. In
addition, some of them are volatile and hence are responsible for hydrolytic rancidity.
Unsaturated fatty acids in milk include:
1. Oleic acid
2. Linoleic acid
3. Linoleinic acid
Unsaturated fatty acids are important because:
1. They play a big role in oxidative deterioration of milk which results to oxidized flavor
2. They are an important component of essential fatty acids required by the body
3.3.2. Proteins
These form a total of 3.5% of the total solids in milk. They are comprised of casein and whey
(serum) proteins. Casein occurs as a complex of particles called micelles. The casein is bound
to calcium, magnesium, organic phosphates and citrates. This complex exists as a colloid in
milk and is referred to as calcium caseinate or calcium phosphocaseinate. Casein can be
separated from milk through a variety of methods. These include:
1. High speed centrifugation
2. Acidification by either addition of an acid or fermentation of lactose by starter
cultures to lactic acid. This results in casein separating from the complex.
3. Rennet coagulation – Rennet is an extract from the abomasum of veal calves which
contains the enzyme renin (replaced by pepsin in older animals) Renin separates
casein from the calcium complex.
The whey proteins in milk are composed of the lactoglobulins and the lactoalbumins.
The lactoglobulins are immune globulins with properties similar to
immunoglobulins. These are found in highest amounts in colostrum. Lactoalbumins
include alpha lactoalbumin and the serum albumins. Sometimes the lactoglobulins
are included as a class of lactoalbumins.
Other proteins in milk include the protease peptone fraction and the enzymes. Milk
enzymes are proteins and natural constituents of milk. There are several enzymes in
milk the two most important being the lipases and alkaline phosphatase. The lipases
are notorious for causing hydrolytic rancidity. There are two types of lipases: the
plasma lipase and the membrane lipase. Alkaline lipase hydrolyses phosphate esters.
Both these enzymes are heat labile and are destroyed by pasteurization temperatures.
In fact, the alkaline phosphatase test is used to check for the adequacy of
pasteurization.

3.3.2.1.Milk enzymes
Enzymes are a group of proteins produced by living organisms. They have the ability to
trigger chemical reactions and to affect the course and speed of such reactions. Enzymes do
this without being consumed. They are therefore sometimes called biocatalysts.
The enzymes in milk come either from the cow’s udder or from bacteria. The former are
normal constituents of milk and are called original enzymes. The latter, bacterial enzymes,
vary in type and abundance according to the nature and size of the bacterial population.
Several of the enzymes in milk are utilised for quality testing and control. Among the more
important ones are peroxidase, catalase, phosphatase and lipase.
3.3.2.1.1. Peroxidase
Peroxidase transfers oxygen from hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to other readily oxidisable
substances. This enzyme is inactivated if the milk is heated to80°C for a few seconds, a fact
which can be used to prove the presence or absence of peroxidase in milk and thereby check
whether or not a pasteurisation temperature above 80 °C has been reached. This test is called
Storch’s peroxidase test.
3.3.2.1.2. Catalase
Catalase splits hydrogen peroxide into water and free oxygen. By determining the amount of
oxygen that the enzyme can release in milk, it is possible to estimate the catalase content of
the milk and learn whether or not the milk has come from an animal with a healthy udder.
Milk from diseased udders has a high catalase content, while fresh milk from a healthy udder
contains only an insignificant amount. There are however many bacteria which produce this
kind of enzyme. Catalase is destroyed by heating at75°C for 60 seconds.
3.3.2.1.3. Phosphatase
Phosphatase has the property of being able to split certain phosphoric acid esters into
phosphoric acid and the corresponding alcohols. The presence of phosphatase in milk can be
detected by adding a phosphoric-acid ester and a reagent that changes colour when it reacts
with the liberated alcohol. A change in colour reveals that the milk contains phosphatase.
Phosphatase is destroyed by ordinary pasteurisation (72°C for 15 – 20 seconds), so the
26
phosphatase test can be used to determine whether the pasteurisation temperature has actually
been attained.
3.3.2.1.4. Lipase
Lipase splits fat into glycerol and free fatty acids. Excess free fatty acids in milk and milk
products result in a rancid taste. The action of this enzyme seems, in most cases, to be very
weak, though the milk from certain cows may show strong lipase activity. The quantity of
lipase in milk is believed to increase towards the end of the lactation cycle. Lipase is, to a
great extent, inactivated by pasteurisation, but higher temperatures are required for total
inactivation. Many micro-organisms produce lipase. This can cause serious problems, as the
enzyme is very resistant to heat.
3.3.3. Lactose
Lactose is a sugar found only in milk. Lactose (milk sugar) is a disaccharide, with a molecule
containing the monosaccharides glucose and galactose. Lactose is water soluble, occurring as
a molecular solution in milk. In cheesemaking most of the lactose remains dissolved in the
whey. Evaporation of whey in the manufacture of whey cheese increases the lactose con-
centration further. Lactose is not as sweet as other sugars; it is about 30times less sweet than
cane sugar, for example.
If milk is heated to a high temperature, and is kept at that temperature, it turns brown and
acquires a caramel taste. This process is called caramelisation and is the result of a chemical
reaction between lactose and proteins called the Maillard reaction.
3.3.4. Vitamins
Vitamins are organic substances which occur in very small concentrations in both plants and
animals. They are essential to normal life processes. The chemical composition of vitamins is
usually very complex, but that of most vitamins is now known.
Milk contains many vitamins. Among the best known are A, B1, B2, C and D. Vitamins A
and D are soluble in fat, or fat solvents, while the others are soluble in water.
3.3.5. Minerals and salts in milk
Milk contains a number of minerals. The total concentration is less than 1%. Mineral salts
occur in solution in milk serum or in casein compounds. The most important salts are those of
calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium. They occur as phosphates, chlorides, citrates
and caseinates. Potassium and calcium salts are the most abundant in normal milk. The
amounts of salts present are not constant. Towards the end of lactation, and even more so in
the case of udder disease, the sodium chloride content increases and gives the milk a salty
taste, while the amounts of other salts are correspondingly reduced.
3.3.6. Other Constituents
Milk always contains somatic cells (white blood corpuscles or leucocytes). The content is low
in milk from a healthy udder, but increases if the udder is diseased, usually in proportion to
the severity of the disease. The somatic cell content of milk from healthy animals is as a rule
lower than 200 000cells/ml, but counts of up to 400 000 cells/ml can be accepted. Milk also
contains gases, some 5 – 6 % by volume in milk fresh from the udder, but on arrival at the
dairy the gas content may be as high as 10 % by volume. The gases consist mostly of carbon
dioxide, nitrogen and oxygen. They exist in the milk in three states:1 dissolved in the milk2
bound and non-separable from the milk3 dispersed in the milk Dispersed and dissolved gases
are a serious problem in the processing of milk, which is liable to burn on to heating surfaces
if it contains too much gas.
3.4.
3.5.

TOPIC 4: MILK HYGIENE
Milk Borne Diseases

3.5.1. Introduction
The spoilage and pathogenic micro-organisms causing illnesses could come from the animal,
handler, environment, water, equipment, air, and raw materials and due to poor sanitation
practices. The knowledge about sources of contamination will be helpful in preventing or
reducing such spoilage causing and pathogenic microbes in milk.
Milk is, an efficient carrier for a variety of disease producing microbial agents. Disease
control, however, can be maintained only by constant supervision of the health of dairy
animal and by adequate controls at all points from the time the milk leaves the udder until it
reaches the consumer.
Such microbial agents can be conveniently classified as :
a) Communicable disease causing microbes - viruses, rickettsiae, bacteria,
protozoa, and other parasites-and/ or their toxins;
b) Specific and non - specific sensitizing agents; and
c) Toxic chemicals - pesticides, preservatives, drugs, radionuclides, and other
substances.
3.5.2. Milk as vehicle of microbes
Milk, by virtue of possessing all sorts of nutritional factors, can serve as an excellent media
for microbes, especially including pathogens. Bacteria have the ability to utilize various milk
constituents to grow and multiply. While growing at the expenses of milk constituents these
microbes release certain metabolites like lactic and other organic acids, gases, enzymes,
flavouring compounds, pigments, toxins etc in the system which may be useful and/or
harmful, and thus, effects the quality of milk. Generally, these metabolites lead to different
spoilage conditions in milk products and make these unfit for consumption. For this reason,
raw milk is inherently dangerous and should not be consumed by anyone, at any time, for any
reason
Milk spoilage is manifested by a reduction in aroma, flavor, texture and nutritional value of
foods. In extreme cases the dairy products become totally unpalatable. In addition, some
microbes are known to release toxins that may cause damage to health of consumers.
3.5.3. Different Sources of Pathogens
A variety of pathogens may gain access to milk from a number of sources and cause different
types of food borne illness. Two main ways of transmission of disease through milk:
1. Pathogens from diseased animals voided in milk
2. Pathogens entering the milk from external sources after milking
Sources of contamination of milk after milking:
- Milker’s hands
- Dirty udder cloths/straining filters
- Dust
- Faecal material from animals
- Dirty water
- Containers (dirty & unsterilized)
- Flies and other insects
- Rats and mice (droppings)
28
- Birds (droppings)
Animals
The health of dairy animals is a very important parameter because a number of diseases
including brucellosis, Q-fever, salmonellosis, staphylococcal and streptococcal infections and
foot and mouth disease virus may be transmitted to man through milk. The microbes causing
these diseases may be transmitted to milk either directly from the udder or indirectly through
the infected body discharges that may drop, splash or be blown in to milk.
Handlers
The diseased persons may transmit diseases like typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria,
septic sore throat, infantile diarrhea by contaminated hands or by coughing, sneezing and
talking during milking or subsequent handling of milk at farm level.
Environment
Dairy farm environment may also introduce pathogens in to milk products at different stages
of production and processing. Some common air borne pathogens are like Group A
Streptococci, Corynebacterium diptheriae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Coxiella burnetii
and some viruses of respiratory origin. Contaminated water, fodder and unclean vessels and
containers used for handling milk and other unhygienic conditions at farm and plant may
significantly contribute to pathogens and spoilage causing micro-organisms in milk.
3.5.4. Diseases from Animal to Man and Milk to Man
Table 1: common pathogens voided in milk that cause disease in man and animals
Pathogen Disease
Genus: Mycobacterium
Mycobacterium bovis
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(hominis) Tuberculosis
Mycobacterium avium
Genus: Brucella
Brucella abortus
Brucella melitensis
Brucella suis Brucellosis
Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcal infections
and/orintoxications
Coxiella brunette Q-fever
Genus: Salmonella
Serotypes:
Salmonella enterica enterica
Typhimurium
Salmonella enterica enterica Salmonellosis
Enteritidis
Salmonella enterica enterica
Dublin
Listeria monocytogenes Listeriosis
Genus: Streptococci
Streptococcus haemolytica
Streptococcus pyogenes Septic sore throat, angina,
rheumatic heart disease,

Group A Streptococci glomerulonephritis
Genus: Leptospirosis
Leptospirosis
icterohaemorrhagiae
Leptospira canicola Leptospirosis
Leptospira Pomona
Table 2: Common pathogens contaminating milk and causing disease in humans

Pathogen Disease
Salmonella typhi Mainly human pathogens [enteric
Salmonella paratyphi fevers]
Typhoid fever/paratyphoid fever
Vibrio cholerae Cholera (milk-borne infection
rare)
Shigella spp Shigellosis
Enteropathogenic E. coli Colibacillosis/diarrhoea
Genus: Campylobacter
C. jejuni
C. coli Enteritis and other syndromes
Streptococcus Group A and Septic sore throat, angina,
others rheumatic heart disease
Staphylococcus
Most S. aureus Food poisoning
Mycobacteria bovis Tuberculosis
Corynebacterium diphtheria Diphtheria
3.5.4.1.Tuberculosis
The causative microorganism is Mycobacterium tuberculosis. German physician Robert Koch
(1843-1910) revealed the micro-organism, Mycobacterium tuberculosis from contaminated
raw milk, and its role in infant mortality.
Koch also reported that another strain, M. bovis, was responsible for tuberculosis in cows,
and that it was species specific and believed that cow strain would not infect humans. Milk
borne tuberculosis is directly or indirectly related to consumption of raw milk from infected
dairy herds. The tuberculosis traceable to raw milk was the result of external contamination
or lesions in the udders of cows racked with bovine tuberculosis. The milk buckets, too, were
easily contaminated by workers.
There are two types of tuberculosis, pulmonary and non pulmonary type. Pulmonary is
caused by human type of microorganisms that affects mainly respiratory tract. Bovine type
bacillus cause non pulmonary tuberculosis. Tuberculosis of cattle is produced by
Mycobacterium bovis. Avian type of the microorganism may cause both types of
tuberculosis.
- Mycobacterium tuberculosis - Human
- Mycobacterium bovis - Cattle and human
- Mycobacterium avium - Birds, swine but rarely human
30
Human type tuberculosis bacilli may gain access to milk from milkers and other handlers. It
causes human type tuberculosis in cattle. This cannot be immediately noticed and may give
tuberculin negative test but after 2 - 3 months, this test will be positive. Such suspected
animals are usually held under observation and rested periodically. If the reaction disappears,
these are restored to their normal status in herd. Such cattle may excrete bacilli in their milk
from apparently normal udders.
Milk animals other than cattle are also affected with tuberculosis mainly by bovine type.
Buffaloes and goats are less frequently affected by tuberculosis. Bovine type infection in man
appears to be practically nonexistent, in spite of a considerable proportion of cows being
infected. It may mainly be attributed to the habit of boiling milk before consumption. Sour
milk may kill human and bovine tuberculosis bacilli within 18 - 24 h
Avian type tuberculosis bacilli also cause natural infections in cattle. Human infection with
avian type bacilli is quite rare.
Symptoms
Tuberculosis is characterized by the onset of paranchymal pulmonary infiltration
recognizable by X-ray examination, pleurisy, followed by advanced stage that is
accompanied by cough, fever, and fatigue and weight loss. Incubation period is 4 - 6 weeks
from infection to demonstrable primary lesion.
Prevention and control
- Animals should be subjected to tuberculin test.
- Animal suffering with tuberculosis should be isolated.
- Proper heat treatment of milk. The traditional habit of boiling every lot of milk
before consumption in India is good, in combating the incidence of tuberculosis.
- Overcrowding of animals must be avoided and living conditions must be
improved
- Tuberculosis patients should be prohibited from handling cattle as well as milk.
- Proper disinfection should be followed.
Brucellosis
It is one of the most common milk-borne diseases. Brucellosis, also called Bang's disease,
Crimean fever, Gibraltar fever, Malta fever, Maltese fever, Mediterranean fever, rock
fever, or undulant fever, is a highly contagious zoonosis caused by the ingestion of
unsterilized milk or meat from infected animals or close contact with their secretions.
Brucella spp. are small, Gram-negative, non-motile, non-spore-forming, rod shaped
(coccobacilli) bacteria. This function as facultative intracellular parasites causing chronic
disease that usually persists for life. Symptoms include profuse sweating and joint and muscle
pain. Malta fever, the disease now called brucellosis first came to the attention in 1850s in
Malta during the Crimean War. In cattle, this disease is also known as contagious abortion
and infectious abortion.
The popular name undulant fever originates from the characteristic undulance (or wave-like
nature) of fever, that rises and falls over weeks in untreated patients. In 20th century, this
name, along with brucellosis, gradually replaced the 19th century names Mediterranean
fever and Malta fever. Brucellosis in humans is usually associated with the consumption of
unpasteurized milk and soft cheeses made from milk of infected animals, primarily with
Brucella melitensis and with occupational exposure of workers, veterinarians and
slaughterhouse workers. Some vaccines used in livestock, B. abortus, also cause disease in
humans, if accidentally injected. Brucellosis induces fevers, sweating, weakness, anaemia,
headaches, depression and muscular and body pain.

The main symptoms are like muscular pain and sweating and the duration of disease can vary
from a few weeks to months or years. In the first stage of disease, septicaemia occurs and
leads to undulant fevers, sweating and migratory arthralgia. Blood tests characteristically
reveal leukopenia and anemia, and demonstrate positive Bengal Rose and Huddleston
reactions. During episodes of Malta fever, melitococcemia (presence of brucellae in blood)
can usually be demonstrated by means of blood culture in tryptose medium. If untreated, the
disease can become chronic. The focalizations of brucellosis occur usually in bones and joints
and spondylodiscitis of lumbar spine accompanied by sacroiliitis is very characteristic of this
disease.
Diagnosis of brucellosis
- Blood cultures in tryptose broth, bone marrow cultures. The growth of brucellae
is extremely slow and the culture poses a risk to lab personnel due to high infectivity
of brucellae.
- Demonstration of antibodies against the agent either with, ELISA or 2-
mercaptoethanol assay for IgM antibodies associated with chronic disease
- Histologic evidence of granulomatous hepatitis
- The preferential erosion of antero-superior corner of lumbar vertebrae and
marked osteophytosis are suspicious of brucellic spondylitis.
- Segregation of infected herd to avoid cross infection and if possible the
infected animals should be slaughtered.
- Herds should be properly vaccinated.
- Adequate heat treatment should be given to milk for the destruction of
causative microbial agents.
3.5.4.2. Diphtheria
Diphtheria is caused by only toxigenic strains of Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
Rarely, a diphtheria-like illness is caused by a toxigenic strain of C. ulcerans or C.
pseudotuberculosis. C. diphtheriae has three biotypes: gravis, intermedius, and mitis.
The gravis biotype is associated with the most severe disease, but any strain may be
toxigenic. All clinical isolates of C. diphtheriae should be tested for toxigenicity.
Nontoxigenic strains can cause sore throat and other invasive infections, and are
associated with endocarditis.
Illness
Classic diphtheria is an upper-respiratory tract infections characterized by sore
throat, low-grade fever, and an adherent pseudomembrane of the tonsil(s), pharynx,
and/or nose. The disease can involve almost any mucous membrane. For clinical
purposes, diphtheria can be classified according to the site of the infection:
Anterior nasal diphtheria
Anterior nasal diphtheria usually presents with mucopurulent discharge from nose
that may be bloody and a white pseudomembrane on nasal septum.
Pharyngeal and tonsillar diphtheria
Pharyngeal and tonsillar diphtheria, the most common type of infection, initially
presents with malaise, sore throat, anorexia, and low-grade fever. Within a few days,
a bluish-white pseudomembrane forms on one or both tonsils that can extend to the
tonsillar pillars, uvula, soft palate, pharynx and nasopharynx. Over time, the
pseudomembrane evolves, assuming a dirty gray color with areas of green or black
necrosis surrounded by a minimal amount of erythema. Attempts to remove the
32
pseudomembrane cause bleeding. With severe disease patients can develop edema of
the anterior neck. If a significant amount of toxin is absorbed into the blood stream,
patients may develop pallor, rapid pulse, coma and death. The differential diagnosis
of diphtheria includes streptococcal pharyngitis, viral pharyngitis, Vincent's angina,
infectious mononucleosis, oral syphilis and candidiasis.
Laryngeal diphtheria
If the infection involves larynx, it may occur either as an extension of pharyngeal
form, or as laryngeal involvement alone. Patients can present with fever, hoarseness
and a barking cough. The pseudomembrane can cause potentially fatal airway
obstruction.
Cutaneous diphtheria
Cutaneous diphtheria, caused by either toxigenic or nontoxigenic strains of C.
diphtheriae, is usually mild, typically consisting of non-distinctive sores or shallow
ulcers, and rarely causes toxic complications. The disease may present as a scaling
rash or as clearly demarcated ulcers. A chronic skin lesion may harbor C. diphtheria
along with other micro-organisms. Skin infections with C. diphtheria are common in
tropical climates, and this is likely the reason for high levels of natural immunity
among local populations in these regions.
Reservoir
Infected humans are the reservoir.
Modes of transmission
Diphtheria is transmitted from person to person through respiratory droplets or less
commonly, through contact with discharge from skin lesions. Historically, raw milk
and fomites were known to have served as vehicles.
Incubation period
The incubation period is usually 2-5 days (range 1-10 days).
Communicability
Persons are communicable for up to 4 days after treatment with effective antibiotics
has been initiated. Untreated persons generally shed bacteria from the respiratory
tract or from skin lesions for 2-4 weeks after infection. A chronic carrier state is rare,
but known to exist, and such a carrier may shed micro-organisms for 6 months or
more.
- adequate heat treatment of milk.
- Infected person should not be allowed to handle milk and milk products.
- Unhygienic practices like sneezing and coughing by the dairy persons should
be avoided.
- Proper vaccination of individuals against disease is an efficient prophylactic
measure.
3.5.4.3. Q - Fever
Q-fever is caused by Coxiella burnetti. Raw milk is commonly implicated as a
vehicle for transmission of disease. Coxiella burnetti is more heat resistant than
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It can survive pasteurization, if the specified
temperature is not maintained and also freezing temperatures. In view of the
considerable heat resistance of this microbe the time-temperature combination used
in pasteurization is selected on the basis of heat inactivation of this microorganism. It
has been found to be viable for 2 years at -20˚C and resist 0.5 per cent formalin and

1 per cent phenol. It has also been observed to remain viable for 25 days in rennet
cheese, 42 days in cottage cheese, whereas in yoghurt it is killed within 24 hours due
to acidity. All these features make Coxilla burnetti a micro-organism of great public
health significance for its pathogenic potentials.
Individuals, who have frequent direct contact with animals, including veterinarians,
meat workers, and sheep and dairy farmers, are at higher risk. Q fever is rarely fatal.
Most patients get Q fever by coming in contact with animals infected with the Q
fever bacteria, their tissues, or fluids. Transmission may occur through breathing
contaminated air or dust from an area with a large concentration of animals. Tissues
from animals giving birth pose a particular risk. People can also become infected
indirectly from animals through contaminated materials like wool, straw, and
fertilizer. There is a risk of Q fever from consumption of contaminated raw milk.
Sheep, cattle, goats, cats, dogs, some wild animals like bobcats and rodents, birds,
and ticks carry the bacteria. Most infected animals do not show signs of illness, but
Q fever may sometimes cause abortion.
Only about one-half of all people infected with C. burnetii show signs of illness. For
patients who become ill, the first symptoms of Q fever resemble flu and may include
fever, chills, sweats, headache, and weakness. Q fever may rarely progress to affect
liver, nervous system, or heart valve. Q fever is diagnosed by identifying the bacteria
in tissues or through a blood test that detects antibody to the micro-organism.
Patients with mild transient illness usually do not require treatment. Placenta, other
birth products, and aborted fetuses should be disposed of immediately. Seek
veterinary assistance, if animals have reproductive or other health problems.
Sources
Mostly human infection is by inhalation of infected dust of the fecal matter. Infected
cattle continue to excrete the microorganisms in milk for a long time.
Symptoms
High fever, headache, weakness, malaise, severe sweating and virus like pneumonia.
- Adequate heating of milk and cream
- Calving sheds should be away from the milking sheds and dairy
- Animals should be properly vaccinated
- Survey for determining the prevalence of infection in an area should be carried
out
3.5.4.4. Viral infections
The rapid growth of the frozen and convenience foods has given rise to increased
concern about the possible role of such foods in the dissemination of viral infections.
Although, food is rarely reported a vehicle for viral distribution. A few breakouts of
poliomyelitis have been traced to raw milk. Personal contact and mechanical
distribution by flies are believed to be the usual routes of infection with enteric
viruses.
Outbreaks of infectious hepatitis have occurred in which foods appear to be the most
probable means of transmission. Epidemiological evidence suggests that ingestion of
raw clams or oysters taken from sewage polluted waters could be a mean by which
infectious hepatitis is spread. A number of factors can influence the importance of
any food as a vehicle for the spread of a virus. Among these are the opportunities for
contamination with infectious virus, the ability of a virus to survive and remain
infectious under conditions of handling and storage, the extent of adsorption to food,
34
the effect of ingredients like flavourings and preservatives, and competition from
other contaminants. However, unlike bacteria, viruses will not multiply in the foods.
They will either survive at a constant level or die out. Since some frozen foods are
subject to a great deal of handling in manufacture, are kept frozen, and require little
or no cooking in the home, they would appear to be likely sources of viral
distribution, should they become contaminated during preparation.
3.5.4.4.1. Enteroviruses
These are a group of viruses that can cause severe epidemics of diarrhea in infants
and children on ingestion of contaminated milk. Among these most common human
pathogens are polio and coxsackie viruses. Milk and its products are commonly
contaminated with enteroviruses mainly through fecal contamination. Unheated milk
contaminated after pasteurization play a significant role in the transmission of
disease, especially in developing countries. However, polio virus can be inactivated
in milk by pasteurization. Compared to polio virus, coxsackie viruses are more
resistant to heat treatment
3.5.4.4.2. Poliomyelitis
Like many other diarrheal diseases, poliomyelitis occurs commonly.
Sources
- Person to person contact is the main mode of spread of viruses
- Flies may also serve as a vector for the spread of the disease
- Fecal contamination of water and milk
Symptoms
First, there is a minor disease associated with viremia characterized by gastro
intestinal disturbance. Then headache, fever, muscle stiffness and paralysis
associated with cell destruction in central nervous system.
- Proper pasteurization of milk
- Hygienic measures should be strictly followed to avoid fecal contamination
- Infected persons should not be allowed to handle milk.
- Immunization is also effective in preventing disease.
- Proper vaccination of the children confers protection against disease.
3.5.4.4.3. Infectious hepatitis
Among various viral diseases, infectious hepatitis is considered as one of the most
serious viral disease for which milk may be important vehicle for transmission. The
illness is also known as hepatitis A and is caused by Hepatitis A virus, whereas
hepatitis B is not transmitted through milk.
Sources
- Since the disease spreads through person to person contact, hence handlers can
be an important source
- Defective water supply in a milk plant may also introduce the virus to milk
- Polluted environment in milk plant may also contaminate milk
Symptoms
Nausea, vomiting, lethargy, abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever, chills, anorexia,
lassitude, sore throat, bile in urine and jaundice.
- Proper sanitary conditions should be maintained during production and

processing of milk
- Infected persons should not be allowed to handle milk
- Fecal contamination of water should be avoided
- Adequate heat treatment of milk is likely to inactivate the virus
3.5.5. PREVENTION OF INFECTIOUS MILK-BORNE DISEASES
1. Prevent pathogens from animals from entering milk by
preventing/controlling/eradicating animal diseases
▪ Screening and culling animals positive for a given disease e.g. TB (skin tests with
PPD-purified protein derivative), brucellosis (ELISA, MRT-Milk Ring Test)
▪ Prompt treatment of clinical cases
▪ Vaccinations: Anthrax, FMD, leptospirosis, brucellosis
▪ Maintaining good udder health
▪ Good management, feeding and breeding
2. Preventing pathogens in man (workers) from entering the milk
▪ Institute and observe routine medical check-ups of workers to reveal the sick and
the carriers of communicable diseases e.g. sore throat, TB, salmonellosis (the sick
and carriers), campylobacteriosis
▪ Positive stop from handling and treat promptly
3. Preventing multiplication of harmful bacteria
▪ Milk is a good medium for growth of microorganisms; high numbers increase
chances of disease causation
▪ Cool milk immediately post-milking to low temperatures <10oC (<7oC better) so
as to inhibit multiplication of both pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms
▪ Achieve this within 3hr post milking
▪ N/B: Milk is a good medium for microbial growth and low numbers of
microorganism reduces chance of infection or toxin production
4. Inactivate/destroy the pathogens present
▪ Heat treatment [pasteurization 72oC for 15 Sec (or boiling)], sterilization (UHT
>135oC for 1-2 Sec)
▪ UV treatment and infra-red radiation [not common]
1. Provision of potable water
▪ Of good bacteriological quality for use by dairy, drinking by humans as well as
cows
2. Use of hygienic methods of production and distribution of milk
▪ Housing, fly control, clean burn, clean sanitised/sterilised containers protected
from contamination
▪ Closed milking systems (machine milking)
7. Practise hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) system
▪ And good total management practice (MP)
3.6. RESIDUES IN MILK AND DISEASE CONDITIONS CAUSED

▪ Residues of certain substances pose great threat to human health when they occur
in milk/milk products and when they are consumed. They include:
a. Antibiotics
b. Pesticides/herbicides
36
c. Radionuclides (radioactive particles)
d. Mycotoxins
e. Plant toxins
f. Other
o Disinfectants
o Adulterants
3.6.1. Antimicrobials
▪ Milk shall not contain any antibiotics (KEBS)
▪ Antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents gain entry into milk mainly through
therapeutic and prophylactic treatment of animals or as feed additives or when
directly added intentionally to milk as preservatives by unscrupulous people
▪ Hazards
a. Allergic reactions
- Anaphylactic shock and possible death in allergic persons e.g. allergic to
penicillin;
- Possible sensitization of those not yet allergic by consuming small doses in milk
overtime
b. Bacterial resistance
- Selection of resistant bacteria strains, especially pathogens
- Possible development of resistance of sensitive bacteria as a result of consumption
of sub-lethal doses in the milk-via plasmid transfer
- Useful drugs become useless, cannot be used to treat illnesses anymore; non-
pathogenic organisms become pathogenic
c. Alteration of the status quo
- Of the normal gut flora often leading to superinfection i.e. opportunistic
infections e.g. by Candida albicans
d. Technical
- Destruction/inhibition of starter cultures in milk processing-hampering
manufacture of cultured milk products (technological disadvantage)
3.6.2. Pesticides/herbicides
▪ Pesticides and herbicides are employed in livestock and agriculture to fight
ectoparasites e.g. ticks on animals, tsetse flies, plant pests and weeds
▪ Dipping of animals as well as consumption of contaminated fodder, forage and
feeds are common sources/ direct accidental contamination of milk may occur
Public Health importance of chlorinated hydrocarbons (organochlorines)
▪ Accumulative effects [chronic toxicity-usually concentrated in animal fat(butter)]
▪ Possible carcinogenic effect
▪ Nervous disorders on starvation and release of these from adipose tissue
▪ Sexual impotence (reports from S. America)
▪ Diarrhoea
▪ Stomach-ache
KEBS tolerance levels
Pesticides Calculated on Calculated on
whole milk fat basis
basis

Aldrin; dieldrin 0.1ppm 0.25ppm
Heptachlor,
heptachlorepoxide,
endrin
DT and its analogies 0.05ppm 0.25ppm
(total) Lindane,
BHL
Pesticide limits in milk KEBS: KS 05-10:1992

Pesticide Maxlimit
Aldrin and deldrin 0.006
Heptachlor 0.006
DDT 0.05
Lindane 0.01
SHC-HCl 0.01
Endrin 0.01
3.6.3. Radionuclids [radioactive particles]

▪ Barium[Ba190], Cesium[Cs137], Iodine[I131], Strontium[Sr90,Sr89],
Cobalt[Co60]
▪ These are products of nuclear fission e.g. atomic bomb tests and nuclear reactors.
▪ They pollute the atmosphere setting up a chain reaching man eventually.
▪ Chain:
- Precipitated by the Atmosphere and absorbed by the soil and plants and eaten by
[animals and man]
▪ Nuclear reactor accidents for example: Chernobyl nuclear accident June 1986 in
Georgia, former Soviet Union, caused massive spread of radio activity over a
large area including Western Europe and other countries. Cos and sheep were
heavily contaminated
▪ Ghana declined
▪ Public health importance
- Causes mutagenesis. Most dangerous to infants because their cells are highly
active with a high metabolic rate and therefore easily mutated
- Causes leukemia and other forms of cancers
3.6.4. Mycotoxins
▪ Examples: Aflatoxins, Ochratoxin-A, Penicillinic acid, Zealalenone
▪ These are chemical products of fungi metabolism.
▪ One of the most important from public health point of view is aflatoxin
▪ Aflatoxins are produced by:
✓ Aspergillus flavus
✓ Aspergillus parasiticus
✓ Aspergillus niger
▪ In contaminated cereals/grains/feeds improperly stored under high humidity and
temperature leading to fungal growth and toxin production
▪ Two classes of aflatoxins:
38
a. Aflatoxin B (B1 & B2)
✓ Blue i.e. appears blue under fluorescent microscope.
✓ Its converted to M1 in the animal’s body and appears as M1 in milk-
equally potent as B1 and B2
b. Aflatoxin G - Green i.e. fluorescents green
✓ Highly toxic
✓ Highly heat resistant
✓ Not destroyed by cooking
✓ Obtained through ingestion of contaminated foods
Public health importance of aflatoxins
▪ Liver damage: Hepatocellular carcinoma; cattle are fairly resistant.
▪ Human cases have been reported e.g. in Machakos and Muranga as a result of
consuming contaminated maize grains
3.6.5. Plant toxins
▪ When grazing in pastures, glaucoma producing alkaloids have been detected in
milk
3.6.6. Others
a. Disinfectants e.g. Cl, I, QACs
b. Adulterants e.g. peroxides, formaldehyde
c. Bacterial enzymes/toxins
3.7.MILK ABNORMALITIES (DEFECTS)
▪ Normal milk should be a free flowing white to yellowish fluid without abnormal
odours/flavours.
▪ It should not contain any extraneous materials such as dirt, animal dung, animal hairs
etc.
▪ The abnormalities commonly encountered in milk and milk products can be grouped
broadly into three categories:
- Off-flavours/odours
- Discolourations
- Consistency changes
3.7.1. Off-flavours/odours
▪ Three factors contribute to the occurrence of off-flavours in milk:
- Sensitivity of milk to chemical changes
- The ability of the cow (dairy animal) to act as condenser of odour substances from
feeds, weeds, and barn air
▪ Excellent qualities of milk as a fermentation medium
3.7.1.1. Off-favours due to chemical changes
3.7.1.1.1. Oxidized flavour
This is the most important single off-flavour of milk and a number of its milk
products
Comes from the oxidation of fat in presence of oxygen catalysed by Fe, Cu,
and sunlight
It’s mainly the highly unsaturated fatty acids, which are involved
Terms such as metallic, cardboard, oily and tallowry are commonly used to describe
the off-flavour

3.7.1.1.2. Rancidity flavour
▪ Occurs as a result of partial or complete hydrolysis of glycerides by lipase enzymes to
release volatile free short chain fatty acids e.g. butyric acid, which are responsible for
the off-flavour
▪ Lipids [Lipase hydrolyses] volatile FFAs(off-flavour)
▪ Short chain butyric acid is most important
▪ Agitating, homogenous and warming of milk enhances hydrolysis of glycerides and
increases rancidity
▪ Pasteurisation destroys lipase enzyme thus preventing rancidity
▪ Prevention: Pasteurise milk before homogenisation or immediately after homogenisation
and always handle raw milk with care
▪ Methionine…[sunlight-riboflavin]…methional + CO2 + NH3
- Sunlight facilitates breakdown of methionine and catalysed by riboflavin
3.7.1.1.3. Heated flavour
▪ This results from overheating of milk to temperatures more than 74oC i.e. higher than
those normally used for pasteurisation
▪ Heating milk to high temperatures releases free volatile sulphryl (-SH) groups from beta-
lactoglobulins and proteins of fat globule membrane
▪ Volatile sulphides and in particular hydrogen sulphide (H2S) impart the cooked flavour
▪ Some people like this flavour others don’t, particularly those used to drinking raw milk
3.7.1.2. Microbiological flavours
▪ Microorganisms growing in the milk produce them
▪ The flavours are varied because of the versatility of micro-organisms in producing
chemical changes
▪ Prevention: Good hygiene
Examples
▪ Manure-like: from dirt or coli-aerogeous bacteria
▪ Sour flavour from lactic acid producing bacteria. With more than 0.24% lactic acid you
get sourly taste
▪ Sour/rancid: from aerobic spore formers e.g. Cl. Botulinum
▪ Soapy flavour from pasteurization resistant bacilli
3.7.1.3. Drug flavours
▪ From oral or parenteral treated milking animals with drugs e.g. aloes and phenothiazines
3.7.1.4. Absorbed flavours

▪ Milk is a good absorber of odours
▪ The odour substance may enter the milk either before or after milking
▪ Entering before milking is more important
▪ Before milking (via the cow)
▪ There are two routes:
a. Respiratory tract
- Mouth/Nose ---Lungs---blood---udder---milk
- Odour substances breathed into lungs---enters blood stream---then the udder and -
--into the milk (the cow acts as odour trap)
40
b. Gastrointestinal tract (GIT)
▪ Mouth---intestines---blood---udder---milk
▪ Odour substances ingested---enter the git---are absorbed into blood—end up in milk
Types and sources of absorbed off-flavours
▪ From the animals themselves-sex flavours in goats
▪ From feeds e.g.
- Fermented feeds e.g. ensilage-fermented flavour
- Onion/garlic-characteristic flavour
- Cabbage, grape, beets, turnips-aromatic type flavour
- Fish meal-fishy flavour
- Ketone bodies due to ketosis. Ketone bodies are released into the milk from the
blood-get cowry flavour
- Barn air: from the surroundings, boma, dung-ammonia---hence ammoniacal odour
▪ N/B: Lactating animals and milk should always be kept at a place without odours and
containers should be tightly closed and should not be permeable
3.7.2. Discolourations
3.7.2.1. Gross particles
Dark or other coloured particles such as dirt or soil, intentionally or
unintentionally added to milk will present undesirable milk appearance
Clarification and removal is necessary before marketing
3.7.2.2. Yellow milk
▪ Yellow milk has various causes

a. Normal variations
▪ Due to species or breed of animals, for example Friesian (Holstein) breed of cattle has
white milk compared with jersey and Guernsey breeds.
▪ Due to feedstuffs given to the animals which contain carotenoids e.g. green fodder,
maize, carrots etc.
▪ Due to physiological changes, which make colostrum appear yellow
b. Abnormal variations with various causes:
▪ Microorganism e.g. Pseudomonas spp, Serattia, Yeasts and molds; yellow bacteria or
fungi in milk
▪ Diseases e.g. Piroplasmosis, babesiosis, icterus, mastitis, leptospirosis
▪ Drugs e.g. Tetracyclines, acridine dyes
3.7.2.3. Red milk
▪ Blood: due to mastitis, injury to udder or teat; frequent in newly freshened cows
▪ Feedstuffs: various types of leafy plants owing to admixture of red dye
▪ Microorganisms: red yeast
▪ Diseases: piroplasmosis and poisoning. Heavy lyses of RBC releasing Hb
▪ Drugs: Phenothiazines etc.
3.7.3. Consistency changes
▪ Change from normal fluid milk
▪ The observed different consistency changes in milk are due to various causes:
- Colostrum: is thicker than normal milk due to physiological changes e.g. has

increased solids and less water
- Clots, pus, flake, watery milk: common in mastitis
- Ropy/slimy milk: Microorganisms are exclusively responsible. Coliforms mostly
implicated
- Foamy milk: due to physiological changes, feedstuffs, microorganisms and
disease
3.8.HYGIENE IN MILK PRODUCTION AND MARKETING
3.8.1. Hygiene at the farm
Cow
Ensure healthy cow with healthy udder
Institute test programme for disease control e.g. TB, brucellosis
Humans
Healthy workers free from communicable disease
Practise personal hygiene
Have educational programmes
Other animals
E.g. fowls, swine etc. avoid in the milking barn
Facilities [Well designed and constructed buildings and structures]
Clean milking house
Good lighting
Efficient manure and urine disposal system
Efficient control of flies, pests, dust etc.
Water
Provision of potable water, hot and cold water for cleaning and other purposes
Clean milking equipment and materials
Buckets, cans, pipes, sterilised preferably by steam
Machines-cleaned and sanitised
Towels (clean). Preferably disposal towels
Milking exercise
Ensure animal body is clean
Clean the udder and teats with sanitised water
Dry with clean towel, preferably disposal paper towel
Test for milk first for mastitis-strip cup
Closed system (machine milking) preferred to hand milking open system: no
dirt, urine, flies etc. in milk
Teat dipping
Milk handling
Straining using clean filter cloth
Cooling to less than 10oC within 2-3 hours
Store and transport under cooling conditions
3.8.2. Hygiene at the dairy plant
▪ Hygiene control at the reception
▪ Check:
- Wholesomeness
42
- Adulterations
- Physical and chemical changes
▪ Biochemical tests
▪ Platform tests
1. Organoleptic test
- Smell
- Visual
- Tasting is not allowed in case of pathogens e.g. Brucella or tb bacilli
2. Alcohol test
3. Specific gravity (lactometer test)
4. Freezing point depression
▪ Laboratory tests
- 10 minutes resazuin dye test
- Sediment test
- Clot on boiling test
- Titration of titratable acidity
- Somatic cell counts (SCC)
- Antibiotic residues test
- Butter fat %
- Solids not fat

TOPIC 5: MILK PROCESSING
▪ Milk processing involves reducing concentration of one or more of the major constituents
and/or chemical degradation of one of the constituents
▪ Treatment of milk in a number of ways involving heating is also involved
▪ Why process?
- For the purpose of hygiene and quality control/to safe guard human health
- Prolongation of shelf-life (keeping time)
- Economic reasons-value addition
3.8.3. Clarification (Filtration)
▪ Clarification is the removal of extraneous insoluble material from milk which include:
- Dirt particles
- Animal hairs
- Soil
- Leucocytes
- Epithelial cells
- Some bacteria
Methods of clarification
▪ Centrifugation of cold milk using modified cream separator. Homogenisation comes later
▪ Filtration using cloth filters
▪ N/B: Clarification does not improve bacteriological quality, but gives aesthetic
satisfaction and improves sediment quality by removing gross materials like dirt and hairs
A. Standardisation of butter fat
▪ Why standardise fat?
1. For economic reasons
2. To guarantee constant fat content
3. To meet national and international standards
▪ Standardisation involves adjusting BF% by partial removal of cream or addition of
cream to milk
▪ Two procedures are used:
1. Continuous method by adjusting the separator, which standardizes the
butterfat
2. Completely skimming part of the milk then mixing it with whole milk
▪ Milk heated to 40-45oC is ideal for separation of cream using high speed (6000rpm)
cream separator. The other product is skimmed milk, very rich in proteins
▪ KEBS requires that BF% must always be specified if milk is standardised (whole
unprocessed milk BF% minimum 3.3%)
3.8.4. Homogenisation
▪ This is breaking of fat globules into finer particles and more stable state of dispersion
▪ Diameter of fat globules in cattle milk ranges from 0.1-10micrometers
▪ Milk fat should be in liquid state to be homogenised and milk heated to 55-60oC (at least
40oC) is suitable for homegenisation
Procedure
▪ Milk is pumped under high pressure (150 bars) through very small fine holes
▪ It is atomised and by abrasion/shear forces break up the fat globules to very small
44
particles <1micrometer diameter
▪ The particles are evenly distributed in milk and do not therefore coalesce to form cream
layer
▪ Globule SA is increased 4-5 times making the fat easily attacked by lipase enzymes
causing rancidity
▪ To prevent this immediate pasteurization is necessary to destroy the enzymes
3.8.5. Pasteurisation
▪ Pasteurisation is defined as the process of heating every particle of milk to at least 63oC
and holding it continuously at or above this temperature for at least 30 minutes
▪ Or at 72oC and holding it continuously at or above this temperature for at least 15 seconds
in an equipment which is properly operated and approved by the health authority
▪ The milk is heated at specific temperatures and times
Objectives of pasteurisation
1. To destroy all pathogenic microorganisms harmful to human health except
spore formers
2. To destroy most (99%) of the total microorganisms that can cause spoilage of
milk
3. To inactivate milk enzymes and enzymes produced by microorganisms
- With negligible effect on composition and nutrition
Methods of pasteurisation
1. Batch Holder Method [63oC for 30min at LTLT[Low Temperature Long
Time]
2. Continuous process[72oC for 15 seconds at HTST [High Temperature Short Time]
3. Flash Method [80oC for a short time 1-2 seconds]
▪ In the continuous process, if the temperature of the milk is below the set temperature (say
62oC), temperature control sensor sets diversion valve to open and divert the milk back
for re-pasteurisation
▪ Pasteurised milk is NOT STERILE
3.8.6. Cooling
▪ The milk is cooled quickly to 5oC after heat treatment to retard growth of the surviving
microorganisms and then kept in storage milk awaiting packaging
▪ N/B
- Test for proper pasteurisation soon after pasteurisation (alkaline phosphatase test)
- Must ensure no contamination after pasteurisation [pasteurisation milk is not
sterile]
- Keeping time (shelf life) is approximately 3 days under refrigeration
3.8.7. Milk sterilisation
▪ Sterilisation is destruction of all living things. All microorganisms including spore
formers are destroyed
Method
▪ Ultra High temperature (UHT) continuous process
▪ This involves heating milk under pressure at 135-150oC for a few seconds; e.g. steam is
injected into the milk and water of condensation is later removed
▪ Heating is followed by rapid cooling to 7-10oC. Aseptic packaging must be done to
remain sterile

▪ N/B: Keeping time-3 months at room temperature
▪ Beyond 3 months reactivation of enzymes leading to chemical and physical changes may
occur and milk becomes unfit for human consumption
3.9.MILK PRODUCTS
3.9.1. Dried milk powder (dried milk)
This product is prepared from high quality whole or skimmed milk, which is
pasteurised
Skimmed milk powder has better keeping quality
Purpose
To remove virtually all the water with little irreversible changes
To reduce cost of transportation
To improve the storage of the product
To provide a product which can be utilised for food manufacturing operations
Methods of Drying Milk
Spraying drying (most important)
Hot rotating drum
1. Spray drying
Pre-concentrated milk (condensed in a vacuum evaporator) is atomised i.e.
sprayed in small droplets into stream of dry hot air forced through a drying chamber
at high temperatures, 160-250oC
Water evaporates rapidly
Milk powder settles at the bottom
It is removed by means of separation bags or separation cyclones
Powder temperature: 90-120oC when it leaves
2. Hot rotating drum
Milk is spread in a thin film on the surface of internally steam heated (135-
150oC) rotating horizontal drum
It is dried in one rotation
Powder is removed by one or more scraper knives
Disadvantages of drum dried milk: Powder has burnt particles
N/B: Drying heat especially in spray drying cannot be relied upon to destroy
pathogens 100%
Procedure and Requirements
Good quality milk
If stored it should be at 3-5oC; product is used a baby food or in baby food
manufacture
Milk pre-heated 85oC
Hygienic drying process
Control of possible recontamination with e.g. birds or rodents faeces
Packaging under aseptic conditions
N/B: although because of low aw bacteria do not grow, disease outbreaks have
been reported due to salmonella as a result of re-contamination
Reconstitute using cold boiled water
Shelf-life of the product
46
- Whole milk powder -6 months
- Skimmed milk powder-3 years
Preservation principle: Inhibition due to low aw
Other requirements
Uniform composition
White to cream colour
No scorched milk particles
No dirt or extraneous matter
No abnormal taste or odour
3.9.2. Condensed milk
CONDENSED MILK (EVAPORATED)
Requirements
▪ Quality controlled milk
▪ Pasteurised
▪ Vacuum concentrated by heating at low pressure (aim is to increases TS to 25-30%)
▪ Homogenisation
▪ Canning
▪ Sterilisation by heating at 150oC, 2-3 seconds
▪ Shelf life: Unopened, undamaged cans-2 years or more; opened cans-24 hours
▪ Product especially used in production of chocolates
3.9.3. CONDENSED SWEETENED MILK
▪ This is prepared same as above, but sugar (heat treated) is added to give sugar in water
concentrated of >62%
▪ There is no final sterilisation. Sugar tolerant microbes for example Micrococci and
pathogenic Staphylococci may grow
▪ Complete filling of cans is essential to avoid growth of yeasts/molds
▪ Unopened cans kept very well. Keeping principle is low aw
Problems associated with concentrated milk
▪ Blowing of containers due to gas produced by microorganisms e.g. Yeasts genus
Turulopsis and molds of genus Aspergillus
▪ Thickening-due to bacterial coagulants Grittiness (sand feel)-due to small lactose crystals;
they feel like small sand
▪ Age-thickening, a serious defect which causes viscosity until a jelly-like product is
formed.
3.9.4. CULTURED PRODUCTS [Butter and Ghee]
Butter
▪ Butter is a milk fat made from milk cream
Procedure
▪ Separation of cream from milk using cream separator
▪ Ripening (10-18 hr)
▪ Cream is cooled and starter bacteria added to increased acidity and flavour that some
people like
▪ Pasteurisation of cream at a higher temperature than for normal milk to kill all the
pathogens, other microorganisms and inactivate enzymes, which is important so that

starter culture can grow
▪ Cream is also deodorised
▪ Ripening (12-18hr)
▪ Cream is cooled and starter bacteria added to increase acidity and flavour that some
people like
▪ Churning at 10-25oC until fat granules (pea size) form and fat separates out from the
butter milk
▪ Draining and washing off butter milk with boiled cold water
▪ Salting (about 2%) using dry salt or in brine (12%)
▪ Working the butter i.e. kneading the granules to adjust the water content and its
dispersion in the butter to obtain a homogenous fatty product
▪ Packaging, storage, freezing and canning
▪ Preservation principle: inhibition, low aw

▪ Preservation problems: oxidative rancidity
Ghee
▪ Is pure milk fat, a very stable compound
▪ However, rancidity is high with high water content
▪ Composition
- Fat = 99%
- Water 0.3%
- Proteins and minerals =traces
Processing
▪ It is prepared by heating butter or cream to 110-140oC to evaporate water and volatile
fatty acids
▪ Preservation principle is inhibition; aw is extremely low and adequately nutrients (e.g.
sugars) are absent
▪ Processing problems are hardly any; microbial and rancidity problems are limited
▪ Shelf life depends on water content, temperature, salt and atmosphere (rancidity and mold
growth)
Margarine [Not a cultured product]
▪ Margarine is not a pure milk product. It’s composition varies widely. It is a mixture of:
- Animal fats (beef, mutton, whale, fish etc.)
- Vegetable oils (coconut, palm, cotton seed)
- Milk fats (not always)
▪ The oils are hardened by hydrogenation of the unsaturated fatty acids
▪ Additives: colours, flavours, vitamins, emulsifiers (even distribution of fat), antispattering
agents etc.
▪ Quality: good keeping quality, low water activity
▪ Adequate nutrients but sugars are absent
▪ It’s cheaper than butter
Yoghurt
▪ Yoghurt is a fermented liquid milk product from whole OR skimmed milk
48
TOPIC 6: Dairy Law and Regulations
The Dairy Industry Act
This is chapter 336 of the laws of Kenya
An Act of Parliament to provide for the improvement and control of the dairy industry and its
products
o Some definitions
o “Board” means the Kenya Dairy Board;
o “butterfat” means the natural and complete fat which is present in milk;
o “Central Agricultural Board” means the Board established by section 35 of the
Agriculture Act (Cap. 318);
o “consumer” means a person who buys dairy produce for his own use and not for
resale;
o “dairy produce” means milk, cream, butter, ghee, cheese and any other product or
by-product of milk;
o “distributor” means a person who buys dairy produce for the purpose of resale;
o “ghee” means pure clarified butterfat containing no preservative or colouring matter
and no fats or oils other than butterfat;
o “milk” means milk from a cow;
o “Non-Scheduled Areas” means all areas of land in Kenya not for the time being
comprised in the Scheduled Areas;
o “package” includes cask, keg, crate, can, box, case, wrapper, tin, bottle, carton and
every other receptacle or covering used for the packing of dairy produce;
o “producer” means a person who produces, processes, manufactures, prepares or
treats dairy produce for sale;
o “registered producer” means a person registered under Part V;
o “retailer” means a producer who sells dairy produce directly to consumers or a
person who purchases dairy produce from a distributor for resale to consumers;
o “Scheduled Areas” means the areas of land specified in the Schedule;
o “sell” includes offer, advertise, keep, expose, transmit, convey, deliver, or prepare for
sale and any exchange or disposal for consideration.
Kenya Dairy board
Th dairy industry act establishes a government body known as the Kenya Dairy Board. This
board is composed of 12 members appointed by the minister. These are:
a) a chairman;
b) five members, being producers selected for appointment from a panel of not less than
ten names submitted to the Minister by the Central Agricultural Board;
c) three members, being selected for appointment from a panel of not less than seven
names submitted to the Minister by the Central Agricultural Board;
d) two members, being selected for appointment, after consultation by the Minister with
any person or organisation which the Minister thinks fit to consult; and
e) one member, being selected for appointment from a panel of not less than three names
submitted to the Minister by the Kenya members of the Association of Municipalities
of East Africa or of any body formed to take over the functions of that Association.

The vice chairman of the board is selected yearly from among these members. Each year
three of the board members shall retire being those who have been longest in office.
The board shall hold meetings at least once every month.
The functions of the Kenya Dairy board are:
a) to organise, regulate and develop the efficient production, marketing, distribution and
supply of dairy produce
b) to improve the quality of dairy produce;
c) to secure reasonable and stable prices to producers of dairy produce;
d) to promote market research in relation to dairy produce;
e) to permit the greatest possible degree of private enterprise in the production,
processing and sale of dairy produce
f) generally to ensure, either by itself or in association with any Government department
or local authority, the adoption of measures and practices designed to promote greater
efficiency in the dairy industry.
The board may advice the minister to make regulations with regards to milk on the following
areas:
a) prescribing grades for any form of dairy produce, and minimum standards to which
dairy produce shall conform
b) fixing the price to be paid for any grade or type of dairy produce to producers,
distributors or retailers, with power to fix different prices on a basis of quota or for
different seasons or circumstances;
c) prescribing the manner of handling, transporting and storing of dairy produce
intended for the use of or consumption by any person other than the producer thereof;
d) regulating and controlling the manufacture of any form of dairy produce;
e) imposing a levy or cess, payable to the Board, on any form of dairy produce,
f) prescribing the terms and form in which contracts for the sale of milk by producers,
other than producers who sell direct to consumers,
g) providing for the creation and administration by the Board of schemes for the pooling
of dairy produce by producers in such area
h) controlling the sale, purchase and delivery by any person of dairy produce in such
area as may be prescribed:
i) prescribing the areas within which retailers may sell dairy produce to consumers;
j) requiring the registration and licensing of distributors of dairy produce;
k) requiring the giving of such security to the Board as the Board may specify a licensed
distributor or retailer in respect of payment for dairy produce which a producer or
distributor is directed by the Board to sell to the distributor or retailer;
l) prescribing fees or charges for services rendered under this Act by the Board or its
officers, servants or agents;
m) prescribing the manner in which delegates to represent registered producers may be
selected;
n) requiring returns, reports and estimates to be furnished to the Board by producers,
distributors and retailers;
o) prescribing the forms of application, and of licences, marks, registers and all other
documents to be used
p) prescribing the manner of marking articles intended for use in connection with dairy
produce, including wrappers or packages intended to contain dairy produce;
50
q) prescribing the qualifications, powers and duties of inspectors and other persons
appointed to exercise powers and perform duties under the Act;
r) for the examination, inspection, analysis and testing of dairy produce or any article
used in connection with dairy produce,
s) authorising the opening by prescribed persons or officers, for the purpose of
inspection, of any package which contains or is reasonably thought to contain dairy
produce;
t) prescribing the books, accounts, vouchers and records to be kept by persons carrying
on business in dairy produce;
u) authorising the examination and inspection by prescribed persons or officers of all
books and documents relating to the production, manufacture, distribution or sale of
any dairy produce;
Registration of milk producers
A “primary producer” means a person who produces milk for sale, but does not include
persons employed by him for that purpose.
A primary producer is supposed to register with the board. Failing to register within one
month attracts a fine of 2000 shillings. The details needed are:
a) the full name and postal address of the primary producer;
b) the survey or land reference number of the dairy premises used;
c) such particulars as to the cattle, equipment, production and disposal of produce, and
otherwise in relation thereto, as may be prescribed by the Board.
The Public Health Act

This is chapter 242 of the laws of Kenya and is an Act of Parliament to make provision for
securing and maintaining health. This act covers all aspects of public health in Kenya
including dairy produce. As discussed earlier dairy produce can cause disease if pathogenic
microorganisms or dangerous resides are in it.
Some definitions concerning milk are:

“dairy” means any farmhouse, cow-shed, milk-shop, milk-store or other place from which
milk is supplied on, or for, sale, or in which milk is kept or used for purposes of sale or in
which only surplus milk is manufactured into butter or cheese, or in which vessels used for
the sale of milk are kept, but
does not include premises from which milk is not supplied otherwise than in receptacles
which are properly closed and sealed on delivery to the premises and which remain properly
closed and sealed during the whole time from their delivery to the premises until their
removal by the purchaser;
“dairyman” includes any cow-keeper, purveyor of milk or occupier of a dairy, and, in cases
where a dairy is owned by a corporation or company, the secretary or other person actually
managing the dairy;
As concerning milk:
Sale of unwholesome food prohibited
(1) No person shall sell or expose for sale or import or bring into any market or have in his
possession without reasonable excuse any food for man in a tainted, adulterated, diseased or
unwholesome state, or which is unfit for use, or any food for any animal which is in an
unwholesome state or unfit for their use, and any medical officer of health, veterinary officer,
sanitary inspector, meat inspector or police officer of or above the rank of Inspector may

seize any such food, and any magistrate on the recommendation of the medical officer of
health, a sanitary inspector or a veterinary officer may order it to be destroyed, or to be so
disposed of as to prevent it from being used as food for man or animal as the case may be.
(2) No person shall collect, prepare, manufacture, keep, transmit or expose for sale any
foodstuffs without taking adequate measures to guard against or prevent any infection or
contamination thereof.
The act also states the following

The Minister, on the advice of the board, may make rules regarding all or any of the
following matters—
a. the inspection of dairy stock and of animals intended for human consumption,
and of dairies, stock-sheds or yards, milk-shops, milk
b. the taking and examination of samples of milk, dairy produce, and the removal
or detention of them and the seizure and destruction or treatment, or disposal
so as not to endanger health
c. fixing standards of cleanliness of milk,
d. the conveyance and distribution of milk and the labelling or marking of
receptacles used for the conveyance of milk;
e. the veterinary inspection of dairy stock, the sampling and bacteriological
examination of milk and dairy produce and the prevention of the sale, or the
keeping, transmission or exposure for sale, of milk from a diseased or infected
animal;
f. the duties of cow-keepers, dairymen and purveyors of milk in connexion with
the occurrence of infectious disease amongst person residing or employed in
or about their premises
g. the furnishing by them of the names and addresses of their customers, and of
cow-keepers in connexion with reporting the occurrence of any dairy cattle of
diseases which are communicable to man and of any disease of the udder;
b) (k) prohibiting the importation, sale, possession or use of vessels which are intended
to contain milk
c) and which are rusty or defectively soldered or are made of material containing in any
part likely to come in contact with the contents, lead or other poisonous or injurious
substance
The minister may make orders to:

a. requiring the medical examination of any person in any premises in which any
milk or dairy produce or other article of food intended for sale
b. prohibiting the registration as cow-keeper, dairyman or purveyor of milk, or
the employment in connexion with the collection, preparation, storage,
distribution or sale of milk, or dairy produce or any article of food, of any
person who has been proved to be a carrier of the infection of typhoid or
enteric fever or other infectious disease;
c. requiring the closing of any stock-shed or yard, dairy or milk-shop, or the
exclusion from any stock-shed or dairy premises of any animal the milk from
which is believed to have conveyed or to be liable to convey any infectious
disease;
d. prohibiting the sale or exposure for sale of milk by any cow-keeper, dairyman
or purveyor of milk who has been three times convicted of offences under any
laws or rules regarding the milk trade.
52
In addition every municipal council (in this case the county) may:
a. for regulating, supervising and licensing purveyors of milk and icecream
makers and vendors;
b. for regulating, inspecting, supervising and licensing dairies and milkshops;
c. for regulating the conveyance and distribution and securing the identification
of the source of milk or milk products distributed, offered for sale or sold
within its area of jurisdiction;
d. for prescribing the conditions subject to which any milk or milk products,
wherever produced or prepared, may be introduced, distributed, stored, sold or
used within its area of jurisdiction;
e. for enabling such municipal council to certify the quality of any milk and
prohibiting the unauthorized use of any terms employed by the municipal
council in denoting such quality; and
f. for prohibiting the introduction, distribution, storage, sale or use within its area
of jurisdiction of any milk or milk products that the consumption of such milk
or milk products is likely to cause the outbreak or spread of any infectious or
contagious diseases,

TOPIC 7: MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS MARKETING
1. Introduction
Until recently the dairy industry in Kenya was characterised by one major processor,
the Kenya Co-operative Creameries (KCC). Before liberalisation of the dairy
industry in 1992, KCC enjoyed a near monopoly of the Kenya Dairy market. With
the emergence of numerous small scale to medium scale dairy processors, the market
has become more competitive. In this competitive market, KCC is facing a challenge
from the new manufacturers while the new manufactures have to compete first
against a well established and large processor like KCC and secondly between
themselves for a slice of the same market: the Kenya consumer.
The survival of individual dairy processors will very much depend on how
successfully they can win consumer confidence in their products. this calls for
knowledge and skills in marketing techniques Most of the newly established small to
medium scale dairy processors have very little or no experience in milk marketing.
In order to assist them improve their marketing skills, the training programme for
small scale dairy sector under project GOK/FAO/TCP/KEN/6611, has prepared this
guide on Milk and Milk products marketing to be used for training and by the private
small scale dairy processors. The emphasis is on practical approaches to marketing
taking into account the real situation existing in Kenya at the present moment.
2. Marketing
2.1 What is marketing?
Marketing may be defined as "the performance of all business activities involved in
the flow of goods and services from the producer to the consumer".
This implies that there are several categories of key players in the marketing chain
each with its own vested interests. Consumers want to get what they need at the
lowest price possible. producers on the other hand are interested in getting the
highest possible return for their milk. Between them, there are market intermediaries
or middlemen who perform various marketing functions such as transportation or
retailing. Their interest is to make the highest profit possible from their particular
business operation.
2.2 The milk marketing channel

A study of the milk marketing system in Kenya has shown that there are at least 8
different marketing channels as shown below:
Milk Marketing Channels Number of
intermediaries
Producer-consumer 0
Producer-milk hawker-consumer 1
Producer-processor-consumer 1
Producer-processor- retailer-consumer 2
Producer-dairy co-operative -processor- retailer consumer 3
Producer-milk transporter-processor - retailer-consumer 3
Producer-milk trader-processor-retailer-consumer 3
54
Producer-dairy coop - milk transporter-processor-retailer- 4
consumer
The number of intermediaries involved will have a bearing on both producer and
consumer milk prices. The shorter the channel the more likely that the consumer
prices will be low and the producer will get a higher return.
A notable omission in the milk marketing channel obtaining in Kenya is the absence
of wholesalers. Retailers obtain their dairy products directly from processors.
From the consumer point of view, the shorter the marketing chain, the more likely is
the retail price going to be low and affordable. This explains why, following the
liberalisation of the dairy industry, direct sales of raw milk from producers to
consumers (channel 1) or through hawkers (channel 2) has been on the increase
despite the public health risks associated with the consumption of untreated milk and
milk products. Milk producers may not necessarily benefit from a short marketing
chain i.e. milk processors in channels 5 - 6 may be paying farmers the same price as
hawkers. However, farmers sometimes prefer selling milk to hawkers because other
factors such as prompt payments and inaccessibility to formal market outlets such as
producer co-operatives or lack of near by milk processing factory. The biggest
disadvantage of direct milk sales to consumers by hawkers is the total lack of quality
control and the frequent rate of adulteration of milk with (dirty) water, which is
illegal. An efficient milk marketing chain is one which enable farmers to receive at
least 50% of the retail price of milk.
3. Marketing and Pricing of Milk and Milk Products
The price of a product in the market is an important factor influencing consumer
demand. Hence to be marketable, a dairy product must be competitively priced. This
implies that the costs involved in raw material procurement, processing, packaging,
storage, marketing and distribution must be kept as low as possible. generally the
price of a dairy product will involve the following costs:
a. Cost of raw milk
b. Cost of raw milk collection and transportation
c. Cost of processing
d. Cost of packaging
e. Cost of marketing and distribution
f. Taxes and tariffs
g. Profit margins at each stage of the marketing channel (Collection, Processing and
marketing margins)
In order to arrive at a realistic costing of a product, all those elements involved at
each stage must be carefully calculated on a unit basis. This is known as Cost
Accounting. The table below shows some of the essential cost elements:
Market function Cost element
1. Raw milk procurement Cost of raw milk; labour; materials etc.; collection
margin
2. Transportation Transport cost; labour; materials and equipment;

transport margin
3. Processing Raw materials; machinery and equipment; labour;

packaging; energy; taxes; marketing and distribution;
processing margin

4. Marketing and distribution Transport; labour; materials; rent; retail margin
The cost can be broadly categorised as fixed costs and variable costs. Fixed costs
include things like depreciation of equipment and buildings while variable cost
include direct expenses such as raw material; marketing expenses; overhead costs
[labour and personnel expenses (see Appendix 1 for complete list of expenses1)].
It is important that all the cost elements are included in the calculation of the market
value of the product. Overpricing can lead to uncompetitiveness of the product while
under pricing can cause financial loss and eventual collapse of the business.
4. Marketing Information System and Research

Information is required at all levels in the marketing channel. Before you decided to
process and market any dairy product, it is important to know the potential market
for each particular product. This is important to enable the processor to know which
types and when, where and how much of each product to manufacture and market. It
is very crucial because unless goods can be supplied in the right form, place and
times, consumers may not be able to buy. This then requires securing and utilising
market information.
Marketing information should address the following:
• Area to be covered
• Price information (Price variations, price for premium quality discount price etc.)
• Number and type of consumers (market segmentation)
• Current and future product supply levels
• Type and number of competitors
In the absence of comprehensive marketing information system such as is the case in
many developing countries it may be necessary for each individual processor or
through their organisation to organise the gathering and dissemination of such
information. Short market survey and/or Consumer studies are useful tool for
gathering such information.
5. Feasibility Study for Milk Marketing and Processing

Before one decides to invest in the business of milk marketing and/or processing one
should carry out a feasibility study to establish the economic viability of the planned
business. this should include a realistic business plan.
5.1 The essential elements of a feasibility study

The essential elements of a feasibility study should include:
• Establish the amount of milk produced, both in the morning and evening, at the
proposed site, throughout the year
• Identify the current market outlets available for milk products in the area
• Determine the average fresh milk and various milk products prices being charged by
local producers.
• Test various product samples for taste to determine acceptable products being
produced in the proposed area
• Locate sources of energy (fuel-wood, charcoal, electricity, etc. and water)
• Determine the capital investment required (be sure to include land, building,
equipment and power).
56
• Draw up a clear business plan that will establish the viability of the proposed milk
marketing or processing enterprise.
5.2 Guidelines for business plan preparation

In planning your business, you must examine four major areas:
1. Description of the business.
a. What type of business are you planning?
b. What product will you sell?
c. What type of opportunity is it (new, expansion, seasonal, year round?)
d. What are the opportunities for growth?
2. Marketing plan.
a. Who are your potential customers/
b. How will you attract and hold your share of the market?
c. Who are your competitors? How are their businesses prospering?
d. How will you promote your sales/
e. Who will be your suppliers?
f. Where will the business be located?
3. Organisation plan
a. Who will manage the business?
b. What qualifications will you look for in a manager?
c. How many employees will you need/
d. How will you manage finances?
e. How will you keep records?
f. What legal form of ownership will you choose and why?
g. What licences and permits will you need?
h. What regulations will affect your business?
4. Financial plan
a. What is your estimated business income for the first year?
b. What will it cost you to open the business?
c. What will be your monthly cash flow during the first year?
d. What sales volume will you need in order to make a profit during the first year?
e. What will be your break even level of production?
f. What will be the capital value of your equipment/
g. What will be the total financial needs?
h. What will be the potential funding sources?
i. How will you secure loans?
References:
1. TECHNOSERVE, 1995. Mala Manual: A Guide for Establishing and Operating
Small Scale Enterprises for the Production of Cultured Milk. Publ. Technoserve, Inc.
1995.
2. IDF/FIL, 1990. Handbook on Milk Collection in warm Developing Countries. IDF
Special issue No. 9002. 1990.

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BARATON COLLEGE IN

COLLABORATION WITH UNISA

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HEALTH AND PRODUCTION

00221 ANHP / 00221ANPR (Certificate)

ANHE 00221: Dairy technology Page 1 of 57

ANHP 00221: Dairy Technology

Is this course for you?

Introduction to the course

Topic 3: Physical properties of milk and Milk composition (Gross and

Topic 4: Milk hygiene

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Figure 1: A small scale farmer milking her animal.

Topic 2: Milk Secretion (Mammary gland anatomy and physiology)

1. Anatomy of mammary gland

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of the gland. It is located at the center of gravity of the udder to give

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1.2. Secreting tissue and connective tissue

2. Neural system of the mammary gland

Figure 3 - The milk ejection reflex (The Babcock Institute, University of

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A common cause of failure to milk ejection is associated with stress of milking

3.1. Arterial system

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Figure 5 - Blood circulation to and from the udder.

3.2. Venous system

3.3. Venous circle

3.4. Lymphatic system

3.5. Functions of lymphatic system:

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3.6. Lymphatic network

3.7. Udder edema

Galactopoiesis is the maintenance of lactation once lactation has been

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A healthy mammary gland is one the basis to product commercialisable dairy

Figure 5 - Blood circulation to and from the udder. p. 8

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3.1. Physical properties of milk

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Milk Borne Diseases

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Table 2: Common pathogens contaminating milk and causing disease in humans

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3.6. RESIDUES IN MILK AND DISEASE CONDITIONS CAUSED

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Pesticide limits in milk KEBS: KS 05-10:1992

3.6.3. Radionuclids [radioactive particles]

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3.7.1.4. Absorbed flavours

▪ Yellow milk has various causes

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▪ Preservation principle: inhibition, low aw

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The Public Health Act

Some definitions concerning milk are: