div orad an | informal CUFT text and on vector all caleulus that second edition h. m. scheyDi vy Nm weep Weng WEEE 2 ed EEL An Informal Text on Vector Calculus SECOND EDITION H. M. SCHEY Since its publication in 1973, a generation of science and engineer- ing students have learned vector calculus from Dr. Schey’s Div, Grad, Curl, and All That. This book was written to help science and engineering students gain a thorough understanding of those ubiqui- tous vector operators: the divergence, gradient, curl, and Laplacian. The Second Edition preserves the text’s clear and informal style, moderately paced exposition, and avoidance of mathematical rigor which have made it a successful supplement in a variety of courses, including beginning and intermediate electromagnetic theory, fluid dynamics, and calculus. Highlights of the Second Edition: © Conversion from cgs to rationalized MKS units. @ A revised art program that includes many new figures and fig- ures redrawn for greater clarity. @ A new section on simple connectedness. @ New reference tables on vector identities involving the operator del, and one listing the divergence, curl, gradient, and Laplacian in Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates. Cover design by Jay J. Smith ISBN 0-393-96251-2 W:W:-NORTON | 90000> NEW YORK * LONDON 9 "780393962512!DIVERGENCE THEOREM ffraas= ff fv-rar STOKES’ THEOREM p veias= f fav xras © s IDENTITIES INVOLVING THE OPERATOR V* Vi fe) =f Vat svf V(F-G) = (G-V)F + (F:V)G + FX (V XG) + GX (V X F) V-(fF) =f V-F+F-VS V-(F XG) =G-(V X F) — F-(V XG) V:VXF=0 VX (fF) =fVXF+(Vf)XF Vv X (F X G) = (G- V)F — (F-V)G + F(V-G) — G(V-F) VX (VX F) = V(V-F) — VF vxvf=0 * fand g are scalar functions of position, and F and G are vector functions of position.div, grad, curl, and all that second editiondiv, grad, an informal texth. m. schey curl, and all that on vector calculus second edition W-W- NORTON & COMPANY New York - LondonCopyright © 1992, 1973 by W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America The text of this book is composed in Times Roman with the display set in Optima. Composition by University Graphics Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Schey, H. M. (Harry Moritz), 1930- Div, grad, curl, and all that : an informal text on vector calculus / H. M. Schey. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Vector analysis. I. Title. QA433.S28 (1992 515’.63—de20 91-45209 ISBN 0-393-9625 1-2 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10110 W.W. Norton & Company, Ltd., 10 Coptic Street, London WCIA IPU 4567890Zusammengestohlen aus Verschiedenem diesem und jenem. Ludwig van BeethovenContents Preface Chapter! Introduction, Vector Functions, and Electrostatics Introduction Vector Functions Electrostatics Problems Chapter II Surface Integrals and the Divergence Gauss’ Law The Unit Normal Vector Definition of Surface Integrals Evaluating Surface Integrals Flux Using Gauss’ Law to Find the Field The Divergence The Divergence in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates The Del Notation The Divergence Theorem Two Simple Applications of the Divergence Theorem Problems Chapter III Line Integrals and the Curl Work and Line Integrals oun ll 11 12 17 21 29 32 36 41 43 44 49 51 62 62Contents Viii Line Integrals Involving Vector Functions Path Independence The Curl The Curl in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates The Meaning of the Curl Differential Form of the Circulation Law Stokes’ Theorem An Application of Stokes’ Theorem Stokes’ Theorem and Simply Connected Regions Path Independence and the Curl Problems Chapter IV The Gradient Line Integrals and the Gradient Finding the Electrostatic Field Using Laplace’s Equation Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Geometric Significance of the Gradient The Gradient in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates Problems Solutions to Problems Bibliography 65 69 74 81 84 89 91 97 99 100 101 113 113 120 122 129 136 139 142 155 159 161Preface to the Second Edition It takes a long time to bring excellence to maturity. Publilius Syrus This new edition, although it comes nearly 20 years after the first, does not differ much from its predecessor. The major change is the switch from cgs units to rationalized MKS units. As an old theoretician, I made this change reluctantly, but the use of MKS units in modern physics and engineering texts is so widespread that I felt it necessary to follow suit to spare students the confusion of working with one system of units in one course and a second system in another. (One of my colleagues tells of the student who plaintively asked which of the two Gauss’ laws was correct, the one that says the flux of the electric field equals the enclosed charge times 47 or the one that says it equals the enclosed charge divided by ¢.) Another change is the addition of material on simple con- nectedness and the role it plays in Stokes’ theorem and path independence. Some may regard the inclusion of this subject as a departure from the nonrigorous character of the book, but I wanted to give an accurate account of the relationships among path independence, the curl, and the gradient, and for this pur- pose simple connectedness is essential. Despite the few pagesPreface to the Second Edition devoted to this technical point, I believe the book continues to deal with vector calculus in a straightforward way, to rely on intuition, and to emphasize the physical and geometrical aspects of the subject. I doubt that anyone will accuse me of being too rigorous. Other more minor changes include the modification of some of the problems and the addition of a few new ones, the correc- tion of some misstatements and typographical errors, and the elimination of a few embarrassing mistakes in grammar. In addition, figures have been redrawn for greater clarity. I wish to express my gratitude to Kent Chamberlin (Univer- sity of New Hampshire), Anthony D. Novaco (Lafayette Col- lege), Michael H. Ritzwoller (University of Colorado), J. T. Scheick (Ohio State University), and Jeffery T. Williams (Uni- versity of Houston), who provided critiques of the text and sug- gestions for the new edition. Their advice was usually excellent, and sometimes heeded. I take particular pleasure in thanking my colleague Richard J. Orr (Rochester Institute of Technol- ogy) for patiently giving me the benefit of his impressive erudi- tion, mathematical and otherwise. H. M. Schey Rochester, New York September 1991div, grad, curl, and all that second editionChapter | Introduction, Vector Functions, and Electrostatics Introduction One lesson, Nature, let me learn of thee. Matthew Arnold In this text the subject of vector calculus is presented in the con- text of simple electrostatics. We follow this procedure for two reasons. First, much of vector calculus was invented for use in electromagnetic theory and is ideally suited to it. This presen- tation will therefore show what vector calculus is and at the same time give you an idea of what it’s for. Second, we have a deep-seated conviction that mathematics—in any case some mathematics—is best discussed in a context which is not exclu- sively mathematical. Thus, we will soft pedal mathematicalIntroduction, Vector Functions, and Electrostatics rigor, which we think is an obstacle to learning this subject on a first exposure to it, and appeal as much as possible to physical and geometric intuition. Now, if you want to learn vector calculus but know little or nothing about electrostatics, you needn’t be put off by our approach; no very great knowledge of physics is required to read and understand this text. Only the simplest features of electro- statics are involved, and these are presented in a few pages near the beginning. It should not be an impediment to anyone. In fact, the entire discussion is based on a search for a convenient method of finding the electrostatic field given the distribution of electric charges which produce it. This is the thread which runs through, and unifies, our presentation, so that as a bare mini- mum all you really need do is take our word for the fact that the electric field is an important enough quantity to warrant spend- ing some time and effort in setting up a general method for cal- culating it. In the process, we hope you will learn the elements of vector calculus. Having said what you do not need to know, we must now say what you do need to know. To begin with, you should, of course, be fluent in elementary calculus. Beyond that you should know how to work with functions of several variables, partial deriva- tives, and multiple (double and triple) integrals.' Finally, you must know something about vectors. This, however, is a subject of which too many writers and teachers have made heavy weather. What you should know about it can be listed quickly: definition of vector, addition and subtraction of vectors, multi- plication of vectors by scalars, dot and cross products, and finally, resolution of vectors into components. An hour’s time with any reasonable text on the subject should provide you with all you need to know of it to follow this text. Vector Functions One of the most important quantitites we deal with in the study of electricity is the electric field, and much of our presentation will make use of this quantity. Since the electric field is an exam- ple of what we call a vector function, we begin our discussion with a brief resumé of the function concept. ' Differential equations are used in one section of this text. The section is not essential and may be omitted if the mathematics is too frightening.Vector Functions A function of one variable, generally written y = f(x), isa rule which tells us how to associate two numbers x and y; given x, the function tells us how to determine the associated value of y. Thus, for example, if y = f(x) = x? — 2, then we calculate y by squaring x and then subtracting 2. So, if x = 3, yo? -2=7. Functions of more than one variable are also rules for asso- ciating sets of numbers. For example, a function of three vari- ables designated w = F(x, y, z) tells how to assign a value to w given x, y, and z. It is helpful to view this concept geometri- cally; taking (x, y, z) to be the Cartesian coordinates of a point in space, the function F(.x, y, z) tells us how to associate a num- ber with each point. As an illustration, a function T(x, y, z) might give the temperature at any point (x, y, z) in a room. The functions so far discussed are scalar functions; the result of “plugging” x in f(x) is the scalar y = f(x). The result of “plugging” the three numbers x, y, and z in T(x, y, z) is the temperature, a scalar. The generalization to vector functions is straightforward. A vector function (in three dimensions) is a tule which tells us how to associate a vector with each point (x, y, z). An example is the velocity of a fluid. Designating this function v(x, y, z), it specifies the speed of the fluid as well as the direction of flow at the point (x, y, z). In general, a vector function F(x, y, z) specifies a magnitude and a direction at every point (x, y, z) in some region of space. We can picture a vector function as a collection of arrows (Figure I-1), one for each point (x, y, z). The direction of the arrow at any point is the direction specified by the vector function, and its length is proportional to the magnitude of the function. Figure I-1 A vector function, like any vector, can be resolved into com- ponents, as in Figure I-2. Letting i, j, and k be unit vectors alongIntroduction, Vector Functions, and Electrostatics Figure |-2 the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively, we write F(x, y, z) = iF (x, y, z) + JF,(x, y, z) + KFC, y, Zz). The three quantities F,, F,, and F,, which are themselves scalar functions of x, y, and z, are the three Cartesian components of the vector function F(x, y, z) in some coordinate system.” An example of a vector function (in two dimensions for sim- plicity) is provided by F(x, y) = ix + jy, which is illustrated in Figure I-3. You probably recognize this function as the position vector r. Each arrow in the figure is in NA AN 2 Some writers use subscripts to indicate the partial derivative; for example, F, = 8F/Ax. We shall not adopt such notation here; our subscripts will always denote the vector component. Figure I-3Electrostatics Electrostatics the radial direction (that is, directed along a line emanating from the origin) and has a length equal to its distance from the origin.’ A second example, G(x, y) = Vater yt is shown in Figure I-4. You should verify for yourself that for this vector function all the arrows are in the tangential direction Figure 1-4 (that is, each is tangent to a circle centered at the origin) and all have the same length. We shall base our discussion of electrostatics on three experi- mental facts. The first of these facts is the existence of electric charge itself. There are two kinds of charge, positive and nega- tive, and every material body contains electric charge,’ although often the positive and negative charges are present in equal amounts so that there is zero net charge. The second fact is called Coulomb’s law, after the French physicist who discovered it. This law states that the electrostatic force between two charged particles (a) is proportional to the > Note that by convention an arrow is drawn with its tail, not its head, at the point where the vector function is evaluated. * Purists will point out that neutrons, neutral pi mesons, neutrinos, and the like do not contain charge.Introduction, Vector Functions, and Electrostatics Figure I-5 product of their charges, (b) is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, and (c) acts along the line joining them. Thus, if q and g are the charges of two particles a distance r apart (Figure I-5), then the force on gy due to q is F=Kk%q , where @ is a unit vector (that is, a vector a length 1) pointing from q to qo, and K is a constant of proportionality. In this text we'll use rationalized MKS units. In that system length, mass, and time are measured in meters, kilograms, and seconds, rese- pectively, and electric charge in coulombs. With this choice of units K = (1/47), where the constant ¢, called the permittiv- ity of free space, has the value 8.854 X 107” coulombs* per newton-meters’, and Coulomb’s law reads = 1% . F=7,e (I-1) You should convince youself that the familiar rule “like charges repel, unlike charges attract” is built into this formula.. The third and last fact is called the principle of superposition. If F, is the force exerted on go by q, when there are no other charges nearby, and F, is the force exerted on q, by q, when there are no other charges nearby, then the principle of super- position says that the net force exerted on go by q, and q, when they are both present is the vector sum F, + F,. This is a deeper statement than it appears at first glance. It says not merely that electrostatic forces add vectorially (all forces add vectorially), but that the force between two charged particles is not modified by the presence of other charged particles. We now introduce a vector function of position which will play a leading role in our discussion. It is the electrostatic field, denoted E(r) and defined by the equation E(r) = F(r)/qo, orElectrostatics F(r) = q.E(r). That is, the electrostatic field is the force per unit charge. From Equation (I-1) we have E(r) == 4a (1-2) This is the electrostatic field at r due to the charge q. A natural extension of these ideas is the following. Suppose we have a group of N charges with q, situated at r,, g, at r,, +» Gv at ry. Then the electrostatic force these charges exert on a charge qp situated at ris N oo 041 __ a Fo = fol pn (1-3) where @, is the unit vector pointing from r, tor. From Equation (1-3) we have 1 u E(r) = — > —* <4, Wy 4me fa lpn? | (1-4) This is the electrostatic field at r = ix + jy + kz produced by the charges g,atr,(/ = 1,2,...,.). Equation (I-4) says that the field due to a group of charges is the vector sum of the fields each produces alone. That is, superposition holds for fields as well as forces. You may think of the region of space in the vicin- ity of a charge or group of charges as “pervaded” by an electro- static field; the net electrostatic force exerted by those charges on a charge g at a point r is then gE(r). You may be a bit mystified about our bothering to introduce a new vector function, the electrostatic field, which differs in an apparently trivial way from the electrostatic force. There are two major reasons for doing this. First, in electrostatics we are interested in the effect that a given set of charges produces on another set. This problem can be conveniently divided into two parts by introducing the electrostatic field, for then we can (a) calculate the field due to a given distribution of charges without worrying about the effect these charges have on other charges in the vicinity and (b) calculate the effect a given field has on charges placed in it without worrying about the distribution of charges that produced the field. In this book we will be con- cerned with the first of these. The second reason for introducing the electrostatic field isIntroduction, Vector Functions, and Electrostatics PROBLEMS more basic. It turns out that all classical electromagnetic theory can be codified in terms of four equations, called Maxwell’s equations, which relate fields (electric and magnetic) to each other and to the charges and currents which produce them. Thus, electromagnetism is a field theory and the electric field ultimately plays a role and assumes an importance which far transcend its simple elementary definition as “force.per unit charge.” Very often it is convenient to treat a distribution of electric charge as if it were continuous. To do this, we proceed as fol- lows. Suppose in some region of space of volume AV the total electric charge is AQ. We define the average charge density in AVas 3,, = 42 Par ™ 57° (1-5) Using this, we can define the charge density at the point (x, y, z), denoted p(x, y, z), by taking the limit of 7,, as AV shrinks down about the point (x, y, z): A oxy z= tim S2— tim jy. U6) avo A av—0 about (xy.z) about (xy,2) The electric charge in some region of volume V can then be expressed as the triple integral of p(x, y, z) over the volume V; that is, o= ff fosrzrav. In much the same way it follows that for a continuous distri- bution of charges, Equation (I-4) is replaced by ee -S ff see av a) J-1 Using arrows of the proper magnitude and direction, sketch each of the following vector functions: (a) iy + jx. (c) ix — jy. (b) G+ j)/V2. (4) iy.