T h e R e l a tionships Between Existential Coping S t y l e s ,

Hassles, and W e l l -Being in a Non-Lnsti tu t i o n a l ized E l d e r l y

Population.

by
Eyal Bodens tein

A t h e s i s s u b m i t t e d t o t h e Faculty of Graduate
Studies in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Graduate Programme i n Psychology

York University
North York, Ontario

Key Words
Elderly, Existential Coping, Hassles, Well-Being
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 The R e l a t i o n s h i p s Between E m o t i o n a l C o p i n g S t y l e s ,
Eassles, a n d Well-Being i n an N o n - I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d
Elderly Population

I
by E y a l Bodens t e i n

a dissertation submitted to the faculty of Graduate Studies of

York University in partial fulfilknent of the requirernents for the
degree of

I @ 1997
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MICROF1LMS to publisti an abstract of this dissertation.

The author reserves other publication rights. and neither the

dissertation nor extensive extracts from it may be printed or
otherwise reproduced without the author's wrrtten permission.
 Abstract
Stress, coping and well-being among older adults have
acquired increasing empirical attention in gerontology.
m i l e most inveetigationa have focused on coping with major
life stressors ( e . g . , death of a spouse, divorce), the
present thesis utilized daily hassles as a measure of
stress. Daily hassles have been suggested as a better
measure of stress thaa major stressors, one which may
account for more of the variance in well-being. This study
investigated the roles thtee previously established
exiatential resources (spirituality, optimism and
meaningfulnees), for coping with daily hassles among noa-
institutionalized older adults. Optimism, and to a lesser
degree meaningfulness, were significantly correlated with a

reduced number and inteneity of hassles, and with improved

well-being. Spirituality was moderately correlated with
improved well-being but was not correlated with reduced
hassles. While the three existential resources were related
to one another, they are not thought to be a part of a
unitary construct. More frequent and intense haaalee were
health-related, confirmiag previous finding8. The
implications for dealing with hassles in late life are
discussed, and suggestions for future reaearch are provided.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
1. Introduction ...............Introduction...,.....-.,,,...,.,....,,........,,................ 1

1. Old Age, the E l d e r l y and the Aged . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 . Daily Hassles and Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

3 . Coping styles and w e l l - b e i n g i n late

Adulthood .................................... .6
4 . The Choice of Existential coping Styles in the

Presen Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1 . Religiosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2 . Meaningfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

3 . Optimism/Hope ................................ 23

A i m s of t h e Proposed Study ........................ 32

Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4
Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5
1 . Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5

2 . S a m p l e S i z e .................................. 36

3 . Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

A . Sociodemographic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
B . Daily Kassles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
C . Spirituality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

D . Optimism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
v
 E . Meaningfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
F . Perceived Well Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4
G . Objective Health Measures . . . . . . . . .45
H . Self Reported Memory Measure . . . . . .47
4. Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5. Data Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
VI1 . Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1 . Demographics and Descriptive Statistics. . . . . . Sr

2 . Hypotheses Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

A . Perceived Well-Being and Daily Hassles . . . . 73

B . The Three Existential coping Styles and
Daily Hassles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
C . The Three Existential coping Styles and
Perceived Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
D . The Three Existential coping Styles and
Perceived Psychological Versus Physical
Well-Being. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
E . Intercorrelations of the Three Existential
coping styles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
F . The Advantage of the Three Existential
coping Styles Over Daily Hassles in
Predicting Perceived Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1 . Stepwise Regressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

2 . Simultaneous Regressions . . . . . . . . . . 87
3 . Interaction Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

vi
 G . T h e Moderating Effect of the Three

Existential coping styles on the

Relationship Between Daily H a s s l e s and
Perceived Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 0
H. The Effects of Health on Daily Hassles and
Perceived Well-Being. . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
VIII. Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
1. Perceived Well-Being and Daily Hassles . . . . . .107

2. The Three Existential coping Styles and Daily

Hassles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3. The Weakness of Spirituality as a Mechanism

For Coping With Daily Hassles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110

4. T h e Three Existential coping Styles and

Perceived Well-Being. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

5 . The Three Existential coping Styles and

Perceived Psychological Versus Physical

Well-Being. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6. Relationships Between the Three Existential

coping styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

7. The Advantage of the Three Existential

coping Styles Over Daily H a s s l e s in

P r e d i c t i n g Perceived Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
8. The Moderating Effect of the Three Existential

coping styles on the Relationship Between

Daily Hassles and Perceived Well-Being. . . . . . 122
vii
 9 . The Effects of Health on Daily Hassles and
Perceived Weil-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
IX . Conclusions and Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
X. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Appendix A: Consent to Participate Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Appendix 8 : Measures as Administered to Respondents . . . . . 149
Appendix C: Calculation of Sample S i z e using
Power Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
Appendix D: Interaction Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Appendix E: Correlation matrix of the individual items
from the optimism and perceived well-being
rneasures .............,.,.............,..... 183

Appendix F: Correlation rnatrix of the individual items

from the meaningfulness and perceived
well-being measures ......................... 186

viii
1 6 Regression of Perceived Well-Being on Hassle
Intensity, Optimisrn, Meaningfulness, and
Spirituality for Group 1............................86
17. Regression of Perceived Well-Being on Hassle
Intensity, Optimism, Meaningfulness, and
Spirituality for Group 2.........,..................86
18. Results of simultaneous multiple regression analysis
of total hassle scores, spirituality, optimism, and
meaningfulness on perceived well-being. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
19. Results of simultaneous multiple regression analysis
of hassle frequency, spirituality, optimism, and
rneaningfulness on perceived well-being. . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
20. Results of simultaneous multiple regression analysis
of hassle intensity, spirituality, optimism, and
meaningfulness on perceived well-being. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
21. Hierarchical Regression Analyses of the Contribution
of Hassle Intensity Score, Existential styles and
Interaction Terms for Predicting Perceived
Psychological Well-Being. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

22. Hierarchical Regression Analyses of the Contribution

of Hassle Intensity Score, Existential styles and
Interaction T e m s for Predicting Perceived Physical
Well-seing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
23. t-tests comparing total hassle score, frequency,
intensity, optimisrn, spirituality, and meaningfulness
scores of respondents in better health with
respondents in poorer health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
24. Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Variables
Predicting Perceived Well-Being After Controlling
for Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
25. Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Variables
Predicting Perceived Well-Being Without Controlling
for Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
26. Regression of Perceived Well-being on Total Hassle
Scores, Optimism, Meaningfulness, and Spirituality,
Using Either the Hassles Scale - Elderly Form or
Non-symptomatic Hassles As Predictors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
27. Regression of Perceived Physical Well-being on Total
Hassle Scores, Optirnism, Meaningfulness, and
Spirituality, Using Either the Hassles Scale
- Elderly Form or Non- symptomatic Hassles As
Predictors .................................... 105

28. Regression of Perceived Psychological Well-being on

Total Hassle Scores, Optimism, Meaningfulness, and
Intrinsic Religiosity, Using Either the Hassles
Scale - Elderly Form or Non-symptomatic Hassles As
Predictors.......,...,,.......Predictors.....,.,...,,......,....,........Predictors.....,.,...,,......,....,............-..-.....
IO6

29. Hierarchical Regression Analyses of the Contribution

of Interaction Terms Following Total Hassle Score
and Existential coping styles for Predicting
Perceived Well- Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -175

30. Hierarchical Regression Analyses of the Contribution

of Interaction Terms Following Total Hassle Score
and Existential coping styles for Predicting
Perceived Physical Well-Being. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

31. Hierarchical Regression Analyses of the Contribution

of Interaction Terms Following Total Hassle Score
and Existential coping styles for Predicting
Perceived Psychological Well-Being. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
Acknowl edaements
A project of such immense size is never a solitary
endeavour, even though at times one feels isolated and
perhaps even lost. On those occasions (and there have been
plenty) several very important individuals helped me to gain
a new perspective and feel hopeful (or is it
optimistic? ... 1 . First and foremost, 1 owe my deepest
gratitude to my wife Carol w h o deserves a t least a Ph.D. for
her unfailing support, ideas, lifting me up (spiritually)
and providing meaning in my life. Our son Zachary helped us
remain focused on t h e task at hand and has taught me much
about meaningfulness in life. To Mike, your guidance
through the years at York w a s invaluable. Thanks for
helping with my professional development and with
introducing me to strange and exotic postal codes . . . 1

would also like to thank my committee rnembers Drs. Reid,

Mongrain, and Drs. Levy, Drummond, and Reker for serving on
my orals committee for making that experience pleasant and
for providing a sense of closure- 1 would like to express my
gratitude to Cliff and Kathy for t h e i r ideas and support
throughout; t o my sister Tally for the help with s t a t i s t i c s ;
and last b u t not least, to my parents who have always
believed in me and supported me.
1. Introduction

Stress, coping and well-being among older adults have become

increasingly popular research areas in the past several
decades. Investigations into each of these fields have
augmented our understanding of how well-being is maintained
in late life in the face of numerous obstacles and
stressors.

The mechanisms responsible for the effects of coping with

major life stress (e.g., death of a spouse, divorce) on
well-being in adulthood have been investigated extensively.
For example, several frequently cited studies (Langer and
Rodin, 1976; Schulz, 1976) showed the importance of enhanced
control to the well-being of old age and nursing home
residents- Yet much of the variance in well-being is
unaccounted for by major stressors. A more promising
approach involves the use of daily hassles. The present
thesis investigated the roles three specific Emotion-Focused
Coping styles (spirituality, optimism and meaningfulness)
play in coping with daily bassles among non-
institutionalized older adults.

1. Old A g e , the Elderly and the Aged

Any study of older adults must begin with a definition of
the population. Old age is defined as being over 65 years of
 2

age. Accordingly, in this thesis, people over the age of 65

are defined as older adults, elderly and aged- These tems
are frequently used interchangeably in the literature. Such
use may be criticized since they may differ in meaning, with
"older adultsfl suggesting a linear relationship on a
continuous variable while "elderlyn or "the agedM rnay
suggest a category name in which there are no differences
among members. However, people over 65 are far from being a
homogeneous group. On the contrary, there is evidence of
great variability among older adults (Baltes & Baltes,
1990). Moreover, in recognition of this heterogeneity the
elderly population is frequently divided into the young-old
(ages 65 to 7 5 ) , and old-old (ages 75 and over) (Neugarten,
1976). Schaie and Willis (1991) Eurther differentiated the
elderly into the young-old (ages 65 to 7 5 ), middle-old ( 7 5
to 85) , and old-old (ages 85 and over) . Thus, in this thesis
the various terms are used synonymouçly while keeping in
mind the diversity of the population.

2 . Daily Hassles and Well-Being:

The present thesis utilizes daily hassles rather than major
life events as a measure of stress. According to Landreville
and Vezina (1992), (r)esearch on both aggregated and
specific life events has found a modest relationship between
these and mental health and even a weaker relation with
 3

physical health in older adultsv (p. 139). Such findings are

reported in the general adult population as well (Monroe,
1983; Weinberger, Hines, and Tierney, 1987; Wolf, 1989).
Much of the variance is unaccounted for by major l i f e
events, which could perhaps be explained by daily hassles.
Daily hassles provide a promising approach to the study of
stress and coping in old age. Daily hassles are defined as
"the irritating, frustrating, distressing demands that to
some degree characterize everyday transactions with the
environmentu (Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer & Lazarus, 1981, p.
3). Examples of daily hassles among the elderly (although

not necessarily unique to this population) include not

having enough money for clothing, w o r r y i n g about payments of
bills or loans, taking care of a pet, p l a ~ i n gand/or
preparing meals, home maintenance, lack of security in the
neighbourhood, unsatisfying marital relationship, problems
with methods of transportation, shopping, noise, and traffic
(Landreville & Vezina, 1992).

Compared w i t h major life event scores, studies of daily

hassles among non-elderly populations were better predictors
of both psychological (Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer & Lazarus,
1981) and sornatic symptoms (DeLongis, Coyne, Dakof, Folkman

& Lazarus,
1982; Wagner, 1990), although there are exceptions (Rowlison
 4

& Felner, 1988). DeLongis, Folkman and Lazarus (1988) found

an increase in hassles was associated with a decline in
health and mood, although this relationship was moderated by
other variables. For example, high levels of self-esteem and
emotional support moderated the relationships between
hassles and physical symptoms (DeLongis et al., 1988).

There are reasons to believe that as a person ages he or she

is exposed to different (although not necessarily more)
hassles than at a younger age. Activities that were not
considered problematic in the past may be aggravating and
frustrating not only as they create additional hardships but
also since the elderly person may view his or her own
diminished abilities as proof of an overall decline. For
example, declininç vision may hinder mobility and
independence as one can no longer drive a car. As a result,
a simple task such as grocery shopping rnay become a hassle
since older adultç may need to make arrangements with others
(if available) in order to complete this task. On the other
hand, events which could be interpreted as hassles at a
younger age may no longer be present (e.g., problems with
one's parents and work related difficulties). Chamberlain
and Zika (1990) provided support for the changing nature of
hassles in older age groups. They discovered that elderly
subjects (mean age = 69 years) reported more specific
concerns about their health and declining physical
abilities, crime, pollution, and traffic. These differences
reflect the changing social contexts which could occur with
aging. For example, retired older persons no longer have
conflicts at work, yet their physical deterioration could
lead to the perception of greater vulnerability to crime,
s u c h as mugging.

Frequency of daily hassles was found to be more strongly

correlated with physical and psychological well-being in the
elderly than frequency of major life events (Landreville &

Vezina, 1992). Several alternatives explanations for these

results were offered. First, according to the proximal-
distal hypothesis (DeLongis, Coyne, Dakof, Folkman &

Lazarus, 1982), daily hassles are more of a proximal measure

of stress since by endorsing such items there is a more
irnmediate appraisal of the perception of the hassle and the
disruption it causes. Hassles are more strongly influenced
by subjective appraisal. In contrast, life events are
measures of stress which have occurred farther in the past
and do not reflect processes (e.g., appraisal) which affect
outcome. Landreville and Vezina (1992) suggested that a
separate assessrnent of hassles and appraisal could reveal
their independent effects on well-being. Second, they
hypothesized that hassles may occur more frequently or last
 6 .
longer than life events which are "acute stressors of short
durationu (Landreville & Vezina, 1992, p. 145). Ln support
they cite Lazarus and Folkman (1984) who asserted that the
longer duration of hassles exhausts one both psychologically
and physically. Finally, hassles may be more powerful
correlates of well-being since they are more recent and
chronic than major life events.

3. Coping styles and well-being in late Adulthood

Coping responses are generally divided into Problem-Focused

Coping ( P F C ) and Emotion-Focused Coping (EFC) styles.
According to Folkman and Lazarus (19801, Problem-Focused
Coping aims to solve the stress-causing problem itself
through cognitive and/or behavioral strategies, while
Emotion-Focused Coping strives to reduce or manage emotional
distress associated with the situation through cognitive
and/or behavioral efforts (e.g., denial, wishful thinking,
self-blame, avoidance, expressiveness, etc.). There iç some
disagreement over the stability of coping mechanisms with
age. McRae (1989) asserted that coping styles remain
relatively stable across adulthood. Others ( e . g . , Vaillant,
1977) maintain these styles become more mature. Folkman,

Lazarus, Pimley and Novacek (1987) discovered older adults

tend to adopt more Emotion-Focused coping styles than
younger persons. The prevalence of this coping style has
 7

been attributed to the nature of the problems faced by older

adults rather than the process of aging per se: the elderly
often must deal with stressors which cannot be effectively
resolved by problem-focused coping (e-g.,manage the
discornfort and increased isolation caused by a declining
sense of hearing which cannot be compensated for with
hearing aids) . These stressors are often less controllable
than stressors encountered at a younger age (Blanchard-
Fields & Robinson, 1987; Folkman et al., 1987) . Thus,
ernotion-focused coping is "an adaptive and sensible solution
in view of the kinds of stressors that they rnost often
facedu (Schulz & Ewen, 1993, p. 343).

In addition to the PFC and EFC there are other coping

styles, or schernak (Peacock, Wong, & Reker, 1993) . Among
then are existential schemas. These coping styles involve
"existential acceptance and the development of personal
meaning . . . and . . . attempt to make sense of the loss,
suffering, hardships, and the conditions of life, thus
rendering life more t o l e r a b l e " (Peacock et al., 1993, p.
69). Existential coping involves finding positive meaning

and purpose in events which one experiences. It was found to

be positively associated with appraising the situation as
uncontrollable and negatively related to threat appraisal
(Peacock et al., 1993). Rather than state-like coping
styles, existential coping rnechanisms may be better
conceived of as trait-like attitudinal constructs.
Existentiai resources for dealing with daily hassles
comprised the focus of the present investigation. The focus
on existential resources is deemed relevant since the
investigation into this area is in its infancy (Reker,
personal communications, August 7, 1997) .

However, any single coping strategy is not effective in al1

situations and it is unlikely that older perçons would use
it to cope with every stressor in their lives. As Antonovsky
(1987) asserted, "the search for the personality type or
coping strategy that is universally effective in
successfully dealing with stressors is not only useless; any
such concrete type or strategy is bound to be self-
defeating" (p. 144). People who cope effectively with
stressors, be they major or rninor, may have a greater
repertoire of coping responses from which to select rather
than having to resort to the same coping strategy in the
face of each stressor.

4. The Choice of Existential Styles in the Present Study

Three major existential resources for adapting to daily
hassles are investigated in this thesis: spirituality,
optirnism and meaningfulness. There is evidence they are
 9
utilized separately by older adults to cope effectively with
major life stressors including death of a spouse or a life
threatening illness such as cancer (Acklin, 1983;
Antonovsky, 1987; Lewis, 1989; Herth, 1990; Thompson, 1993) .
Given their role in coping with major life stressors (as
reviewed below) there is a strong foundation for the belief
these Existential strategies may also be effective in
reducing the emotional distress associated with hassles in
later life. However, the effectiveness of these three
Existential strategies for dealing with daily hassles has
yet to be investigated. This comprised the focus of present
research.

A secondary question concerns the relationships among these

three Existential styles. It has been suggested that
religion may help people create rneaning and coherence in the
world (Bolt, 1975; Mickley, Soekel & Belcher, 1992) . For
example, Allport and Ross (1967) asserted that in contrast
to public or extrinsic religiosity, spirituality 'tfloodsthe
whole life with motivation and meaning". The association
between hope and spirituality rnay be particularly robust in
old age since death is closer and health is deteriorating
L e . , more health-based hassles are experienced). If one's
present life circumstances cannot be improved, spirituality
m a y be appealing by offering hope for a better afterlife.
 10

Thus, of i n t e r e s t are whether spirituality, optirnism and

meaningfulness are independent of one another s u c h that each
represents a unique Existential style.
III. Literature review
1. Spirituality:

This thesis investigates spirituality as an Existential

style. Spirituality, also termed intrinsic religiosity, is
defined as the intensity of religious beliefs which do not
necessarily occur within an organizational context (Bahr &
Martin, 1983). It reflects the strength of religious
cornrnitments one experiences both in private and as they rnay
affect one's dealings with others. At times it is referred
to as faith, subjective or p r i v a t e religiosity (Allport,
1950; Krause, 1991; Koenig, 1992). The measurement of

spirituality is based on self-reports (Kasl, 1992). It can

be contrasted with public or organizational religion which
reflects participation in formal religious organizations.
Public religiosity assesses the social aspects of religion
and is measured by activities such as attendance at
religious services. It may also be operationalized through
religious rituals which include dress, d i e t a r y laws, and
ceremony .

Religious coping is defined as "the use of any one or al1 of

these forms of religious expression to help deal with
psychological stressw (Koenig, 1992, p. 179). Due to its
rnultidirnensionality, religion may be employed by various
individuals for different reasons to fulfil multiple
 12

functions. Among these are emotional support, a means for

positive reinterpretation and growth, or active coping with
the stressor, as when the religious institution provides
resources and material support such as food or shelter
(Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989) . Spirituality among the
elderly has been positively related to interna1 locus of
control, maintenance of ideal self concept, lower levels of
prejudice, h i g h e r education levels, and greater well being,
and inversely related to anger and hostility (Koenig, 1992).
Spirituality has been positively related to coping with
major life stressors such as cancer (Acklin, 1983) .

This thesis Eocuses on spirituality for several reasons.

First, spirituality and/or prayer were found to be t h e most
frequent and most effective coping behaviours for dealing
with major life events among older respondents (McRae &
Costa, 1986; Manfredi & Picket, 1987; Koenig, George, &

Siegler, 1988). Koenig and h i s colleagues (1988) reported

58% of the female and 32% of the male respondents used

strategies such as placing trust and faith in God, praying,

and getting help and strength from God. Many respondents
were helped by the "serenity prayeru: Wod grant me t h e
serenity to accept things that 1 cannot change, the courage
to change those 1 can, and the wisdom to know the
differencen. This attitude is especially relevant among the
 13

aged as it encourages one to try and resolve a problern yet

allows for acceptance of unchangeable situations and
encourages moving on. Second, Krause (1991) asserted that
there is some evidence that spirituality increases with age.
Given the reported popularity and success of spirituality in
dealing with major stressors, spirituality is hypothesized
to be an effective coping strategy for dealing with daily
hassles as well.

Third, spirituality was selected due to concerns (Koenig,

1992) that attendance at religious institutions (often
utilized in operationalizing extrinsic religiosity) may be
highly confounded with health status. Koenig (1992) asserted
that older adults who frequently attend public religious
services are in better health (than seniors who are as
religious but do not attend such senrices) which enables
them to leave home and go to the religious institution.
Courtenay, Poon, Martin, Clayton and Johnson (1992)
discovered that given their declining health, the old-old
(ages 8 5 + ) tend to participate less in organizational
religion, and become more involved with informal religious
aspects. Thus, public religiosity (as indicated by religious
institution attendance) "may sirnply serve as a marker of
physical health, and by itself may have little to do with
mental healthv (Koenig, 1992, p. 180) .
A literature review of çpirituafity must carefully
distinguish between investigations of spiritual coping and
research where spirituality is treated as a personality
variable. Cornparison of these findings is difficult since
increased religiosity does not necessarily indicate that it
is used for coping with stress. Thus, conceptual clarity is
essential when reporting these results.

Studies of spirituality as a personality variable found that

among older adults increasing health problerns were
associated with greater intrinsic religious involvement
(Krause, 1991; Koenig, 1992). While public religiosity was

found to be correlated with better health among the elderly,

a declining course was predicted by intrinsic religion
(Krause, 1991; Koenig, 1992). K a s 1 (1992) asserted that
spirituality involves turning inward, away from others, and
may reduce the motivation for health recovery or for
maintenance of good functioning. However, this conclusion
may be incorrect. Such findings may stem £ r o m increasing
frailty in old age, which results in turning to intrinsic
religion as a means of coping. A s health declines and the
older adult is no longer able to attend public religious
services and groups, he or she turns to intrinsic religious
activities at home.
Longitudinal studies tend to support the decrease in health
and stability in spirituality with age. For example,
Markides, Levin and Ray (1987) found older adults to have
fairly stable indicators of religiosity across time (eight
years) .

Examinations of religious coping indicate an increase in

religious-coping with age. For example, Courtenay, Poon,
Martin, Clayton and Johnson (1992) discovered that the
young-old (sexagenarians) were more likely to use non-
religious coping devices, eighty year olds (octogenarians)
used religious coping devices as often as non-religious
coping devices, while the old-old (centenarians) preferred
religious coping methods. Courtenay et al. (1992)
interpreted this to indicate that religious coping
mechanisms are important rneans of responding with stress by
older individuals. While t h e y admit that since this study
was cross-sectional it is subject to cohort effects, they
point to research by Folkman, Lazarus, Pimley and Novacek
(1987) which found different age groups utilized different
coping patterns appropriate for a particular stage of life.

The influence of religion on psychological distress appears

to depend on the strength of religious beliefs r a t h e r than
the content of a particular religion. Ross (1990) found that
 16

regardless of a particular religious affiliation, stronger

religious beliefs were associated with lower levels of
psychological distress among adults (aged 18 -83 1 .
Interestingly, similar low distress levels were reported for
those who rejected al1 religious beliefs. In contrast,
individuals holding weak religious beliefs (i.e., have not
made a commitment and belong to a religion not out of choice
but rather out of indifference) reported higher distress
levels. Ross (1990) hypothesized that claiming religious
cornmitment without much belief may lead to self-
estrangement. Commitment is a cognitive aspect of
religiosity and as such is less con£ounded by health than
public/behavioral components such as attendance (Koenig,
1992). According to Koenig (1992) religious commitment,

belief and attitude are positively correlated with personal

adjustment .

In sum, there is evidence of the role of spirituality in

dealing with major life stressors. It is likely that highly
spiritual older adults would utilize this Existential style
to deal with daily hassles as well. Empirical evidence,
however, is lacking, and is the focus of the curent work.
2. Meaningfulness:
Meaningfulness is another Existentlai resource which has
been shown to help people cope with major stressors (Acklin,
9 ,8 7 ; Lewis, 1989; Thornpson, 1993) and may
1983; A I I ~ O R O V S ~1Y

be ernployed by t h e e l d e r l y to deal with daily hassles as

well. Meaningfulness refers to an overail belief or view
which allows for understanding and comprehension of one's
life. It is defined as "the extent to which one feels that
life makes sense emotionally, that at least some of the
problems and demands posed by living are worth investing
energy in, are worthy of commitment and engagement, are
challenges that are 'welcome' rather t h a n burdens that one
would much rather do withoutn (Antonovsky, 1987, p. 18).
Meaningfulness is relevant to the investigation of daily
hassles and well-being since this orientation may influence
the perception and subsequent experience of certain events
as hassles or challenges. ~eaningfulnessrnay also help the
elderly cope with t h e emotional distress caused by hassles
once they have been experienced. When hassles in old age
cannot be eliminated o r altered one may cope by atternpting
to make sense of the reasons for such stressors. Managing
the ernotional r e a c t i o n s to hassles may be achieved by
integrating these experiences into an overall framework
which allows for making sense of the world. Antonovsky
(1987) asserted that meaningfulness allows for welcoming
 18 .

some life demands as challenges rather than as burdens. In

this t h e s i s such an orientation was hypothesized to be
correlated with fewer and/or less intense hassles-

Meaningfulness was operationalized by Antonovsky (1987) as

part of an orientation which focuses on the variables
responsible for one's emotional and physical well being
despite various stressors encountered throughout life. He
contrasted h i s so-called "salutogenic" approach with the
prevalent pathogenic orientation which focuses on the causes
of illness. According to Antonovsky (19871, the key to good
health is the adequacy of tension management, which in turn
is determined by generalized resistance resources (GRRI such
as money, ego strength, cultural stability and social
supports. Al1 G R R s facilitate the understanding of the
stressors one is constantly bombarded with. With
accumulation of experience one develops a sense of coherence
(SOC), defined as "a global orientation that expresses the
extent to which one has a pervasive, enduring though dynamic
feeling of confidence that (1) the stimuli deriving from
one's interna1 and external environments in the course of
living are structural, predictable and explicable; (2) the
resources are available to meet the demands posed by these
stimuli; and (3) these demands are challenges, worthy of
investment and engagement" (Antonovsky, 1987, p. 19).
The SOC is compased of three core components:
comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness.
Comprehensibility refers to the extent to which one
perceives the external stimuli as clear and consistent
r a t h e r than as random and chaotic. Persons high on

comprehensibility expect future stimuli to be predictable

or, if they occur unexpectedly, explicable, following a
known order. Manageability is one's perception of the
adequacy of the available resources to deal with the demands
of the stimuli encountered. Those high on this sense do not
feel victimized by events. Both comprehensibility and
manageability reflect t h e control component, including
perceptual and cognitive aspects. Since control serves a PFC
function and was not investigated in the present study,
these two components of the SOC were not included.
Meaningfulness, the t h i r d component, is considered by
Antonovsky as motivational/emotional: the extent to which
one feels that life rnakes sense emotionally ( L e . , some life
demands are welcomed as challenges rather than burdens).
Meaningfulness provides the impetus for enhancing the
understanding of the world and available resources. It is
relevant to the investigation of daily hassles since this
orientation may influence the perception and subsequent
experience of certain events as hassles or not.
 20

Some researchers, such as Wong (1989), view Antonovskyfs SOC

as indicative of a shift in the study of health and stress
toward persona1 meaning (recall that Antonovsky considers
meaningfulness to be a key part of the SOC). Wong (1989)
asserted that "personal meaning contributes not only to the
promotion of health, but also to the maintenance of morale
in times of illness and disability" (p. 19) . In essence,
personal meaning appears to be an extension and elaboration
of the subjective interpretation of life which may be
considered to be of prime importance in perceiving an event
to be a hassle or an uplift.

Adopting the meaningfulness component of the SOC measure in

the present study was advantageous since the SOC has been
investigated in a variety of settings and with diverse
populations, including the elderly (Coe, Miller & Flaherty,
1991-92; Chamberlain & Zika, 1992). Thus, in this thesis

meaningfulness was investigated using a measure which has

been shown to be valid and reliable for assessing
meaningfulness among older adults. For example, among adults
(Aged 18-67) Pasikowski (1994) reported significant positive
correlations between subjective health indicators and the
SOC, most notably with meaningfulness.

Chamberlain and Zika (1992) investigated the effects of

prior well-being, hassles and SOC arnong elderly participants
(66 men and 87 women, mean a g e 69 years) on the stability of

subjective well-being over several three-month time periods.

Three instruments were used to assess different components
of well-being: general life satisfaction, positive and
negative affective components of psychological well-being,
and positive and negative dimensions of well-being. Hassles
were assessed using the Hassles scale (Kamer et al., 1981)
which was revised by removing items judged by Chamberlain
and Zika (1992) as inappropriate for the elderly (e.g.,
menstrual problems) . Prior well-being (assessed three months
earlier) accounted for a substantial proportion of the
variance (72 to 75 per cent) in current well-being. With the
effects of prior well-being partialled out, current hassles
accounted for one to eight per cent of the variance. Current
well-being was predicted by current hassles after
controlling for both prior well-being and prior hassles.
Sense of Coherence explained very little (about one per
cent) of the variance in general well-being, although it did
account for four to eleven per cent (at d i f f e r e n t tirne of
measurement) of the variance in life satisfaction (which
comprised part of general well-being). Chamberlain and Zika
(1992) concluded that prior well-being is the best predictor
of current well-being. This study did not explore the
relationships between SOC and hassles, both of which served
as predictor variables.

Burbank (1992) reported that among older adults (aged 63-88)

meaningfulness (defined as having something important in
one's life which provided meaning to life) was reported by
89 percent of respondents. Most subjects reported a high

degree of meaning fulfilment. Items which gave meaning to

life included relationships (57%), religion ( 1 3 % ), senrice
(i2%), activities (IO%), and living/growth, health, and
learning (8% combinedl . In the general adult population,
meaningfulness in life has been related to coping with
anxiety and coping with low self-esteem caused by cancer. a
major life stressor (Lewis, 1989; Thompson, 1993) . Acklin
(1983) discovered that in both cancer patients (aged 20-76)

and non-cancer medical patients (aged 18 -61) higher levels

of life meaning were positively related to spirituality and
negatively related to despair, anger-hostility, and social
isolation. Meaning has also been shown to help in coping
with a traumatic event (e.g., destruction or damage of one's
home by fire) . Assignment of positive meaning to this
traumatic event was found to be positively correlated with
better coping (Thornpson, 1985).

Evidence against the role of meaning in life as a stress

buffer is provided by Zika and chamberlain (1987). Stress
 23 .
was assessed by the Hassles scale (Kanner et al., 1981) and
meaning in life was measured using the Purpose in L i f e test
(Crumbaugh, 1968). Meaning in life had no significant
rnoderating effects on the relationship between stressors and
health among both students and community rnembers (Zika &

Chamberlain, 1987). However, it consistently predicted

positive well-being.

3. O p t i m i s m :
Prior to reviewing this existential coping resource, the
reader should be made aware that in this thesis a measure of
optimism was used. As is reviewed below, there is no clear
distinction between hope and optimism. Several measures
which p u r p o r t to assess hope could be utilized to assess
optimism. Moreover, hope has religious connotations and may
be confounded with spirituality. Therefore, optimism is a
preferred term as it is more secular. Although the measure
utilized in the present investigation assesses optimism,
most of the discussion below review hope. These issues are
elaborated on below.

Optimism or hope is a potentially powerful Existential style

for coping effectively with major life events (e.g., death
of a spouse) among older adults (Herth, 1990). Hope may
affect perceptions, labelling, and reactions to daily
hassles. Korner (1970) asserted that hope is an essentially
positive phenornenon necessary for healthy coping, and
stressed the dangerous physical and psychological
consequences of the l o s s of hope. Among the benefits
associated with hope are improved functioning of the immune
system, aiding with the defence of the body against invasion
(Gottschalk, 1985; Kiecolt-Glaser & Glaser, 1986) . Hope is
of particular interest among older persons since, as
asserted earlier, they are more likely than younger persons
to experience those daily hassles which cannot be resolved
through PFC styles.

There is much confusion as to the precise nature and

definition of hope. The nomenclature consists of such terms
as hoping, wishing, expecting, wanting, aspiring, yearning,
craving, desiring, being optimistic and more (Pruyser,
1987). Current definitions illustrate this diversity. Hope

has been defined as "future referenced events that are

wished for, have positive affect and have some cognitively
perceived probability of occurrence" (Staats, 1989). Miller
and Powell (1988) conceived of hope as "a state of being,
characterized by anticipating of a good state, an improved
state, or release from persona1 entrapment" (p. 6). Staats
and Part10 (1993) defined hope as a phenomenologically
 25
positive state, consisting of the interactions of wishes and
expectations. Others view hope as a unidimensional construct
involving an overall perception that goals can be met
(Snyder, Harris, Anderson, Holleran, Irving, Sigmon,
Yoshinobu, Gibb, Langelle, & Harney. 1991). Default and
Martocchiors study (as cited in Herth, 1990) introduced a
conceptual mode1 of hope, where hope was defined as a
"rnultidimensional dynamic life force characterized by a
confident yet uncertain expectation of achieving a future
good, which to the hoping person is realistically possible
and personally significant" (p. 380) .

The multitude of definitions resulted in various measures of

hope which do not necessarily assess the same construct. For
example, Staats (1989) defined hope as the interaction
between wishes and expectations. Based on this definition
Staats (1991) developed the Hope Index. Respondents are
asked to rate the extent to which they wish for and expect a
variety of events to happen. Example of scale items include
"to have more friendsw; "to have good h e a l t h " ; "the crime
rate to go d o m u ; "the country to be more productive";
"justice in the w o r l d I 1 . Staats (1989) admitted that this
instrument w a s developed empirically with certain
theoretical constraints since respondents were asked to list
circumstances which they hoped for, and high frequency items
 26
were selected. Thus, the Hope Index measures specific events
or circumstances rather than generalized expectancies. in
contrast, Snyder et al. (1991) defined hope as a cognitive
set that is composed of two major components: (a) agency
(goal-directed determination) and (b) pathways (plaming of
successful ways to achieve the goal). The latter appears to
have certain PFC functions since action is required in order
to achieve a goal. These two components are reciprocal,
additive, and positively related, yet not synonymous. Rather
than a goal-related state which is objectively defined
according to external sources, hope is conceived of as "an
enduring disposition that is subjectively defined as people
assess their agency and pathways related to goalsN (Snyder
et al., 1991, p. 571). Based on this definition Snyder et
al. (1991) designed the Hope Scale which includes both
agency ( e . g . , "My past experiences prepared me well for the
futurew; "1 meet the goals that 1 set for myselfu) and
pathways items (e.g., "1 can think of many ways t o g e t out
of a jarnu; "There are lots of ways around any problem").

Still o t h e r s (e.g., Brackley & Westman, 1992) assessed hope

using the Hopelessness scale (Beck & Weissman, 1974). This
approach m a y be flawed since hope is inferred £rom an
absence of hopelessness.

The great diversity in both theoretical and ernpirical

 27

operationalizations of hope led Jacoby (1993) to conclude

that the empirical investigation of hope is in its infancy.
Jacoby criticized empirical investigations of hope as
unsophisticated, resulting in the confusion about the
precise nature of hope. Confusion exists between different
concepts ( e - g . ,hope and denial) because they are not
clearly defined. Jacoby asserted that most existing measures
do not assess hope (e.g., uçing the Hopelessness scale) .
According to Jacoby (1993) "the major problem in this area
is the tendency to focus on a specific aspect of hope and
treat it as representative of the entire process" (p. 64).
Jacoby (1993) suggested that hope is a "transitional
phenornenon" between interna1 and external reality. It is
subjective and its meaning is dependent on both context and
culture. Hope is asserted to be a process rather than a
discrete variable, and is referred to as the "work of hope"
wather than "hopeV. It is an active process which includes
both cognitive and emotional components. Unfortunately,
Jacoby (1993) does not provide nor endorse a hope scale
based on her definition.

Given the pitfalls discussed above, in this thesis optimism

and hope are defined as an orientation toward the future
together with an expectation that a desired future event
will occur, It consists of "the favorability of a person's
 28 .

generalized outcome expectancy" (Scheier & Carver, 1985, p.

232). Both hope and optirnism assess the likelihood of

positive future expectations where the outcome is considered

possible and desirable. Optimism may be thought of more as a
trait in the sense that it is longer lasting (e.g.,
describing a person as an optimistic individual) while hope
could be viewed as a state which could be transitory,
equivalent to short- t e m optimism. The terms tfhopefulN
and
"optirnistic" are used interchangeably, t h u s allowing the
trait (long term) and state (short term) to be treated
synonymously . Marcel' s work (as cited in Muyskens, 1962)
atternpted to differentiate between hope and optimism on the
basis of the experience one draws on. He asserted that hope
draws on intimate experiences while optimism does not.
Instead, Marcel proposed that optirnism allows for some
objectivity so that contradictions can become apparent and
dealt with. When challenged by facts the optimist can alter
his belief. In contrast, hope is more subjective and may be
less susceptible to modification in the face of
contradictory information. However, this difference, if it
does exist, is not evident when the hope scales reviewed
above are compared with a measure of optimism (Scheier &

Carver, 1985).

Optimism was assessed using the Life Orientation Test

 29
(Scheier & Carver, 1985). The Life Orientation Test includes
future oriented items ( e - g . , " I ' m always optimistic about
the future") as well as expectations that desired events
will occur ( e - g . , "In uncertain times 1 usually expect the
bestm). As such it is an appropriate available operational
definition of hope.

Hope may be related to spirituality, although it does not

necessarily have to be experienced within this Eramework.
Pruyser (1987) suggested that "hoping is based on the belief
that there is some benevolent disposition toward oneself
somewhere in the universe, conveyed by a caring person" ( p ,
467). Hope often elicits religious connotations, and some

religions ( e - g . ,apocalyptic scripture) are based on hope by

offering their followers sets of rules and motivation to
persevere in bad times. Hope has been related to spiritual
well-being, "the reflection that the spirit is healthy"
(Carson, Soeken, & Grimm, 1988, p . 161), Carson and her
colleagues provide a comprehensive review of the
relationship between hope and spiritual well-being. The crux
of their discussion centres on the value of hope in dealing
with illness and related hardships. Their review yielded
four themes intrinsic to the conceptualization of hope:
orientation toward the future, setting goals, acting to meet
goals, and the importance of interpersonal relationships.
Al1 occur within the context of supportive relationships
with others.

According to Carson and her associates (1988) hope

incorporates both secular and religious perspectives, and
these are not mutually exclusive. These constructs were
investigated among nursing students (aged 19-46, mean age
23.1 years) . Using the State-Trait Hope Scale (Grimm, 1984,

as described in Carson et al., 1988), a 40 item

questionnaire, state hope was defined as "a dynamic and
changeable response to specific situations at a given time,
(while) trait hope . . . is considered to be a relatively
stable personality characteristic' (Carson et al., 1988, p.
163). Both state and trait hope were positively related to

spiritual well-being and its components. There was no

indication whether religious respondents differed £rom their
secular counterparts on state or trait hope.

Hope was discovered to be effective in coping with major

life stressors among the elderly. For example, hope was
significantly and positively related to the level of grief
resolution among elderly widows and widowers, accounting for
90 percent of the variance (Herth, 1990). Greater hope was

related to a longer duration of spousers illness prior to

 31

death, adequate present income, good health, fewer than two

concurrent losses, and weekly visits by farnily and friends.
The level of hope was also found to be significantly and
negatively related to evasive, emotive, and fatalistic
coping styles.

A literature search revealed a single study involving hope

and daily hassles among the elderly. Older adults were

successfully taught to increase hope (as well as perceptions
of future quality of life) to cope with daily hassles
(Staats, 1991). After three sessions subjects trained in
either (a) increased happiness and positive activities, (b)
goal setting and in irnagining achievement of goals, or (cl a
combination of (a) and (b) reported having a better expected
quality of life than those in a control group. Staats (1991)
concluded that the elderly may be a very suitable group for
stress reduction, coping, and uplifts/happiness training,
more so than younger populations, although she did not
include younger subjects in her study. Such findings are
encouraging since they illustrate the benefit of hope as a
stress buffer. More empirical evidence, however, would be
welcomed.
IV. Aims of the Study:
In summary, the literature review and available empirical
evidence for both the relationships of hassles and well-
being as well as well-being and coping supported the view
that hassles are associated with well-being, and the t h r e e
Existential mechanisms are associated with well-being.
However, neither the existing conceptualization nor the
research can provide well supported confirmation of how
these variables might be inter-related. Therefore, this
study set out with the following research questions.

1. Of the three Existential rnechanisms investigated

(spirituality, optimism and rneaningfulness), which best

p r e d i c t e d hassles and well-being? That is, which of t h e s e
coping styles was associated with the fewest and/or least
i n t e n s e hassles and greatest well-being? Note that the term

used to designate correlates of a

"predictor" is llcommonly
criterion variable in multiple regression analysis (and) it
does not imply that the correlates occurred earlier nor that
they caused change in the criterion" (Landreville & Vezina,
1992, p. 140).

2. If hassles were negatively associated with well-being,

did the three Existential styles moderate the relationship
between hassles and well-being? If this relationship
disappeared or was weakened after controlling for the
Existential strategies, these coping styles may have a
moderating effect.

3. Did each Existential style provide significant and unique

contribution to the variance in well-being? That is, was the

model containing three predictor variables superior to a
model which had only one predictor (the strongest correlate
to well-being)?

4. Did respondents in better health report fewer and/or

less severe daily hassles, and greater optirnism,
spirituality, meaningfulness and perceived well-being than
those in poorer health? Since many hassles in old age are
health-based, this provided an examination of the
relationships and possible confounding of hassles with
health status.

Although analyses were conducted to find answers for the

preceeding questions regarding the e x a c t patterns of
relationships, additionaf analyses were carried out to test
the following hypotheses which predict certain general
relationships among the variables.
V. Hypothesea:
1. Negative correlations will be found between individuals'

degree of perceived well-being and the reported frequency

and intensity of their daily hassles .

2. Negative correlations will be found between individualsr

degree of spirituality, meaningfulness, and/or optimism and

the reported frequency and intensity of their daily hassles.

3. Positive correlations will be found between individuals'

degree of spirituality, meaningfulness, and/or optimism, and

their perceived psychological well-being.

4. Related to the third hypothesis, since the three

Existential styles are associated with lower emotional

distress, they will be account for more of the variance in
psychological than in physical perceived well-being.

5. Spirituality, optimism and meaningfulness will al1 be

positively correlated.

6. Using multiple regression analysis, the combination of

spirituality, optimisrn and rneaningfulness will predict and

add to the variance in well-being accounted for by the
frequency and/or intensity of hassles.
 35

7. Optimisrn, spirituality and rneaningfulness will moderate

the impact of hassles on perceived well-being.

8. Individuals in better health will report fewer and/or

less intense daily hassles than persons in poorer health.

VI. Methodolom:
1. Sampling

Several senior's community centres and housing centres for

older persons within the Metropolitan Toronto area were
identified as potential sources of subjects, who lived
independently in their own homes and/or received minimal
support while still at their homes. Institutionalized
subjects, such as those residing in nursing homes and homes
for the aged, were not included in this investigation
because many residents of long-term care facilities were
physically and/or psychologically too irnpaired to
participate in this investigation (Health and Welfare
Canada, 1990). Moreover, since most elderly individuals do
not reside in institutions but rather live with their
spouse, children, with friends, or on their own (Norland,
1991)' they comprise a larger potential pool £ r o m which to

draw respondents. Respondents were 100 seniors, 65 years of

age or older.
 36

2. Sample S i z e
Sample size was calculated using power analysis (Cohen &

Cohen, 1975). This statistical procedure takes into account

the number of variables involved and determines the minimal
number of subjects required to achieve either practical or
theoretical significance. This procedure yielded a
recommended sample size of 102 respondents. These
calculations are described in Appendix C.

3. Instruments
(For complete questionnaires, see Appendix BI
A. Sociodemographic Data
S u b j e c t s provided their age, gender, education level,

marital status, place of residence, and religion.

B. Daily Hassles:
In the present study daily hassles were assessed using the
Hassle Scale-Elderly Fom (HS-EF,Vezina & Giroux, 1988).
This scale assessed hassle frequency and hassle intensity
separately in order to avoid confounding the external and
objective source of stress L e . , frequency) with the
interna1 and subjective reactions to it (Reich & Parrelia,
1988) . The HS-EF is based on the original 117 item Hassles

Scale (Kanner et al., 1981). It was originally constructed

 37

in French and contains 64 items. In order to be utilized in

the present investigation it was translated into English by
a French speaking graduate student and back translated by
another French speaking individual. Both the original
version and final French version were similar in content.
The HS-EF has a high face validity. For the original hassles
scale, Kanner at al. (1981) reported average month to month
correlation for hassles reported over nine months was .79,
while the average month to month correlation for hassle
intensity was lower (r=.48) . Higher scores indicate greater
frequency and/or intensity of hassles. Hassle frequency is
scored either one (hassle present) or zero (hassle absent) .
Hassle intensity is scored one (a little), two (moderately)
or three (extremely). The possible range of hassle frequency
scores is from O to 64, while the possible range of hassle
intensity scores is £rom O to 192. An total hassle score was
obtained by adding hassle frequency and hassle intensity.
This purpose of this product was to assess the overall
amount of "hassles per s e u reported by each individual.

The Hassle Scale-Elderly Form (Vezina & Giroux, 1988) was

preferred over traditional hassles measures such as the
Hassles Scale (Lazarus 6s Launier, 1978; Folkman, Lazarus,
Pimley & Novacek, 1987), the Uplifts Scale (Lazarus &

Folkman, 1984), the Inventory of Small Life Events Scale

 38
(Zautra, Guarnaccia, Reich & Doherwend, 19881, and the Daily
Hassles scale (Dolan, 1986). These four instruments include
items which may not be relevant to the elderly ( e . g . ,
stressors at work which are no longer applicable to retired
persans). In addition, hassles typically associated with old
age ( e . g . , retirement) may not be covered, thus not
addressing potentially important sources of minor stressors
associated with old age.

Such concerns were addressed by Chamberlain and Zika (1992)

who revised the Hassles scale (Kanner et al., 1981) by
removing items they judged as inappropriate for the elderly
( e - g . , menstrual problems) . Others (Vezina & Girowc, 1988;

Kedas, 1992) designed hassle scales specifically for the

elderly. The Gerontological Uplifts and Hassles Scale
(Kedas, 1992) was constructed for an institutionalized
elderly population consisting of male long-term care
residents and is therefore not suitable for the present
investigation. The other measure designed specifically for
the elderly is the Hassle Scale-Elderly Fom (Vezina &

Giroux, 1988) which was utilized in this investigation.

C. Spirituality:

For this study spirituality was measured through the

Intrinsic Religious Motivation Scale (Hoge, 1972). Hoge
(1972) reported the 10 item scale correlated .87 with both
Feaginrs (1964) Intrinsic-Extrinsic scale and with Allport
and Ross's (1967) Intrinsic-Extrinsic scale. A .90 Kuder-
Richardson formula 20 measure of reliability is reported by
Hoge (1972). Thorson and Powell (1990) slightly modif ied the
wording of the last two items, which originally had read,
"Although 1 am a religious person, 1 refuse to let religious
considerations influence my everyday affairs", and,
"Although I believe in my religion, 1 feel there are many
more important things in lifeN. According to Thorson and
Powers (1990), such items are potentially problematic as
respondents could agree with one part of the statement while
disagreeing with the other. Instead, the revised items are
"1 refuse to let religious considerations influence my

everyday affairs", and "1 feel there are many more important
things in life than religionn. The possible range of scores
is £rom zero to forty, with high scores indicating higher
levels of spirituality.
D. û p t i m i s m
Optimisrn was assessed by the Life Orientation Test (LOT,
Scheier & Carver, 1985). The LOT was preferred over other

hope s c a l e s since it is relatively simple and does not

contain items which may r r o t be relevant to older persons
(e.g., hope for a better career). This test consists of

eight items plus four filler items (to sornewhat disguise the
purpose of the test). However, the filler items were dropped
given the lengthy nature of the present investigation and
possible fatigue of respondents. Respondents were asked to
indicate their degree of agreement with each item, using the
following format: 4 = strongly agree, 3 = agree, 2 =
neutral, 1 = disagree, and O = strongly disagree. Four items
are worded positively (e-g.,"In uncertain times 1 usually
expect the bestn} and four items are worded negatively
(e.g., "If something can go wrong, it will"), The latter
were reversed p r i o r to scoring (Scheier & Carver, 1985).
Possible range of scores is from zero to 32, with higher
scores indicating greater optimism. Psychometric properties
reported by Scheier and C a r v e r (1985) included a Cronbach
alpha of -76 and test-retest reliability of .79 over a four
week period.
E. Meaningfulnees
The meaningfulness items were derived from the Orientation
to Life Questionnaire (OLQ) (Antonovsky, 1987). The OLQ was
developed through extensive interviews which inquired into
various aspects of the respondent's life. The transcribed
interviews were assessed by raters familiar with the
salutogenic mode1 and the SOC definition. Antonovsky
developed the 29-item OLQ comprised of 11 comprehensibility,
10 rnanageability, and 8 rneaningfulness items. The eight

meaningfulness items are adopted for the present

investigation. As asserted earlier, the manageability and
comprehensibility components reflect control, a PFC style
which was not investigated in the present study. Therefore,
only the rneaningfulness items were adopted in this study.
Respondents were asked to rate each item on a 7 point scale.
Five of the items were reversed prior to scoring such that
higher scores indicated a greater degree of meaningfulness.
There are no reliability and validity figures available for
meaningfulness alone, although these are available for the
OLQ as a whole. Antonovsky (1987) reported that when
treating the three as separate sub-scores there were high
intercorrelations between cornprehensibility, manageability,
rneaningfufness, and the OLQ score as a whole: . 4 5 , - 5 9 , and

-62, respectively. Dana's study (as cited in Antonovsky,

1987) also reported high inter-subçcale correlations of . S 2 ,

 42

-60, and .72. Studies with several different populations

yielded Cronbach alpha values for the total OLQ scores

ranging from -84 to - 9 3 , indicating a "respectable' degree
of internal consistency and reliability (Antonovsky, 1987,
p. 83). Later investigations (Antonovsky & Sagy, 1990)
confirmed these findings (Cronbach alpha = .88).

According to Antonovsky (19871, criterion validity was

provided by another measure of the SOC developed
independently by Rumbaut, Anderson, and Kaplan (1983). This
measure contained 22 items and lfhad a reasonable degree of
internal consistency. . . (as well as) evidence for convergent
and discriminant validityn (Antonovsky, 1987, p. 82).
Antonovsky (1987) asserted that construct validity was
achieved by a correlation of .64 between the OLQ with the
SOC scale developed by Rumbaut et al. (1983). However,
Antonovsky (1987, p. 8 3 ) admitted that "it is of course true
that the stringent requirements of criterion validity that
the criterion be previously validated had not been met." As

Antonovsky (1987) suggested, this correlation rnay be

considered as more appropriately as evidence of concurrent
validity.

As evidence of convergent validity, Antonovsky (1987) cited

the positive correlation between the OLQ and Rotter's
Internai-External Locus of Controï Scale scores (r=.385),
Antonovsky suggested that such a correlation is to be
expected given that Rotter's scale measures "the perception
of events as being in the control of t h e perceiver rather
than in the hands of chance or powerful othersu (1987, p .
83), similar to the comprehensibility and manageability

subscales of the SOC which reflect the control component,

including perceptual and cognitive aspects.

Antonovsky (1987) defined anxiety as t h e opposite of the

SOC, asserting t h a t "it is reasonable to expect t h e SOC will
be negatively related to anxiety, if we understand the
latter concept to characterize a person whose world tends to
be chaotic, who feels undesirable and unmanageable symptoms,
and who wonders j u s t where he or she fits into things"
(1987, p. 83). If one is to accept the above, evidence for

discriminant validity is suggested by the negative

correlation (r=-,212)between the OLQ and the Saranson Test
Anxiety Scale (Rumbaut, Anderson & Kaplan, 1983 1 , and

between a shortened version of the OLQ and the Trait scale

of the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (r=-.79,
Antonovsky, 1987).
 44

F. Perceived Well-Being
Well-being was assessed by the Perceived Well-Being (PWB)
Scale (Reker & Wong, 1984). According to its authors "(t)he

PWB is a short and convenient instrument applicable to the

elderlyw (1984, p. 23). The PWB is a 14 item scale measuring
psychological, physical, and general well-being. Reker and
Wong (1984) argued £or a separate measurement of
psychologicaf and physical well-being as a best approach to
avoid the possible confound of self-rated health with
subjective well-being. Psychological well-being was defined
as the presence of positive emotions (e.g., happiness) and
the absence of negative emotions such as anxiety, fear or
depression. Self-rated physical health and absence of
physical discomforts constitute physical well-being, while
the combination of psychological and physical well-being
comprises general well-being. Six items assess psychological
well-being while eight measure physical well-being.
Respondents rate each item on a seven point Likert scale,
from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The possible range
of scores is 6 to 42 for psychological well-being, 8 to 56
for physical well-being, and 14 to 98 for general well-being
(combining psychological and physical well -being). The
higher the score the greater the perceived well-being.
Reliability was calculated as Armor's t h e t a coefficients of
- 8 2 and .78 for the psychological and physical components,
 45

respectively, with an internal consistency of .91 for the

overall scale. Test-retest stability coefficients over a two
year period included - 7 9 (pe .O011 , .65 (pc .001), and .78
( p -001)
~ f o r psychological, physical and general well
being, respectively. Empiricai validity was derived from
substantial correlations with several psychological measures
of happiness and depression, For example, the Beck
Depression Inventory (Beck, 1967) was substantially
correlated with the psychological k . 5 5 , pc.0011, physical
( - -37, p < . 01), and general (- -54, p c . 001) PWB scale,
respectively. According to Reker and Wong (19841, these
results provide strong support for the internal consistency
and temporal stability of perceived well being among both
community-based and institutionalized elderly.

G. Objective Health Measures

Since daily hassles are subjective, it was of interest to
obcain an objective measure of health status which cannot be
influenced by one's perceptions. Moreover, since many of the
hassles utilized in this study were health-based, it was
possible physical health status could have been confounded
with hassles. An objective health measure allows for
assessrnent of the relationship of physical health status to
spirituality, optimism and meaningfulness. Typically, health
scales are comprised of a lengthy checklist of illnesses and
medical conditions which respondents indicate they are
experiencing. The scale adopted in the present investigation
was a checklist utilized by both Canada Health Sunrey
(Health and Welfare Canada, 1981) and in a previous study of
daily hassles (Landreville & Vezina, 1992). It consists of
18 physical disorders (e.g. , arthritis, heart disease,

diabetes, hypertension) which, while not al1 inclusive, are

representative of the most prevalent chronic illnesses among
the elderly (Landreville & Vezina, 1992). Notably absent is
cancer, a condition which is prevalent in old age. Thus, it
was added to the checklist in the present investigation.

A review of the Canada Health Survey revealed the elderly to

s u f f e r £rom the following health problems (in order of

priority) :
1. Arthritis and rheumatism 2. Hypertension 3. Limb and

joint disorders 4. Heart disease 5. Hearing disorders 6.

Sight disorders 7. Mental disorders ( n o t included in this
investigation as some if not al1 respondents may opt not to
answer this item for fear of embarrassment) 8. Functional
digestive disorders 9. Dental trouble 10. Skin disorders 11.
Diabetes 12. Bronchitis and emphysema 13. Hayfever.

Using this checklist, the more items endorsed the poorer the
health. Therefore, to indicate good health rather than poor
 47 -

health, the sign of each health correlation w a s reversed

(positive to negative) .

B. S e l f Reported Memory Measure

A self-reporting memory measure was administered in order to
check for the possibility that persons with self-reported
memory problems rnay not be able to fully complete the
questionnaires (i.e., recall the Erequency and severity of
hassles experienced in the past several weeks) and therefore
may have to be excluded. The Short Memory Questionnaire
(SMQ) was adopted (Koss, Patterson, O w n b y , Stuckey, &

Whitehouse, 1993). The SMQ is a 14-item scale based on the

30-item Memory Self-Report Questionnaire (MSRQ) (Riege,
1982). The MSRQ was developed to assess memory in healthy

older adults and included questions about various aspects of

memory. The SMQ adopted 14 items of the MSRQ, each rated on
a 4-point scale ranging £rom "almost never" to "almost
always". Higher scores indicate better memory. The SMQ is
geared at caregivers of patients with probable Alzheimer's
type dementia (McKhan, Drachman, Folstein, Katzrnan, Price &

Stadlan, 1984). S i n c e it is the caregivers who rate the

patients' memory, the SMQ utilizes the words "he/sheU rather
t h a n "you". However, in the present investigation
respondents completed this scale on their own. Thus,
questions were stated in the first person. An additional
 48

change included slightly altering the wording of item number

9 which as part of the MSRQ stated Tould you reconstruct in

your memory whether or not you locked the house after you
are away for more than 10 minutes?". The SMQ simplified this
item to "After leaving, can he/she remember whether he/she
locked his/her door?". In order to lessen possible
confusion, in the present investigation this item was
reworded as: "After leaving your house or apartment, could
you remember whether or not you locked the door?"

Koss et al. (1993) report the SMQ was "highly effective" in

differentiating mildly impaired patients Alzheimer's type
dementia from healthy controls as determined by a one-way
ANOVA. Other psychometric properties included a principal
factor analysis with 2 factors accounting for 37.3% and 8%
of the variance, respectively, interpreted by Koss and her
colleagues as confirming the unidimensionality of the memory
items in the SMQ with Alzheimer's patients. Reliability
analysis yielded a Cronbachrs alpha of . 8 5 , while external
validity was the same as for the MSRQ.
D. Procedure

Following the approval of the research proposal by a York

University human subjects cornmittee, administrators were
contacted at e a c h of the facilities used as sites for data
collection. Once permission for conducting research was
granted a group meeting was set up where the investigator
made a short presentation to potential subjects. These
presentations took place as part of rnonthly meetings of the
seniorsf housing centres, or as part of weekly groups a t
seniors' community centres. Perçons who agreed to
participate gave their infomed consent (a copy of the
consent form is i n Appendix A ) . Potential respondents were
assured of confidentiality of responses and the right to
withdraw at any tirne. Questionnaires were distributed to
consenting participants. Information from respondents was
gathered in the following order: 1) Consent form; 2)
Sociodemographic data; 3 ) Survey of Health Problems; 4)

Short Memory Questionnaire ( S M Q ) ; 5) Hassle Scale-Elderly

Form; 6) Intrinsic Religious Motivation Scale; 7) Life

Orientation Test; 8) Perceived Well-Being Scale; 9)

Meaningfulness scale. Respondents remained in the room and
completed the questionnaires on their own. Completion time
averaged about 30 minutes, ranging from 20 minutes to one
hour. Once t h e questionnaires were completed and collected,
t h e investigator described the purpose and hypotheses of the
study and answered questions posited by respondents.

E. Data Analyses
This was a correlational study since none of the variables
could be manipulated experimentally. First, descriptive
statistics were used to summarize information such as age,
gender, education level, marital status, place of residence,
and religion. Cornparison of the participating subject groups
according to site and gender were performed to determine
whether there were any significant differences in the
variables of interest and whether a l 1 data could be analyzed
together. Statistical analysis included calculations of
psychometric properties (e.g., homogeneity of variance,
Cronbachts alpha) . Finally, correlation matrices and
regression analyses were used to determine the relative
contribution of each of the predictor variables to perceived
well-being. Exploratory regression analyses were used to
determine whether interaction effects existed and, if so,
the extent of their influence.
V f I . Results

1. Demographica and Descriptive Statistics

One hundred subjects participated in the study. Prior to

data analyses, t-tests were used to examine whether there
were differences between respondents according to gender,
age, or sample sites. The purpose of these tests was to
determine whether the entire sample could be analyzed as a
whole. Eighty three females and 17 males were included.
Paired t-tests indicated two gender differences (see table
1) : Compared with males, females reported higher perceived

psychological well-being ( t = 3.24, p C . 01) , and greater

meaningfulness ( t = 2.24, p ~ 0 5 ) .
Table 1

t - t e s t procedures cornparina qender differences

Variable

M SD t P
Age

females 75.87 6.68

males 72.41 5.89 1.98 0.0505

Years of formal education

f emales 12.13

males 12.82

Health
fernales 3 -14

males 3 .18

Hassle frequency

females 20.61

males 17.94

Hassle intensity

fernales 25.35

males 24.18
Spirituality

fernales 24.96 7.08

males 2 5 . 18 9.63 -0.11 0.9159

Opt imism
females 20.45 4.11

males 18.88 7.15 1.24 0.2179

Perceived well-being

females 74.01 10.93

males 69.56 18.31 1.30 0.1977

Perceived physical well-being

females 36.32 8.96

males 36.63 11.55 -0.12 O. 9055

Perceived psychological well-being

females 37.62 4.37

males 33.18 7.88 3.24 0.0017

Meaningfulness

females 45.70 7.48

males 40.59 12.29 2.24 0 .O274

Mernory
fernales 32.31 5.76

males 33.17 5.15 -0.31 0.7594

 55

In o r d e r to test whether these differences occurred due to

different variances in the male and fernale samples, the
assumption of homogeneity of variance for gender was
analyzed using a folded F statistic (a two-tailed test which
does not specify which variance is larger). The nul1
hypotheses specifying no differences in the variance of male
and female samples for optimisrn, meaningfulness, perceived
well-being, and perceived psychological well-being were
rejected (see Table 2). Therefore, these four variables were
tested for gender differences using a nonparametric
statistical technique, the Wilcoxon Matched Pairs Signed
Ranks Test. This technique is equivalent to the parametric
correlated or related sample t test (Huck, Cormier, &

Bcunds, 1974). As presented in Table 3, gender differences

were only significant for perceived psychological well-
being, with females reporting greater scores. Given that
perceived psychological well-being is j u s t one of the
several variables examined, and since there were no other
gender differences, analyses proceeded combining both
genders .
Table 2

Homoseneity of Variance test for G e n d e r

Variable F' df

Years of
Formal education
Health 1.70 16,82

Hassle frequency 1.04 82,15

Hassle intensity 1.01 82,16

Spirituality
Optimism 3.03 16,81

Perceived well-being 2.81 15,75

Perceived physical
Well-being 1.66 15,75

Perceived psychological
Well-being 3.25 16,77 O. OOOS

Meaningfuhess 2.70 16,76 O.OO4O

Memory 3.69 13,s 0.1580

Table 3

Wilcoxon Matehed P a i r s Signed Ranks Test Cornparina Male and

Female Res~ondents

Variable S 2 Prob> Z
Optimism 731.00 -1.10 .27

Meaningfulness 660.50 -1.44 .1S

Perceived Well-Being 676.00 - -69 .49

Perceived Psychological
Weil-Being
 57

The sample was divided into s u b j e c t s called the young-old

(those aged 75 and under, n=54, mean age 70.15 years) and
subjects called the old-old ( p e r s o n s over age 75, n=46, mean
age 81.30). Paired t-tests revealed there were no
significant differences between the two groups on
demographics and dependent variables (see Table 4).
Therefore, subsequent analyses combined both age groups.

In addition, respondents £rom Seniors' centres were compared

with their counterparts from Senior's housing. Paired t-
tests indicated that none of the means were significantly
different between the two g r o u p s (see Table 5 ) , allowing for
subsequent analyses using respondents £rom both sites.
Spirituality
old-01d 24.55 7.48

young-old 25.39 7.65 -0.54 O. 5881

Optimism
old-01d 19.61 3.99

young-old 20.68 5 -33 -1.12 O , 2666

Perceived well-being
old-01d 70.91 10.35

young-old 75.29 13.93 -1.69 O. 0943

Perceived physical well-being

old-01d 34.74 8.47

young-old 37.79 9.99 -1.57 0.1204

Perceived psychological well-being

old-01d 36.09 4.77

young-old 37-45 5.86 -1.23 O. 2223

Meaningfulness
old-01d 44 - 2 5

young-old 45.24
old-old 33.13

young-old 32.18
Table 5
t - t e s t procedures comparincr respondente from Seniorsr
Centres and Seniorsr Bousinq
Variable

Centres

Homes

Years of formal education

Centres 11.87 3.25

Homes 12.85 3.02

Spirituality

Centres
Homes

Hassle intensity

Centres

Homes

Hassle frequency
Centres 21.52 12.35

Homes 18.13 12.41

 62

/Cont i n u e d

Health
Centres

Homes

Optimism
Centres

Homes

Meaningfuiness
Centres

Homes

Mernory
Centres

Homes

Perceived well-being

Centres 72.43

Homes 74.34 14.14 -0.74

Perceived physical well-being

Centres 35.44 8.81

Homes 37.68 10.12 -1.13 0.26

Perceived psychological well-being

Centres 36.89 4.86

Homes 36.71 6.18 0.16 0.87

 64

The mean age of the sample was 75.28 years, ranging from 65
to 91 years (SD = 6.65 years) . The mean educational level
was 12.25 years of school (SD = 3.18 years), with 12 years
being equivalent to high school education. Marital status
included 50 per cent widowed individuals, followed by
married (20%), never married (18%), and separated/divorced
respondents (12%). Most respondents resided alone (75%),
followed by those living with their spouse (19%), with peers
( 4 % ) , and with their children (2%). The majority of

respondents (61%) attended community centres for the elderly

while the rest (39%) lived in subsidized housing units for
seniors. Breakdown by religion included 68 per cent
Protestant, 26 per cent Catholic, one Jewish, one Buddhist,
two belonging to other unspecified religions, and two
respondents who identified themselves as agnostic/atheist.

The religion demographics may not be representative of

Metropolitan Toronto likely due to the non-random nature of
sampling. Furthermore, many potential subj ects had declined
to participate (as witnessed by the investigator upon

completing his group presentations) . Unfortunately, no data

are available regarding these individuals.

Considering the shorter life expectancy of males versus

females, it is not surprising that females were
 65

disproportionately represented in this study and that they

tended to be slightly older. According to the 1991 Canada
Census (Statistics Canada, 1991), about ten per cent of
persons in Metropolitan Toronto are females 65 years of age
and over while four per cent are males of that age. As
expected, most respondents were widowed and lived alone. The
means, rnedians, standard deviations and ranges for the
variables are reported in Table 6.

Most respondents indicated few health problems ( M = 3.15, SD

= 2.50). Table 7 indicates the most prevalent self-reported
health problems were arthritis and rheumatism (48%),
followed by sight disorders (34%), back, limb and joint
disorders (25%), hearing disorders (22%), and hypertension
(21%).
Table 6

Means, Medians, Standard Deviations, and Ranses for

Democrravhics and Scale Variables

Variable M

Age 75.28
Education 12.25

Health 3.15

Total hassle score 45.27

Hass le f requency 20.18

Hassle i n t e n s i t y 25.15

Spirituality 25-00

Optimism 20.18

Perceived well being 73.24

Physical PWB 36.37

Psychological PWB 36.82

Meaning 44.78

Memory 32.58
Table 7

Freauencv of Self-Re~ortedHealth Problems

Health Problems Percent
Arthritis and rheumatism
Sight disorders
Back, l i r n b and joint disorders
Hearing disorders
Hypertension
Hayfever and other allergies
Skin allergies and other skin disorders
Thyroid disorders
Diabetes
a. Gastric and duodenal ulcers 13
a . Heart diseaçe 13
12. Functional digestive disorders 10
a . Others 10
14. Asthma 9
a . Headaches 9
16. Dental trouble 8
a. Trauma (accidents and injury) 8
18. Anemia 6
19. Cancer 5
'. Acute respiratory iilness 5
21. Bronchitis and emphysema 4
22. Influenza 1
Note: a denotes the same percentage as preceding health
 68

In the present investigation, the most frequently reported

hassles included: Worries about your future (61%); A
decrease in physical capacities (60%); The thought of
becoming dependent on someone (59%); The health of a family
member (58%); Worries concerning a person close to you
(spouse, parent, child, friend) (56%); A physical illness
(56%); Pollution (55%); Worries about health and well-being

(54%); Not enough strength (53%); Difficulties in seeing or

hearing (50%); Crime (48%) ; Home maintenance (taking care of
the house, car, etc. ) (47%); Difficulty in relaxing (46%);

Feeling lonely (45%); Financial security (43%); Worries

about bodily functions (43%) ; Worrying about insufficient
monetary funds in case of an unseen event (43%); Having the
impression of getting old too fast (40%); f e a r of being
raped, attacked (40%); Worries about a medical treatment
(39%) ; Inability to express yourself (39%); Not having

enough sleep (379); Planning meals (36%); Insecurity in your

neighbourhood (lack of security) (35%); Traff ic (35%);
Problems with methods of transportation (35%); Cooking
(preparing meals) (34%); Side effects of medications ( 3 3 % );
Noise (33%); Doing your own shopping (32%); Fear of
confronting sorneone (32%); Worries about i m e r conflicts
(31%) ; No one will come to your help in case of need (31%);

Having too much free time (30%).

 69

Descriptive statistics for memory ( M = 32.58, SD = 5.45)

were affected by two items which were not answered by many

respondents. These items were elirninated in the final
analysis. Item number 2 ( T a n you recall where you parked
your car or where your ride wili pick you up?") was not
answered by 17 individuals. This item may have lacked
personal relevance since many respondents did not drive and
rnay not have had to arrange for rides. Item number 12 (ttDoes
your spouse have to remind you of things he or she had asked
you to do?") was left unanswered by 76 respondents who were
either widowed, separated or divorced. Once these two items
were eliminated, 95% of the memory items were fully answered
( M = 31.00, SD = 5 - 8 4 ) .

Cronbach alpha coefficients were calculated in order to

check for internal reliability of the items involved in each
measure. High internal reliability was indicated for each of
the scales: Hassle Frequency ( . 9 3 ) , Hassle Intensity (.92),
Health ( .64) , Spirituality ( ,901 , Optimism ( .77),

Meaningfulness (.85), Perceived Well-Being ( . 7 6 ) , P h y s i c a l

PWB ( .71) and Psychological PWB ( .64) . The memory scale
(SMQ) yielded a Cronbach's alpha of .73, compared with the
published - 8 5 given by the authors of this scale. With the
omission of the two items not answered by most respondents,
Cronbach alpha was slightly raised to .74.
 70

2 . Hypotheses Testing

For present purposes, correlations are deemed substantial if

2.3, since this correlation would account for about 9 per
cent of the variance. Moderate correlations are designated
as those between . 2 to - 3 , (accounting for 4 to 9 p e r cent
of the variance) while correlations below .2 a r e conceived

of a s weak (accounting for less than 4 per cent of the

variance). The correlation matrix is presented in table 8.
Table 8

Intercorrelation Matrix of Demosraphic and Dependent

Variables
Total
Education Health Hassle
Score

Educat ion
Health
Total Hassle
Score
Hassle
Frequency
Hassle
Intensity
Spirituality
Opt imism
PWB a
Physical
PWB
Psychological
PWB
Meaningfulness -.O7 .08
Memory .11 .23*

Hassle Hassle
Frequency Intensity Spirit. Optimism
P m
Hassle
Frequency --
Hassle
Intensity 89**+* --
Spirituality -.O3 - .O3 --
Optimism - .2S** - .30** .29**
PWB - .24* - .38*** .21*
Physical
PWB - .24* - .35*** .17
Psychological
PWB - .11 - .23* .17
Meaningfulness -.14 - .25** .25**
Memory -.O7 - .11 .17
 Physical Psychological
PWB PWB Meaningf ulness
Physical
PWB

Psychological
PWB .38*** --
Meaningfulness .37*** -62""" --
Memory .14 .10 .25*

* p <.O5 ** p < . O 1 * * * p c.001 **** p c.0001

Note: a = Perceived Weil-Being
Prior to the testing of hypotheses, the self-reporting
memory measure was exarnined to check on the possibility that
persons with self-reported memory problems may need to be
excluded since they were not able to fully recall the
frequency and severity of hassles experienced "during the
past month". This possibility was rejected as neither total
hassle score, hassle frequency nor intensity correlated
significantly with memory (see table 8) . Therefore,
subsequent analyses included al1 respondents since in this
study the self-reported memory problems were not related to
the amount and/or intensity of hassles reported by subjects.

A. Perceived Well-Being and Daily Hassles

The first hypothesis, stating that significant negative
correlations will be found between individuals' degree of
perceived well-being and the reported frequency and
intensity of their daily hassles, was accepted. Perceived
well-being was correlated with hassle intensity ( r = - . 3 8 ) .
This pattern demonstrates that the frequency and intensity
of hassles are negatively correlated with well-being.

B. The Three Existential S t y l e s and Daily Hassles

The second hypothesis stated that negative correlations will
be found between individuals' degree of spirituality,
meaningfulness, and/or optimism and the reported frequency
 74

and intensity of their daily hassles. This hypothesis was

supported by optimism and meaningfulness, but not
spirituality. Optimism was correlated with hassle intensity
(-,30),and with total hassle scores ( - - 2 9 )and hassle
frequency k . 2 5 ) . Meaningfulness was moderately correlated
with total hassle scores (-.21) and hassle intensity k 2 5 )
but was not correlated with hassle f requency (- .l4 .
Spirituality was not correlated with either total hassle
scores (- .O41 , hassle frequency ( - . O 3 ) , or hassle intensity

(-.03). Thus, while optimism and meaningfulness were

negatively related to intensity of hassles, spirituality

failed to show any relationships to hassles.

C. T h e Three Existential Styles and Perceived Well-Being

The third hypothesis stated that the Existential styles will

be positively correlated with perceived psychological well-
being. It was partly supported as perceived psychological
well-being was correlated with optimism ( . 6 0 ) , and
meaningfulness (-621, although it was not significantly
associated with spirituality (-17).Further partial
confirmation of the third hypothesis was obtained since
perceived physical well-being was correlated with optimism
( . 50) and meaningfulness ( - 3 7 ), although not with

spirituality (.18). Thus, while optimism and meaningfulness

were positively correlated with both psychological and
 75

physical perceived well-being, spirituality failed to show

such relationships .

D. The Three Existential Styles and Perceived Psychological

Versus Physical Weil-Being
The fourth hypothesis stated that since the three
Existential styles strive to reduce or manage emotional
distress, they will account for more of the variance in
psychological than in physical perceived well-being. This
hypothesis was rejected (t=1.61, p>.25), indicating that
there were no differences in the overall variance in
psychological versus physical perceived well-being
associated with the three coping strategies. However,
meaningfulness contributed to more of the variance in
psychological well-being (& = 38 per cent) than physical

well-being (& = 14 per cent) .

E. Intercorrelations of the Three Existential styles

The fifth hypothesis stated that spirituality, optimism and
rneaningfulness will al1 be positively correlated. It was
supported as optimism was correlated with spirituality L 2 9 )
and rneaningfulness ( . 5 4 ) , while meaningfulness was
moderately associated with spirituality ( . 2 5 ) . Thus, the
three coping styles showed a moderate degree of overlap with
each other, particularly optimism with meaningfulness.

F. The Advantage of the Three Existential Styles mer Daily

Hassles in Predicting Perceived Well-Being
The sixth hypothesis stated that using multiple regression
analysis, the combination of spirituality, optimism and
meaningfulness will predict and add to the variance in well-
being accounted for by the frequency and/or intensity of
hassles. It was accepted when examined by both stepwise and
simultaneous regression models. Each model is suited for
specific purposes. Stepwise regression is a method which
selects regressors for a model. It is most helpful for
exploratory strategy as it gives insight into the
relationships between the independent variables and the
dependent variable. However, it does not guarantee to give
the %estn model for the data, or even the model with the
largest variance. Stepwise regression has been criticized on
the grounds that computer programs utilizing this procedure
are v e r y tempting when there is a large pool of independent
variables and very little theory to guide the researcher:
"If the computer selects the variables, the investigator is
relieved of the responsibility of making decisions about
their logical or causal priority or relevance before the
analysis, although interpretation of the finding may not be
easiern (Cohen & Cohen, 1975, p. 103) .

In order to counter this criticism and check the reliability

of the findings derived from the stepwise procedure, the
simultaneous model was used as well. According to the
simultaneous model, when a number of variables are examined
with no theoretical or logical basis for assigning priority
to any one of these variables, entering al1 variables
sirnultaneously into the multiple regression equation is
considered appropriate (Cohen & Cohen, 1975). The two
regression procedures are examined below.

1. Stepwise Regressions:
Tables 9, 10, and II present the results of stepwise
regression analyses where perceived well-being was regressed
on the three Existential styles and one of three hassle
indices (total hassle score, frequency or intensity). These
tables report the standardized beta weight, total variance
and the partial variance in perceived well-being associated
with each variable. According to Table 9, when total hassle
score was included, a three-variable model was associated
with 47 per cent of the variance in perceived well-being,
58, pc. 0001,
F ( 3 , 83) = X , and consisted of optimism,
rneaningfulness, and total hassle score. Optimism and
rneaningfulness were positively associated with perceived
well-being while the total hassle score was negatively
related. No other variables contributed significantly to
this model. Standardized beta weights indicate optimisrn
contributed most to the variance. According to Table 10,
when hassle frequency was substituted for the total hassle
score, optimism and meaningfulness were associated with 45

per cent of the variance, F ( 2 , 8 4 )=24 -51, pc .0001, while

hassle frequency did not predict any of the variance in
perceived well-being. Table 11 presents the results of the
stepwise regression analyses in which hassle intensity
constituted the hassle measure. The resulting three variable
model consisted of optimism, meaningfulness, and hassle
intensity, F(3,84)= XS 2 , p e . 0001, and rnirrored the model
derived when total hassle score was included.

Taken together, these results demonstrate that perceived

well-being is best predicted by optirnism and, to a lesser
extent, by meaningfulness. Spirituality was not associated
significantly with the variance in perceived well-being.
Hassle intensity and total hassle scores were found to
predict perceived well-being, although they were associated
with only a small amount of the variance. Hassls frequency
did not explain any of the variance in perceived well-being.
 79

Table 9
Reqression of Perceived W e l l - B e i n c r on Total hassle Scores,

m t i m i s m , Meaninafulneea, and Spirituality

step variable Partial R~ & -

b
1 OPTIMISM 0.38 0.38 0.43****

2 MEANINGFULNESS 0.07 0.45 0.30**

3 TOTAL HASSLE
SCORE 0.02 0.47 -0.13

F ( 3 , 8 3 )=24.Sl, p c . 0001

Note. * * p ~ 0 1 .* * * * p c.0001.

Table 10
Reqression of Perceived W e l l - B e i n c r on Hassle Frecnrency,

ûptimism, Meaninqfulness, and S~irituality

step variable Partial R~ -b

1 OPTIMISM 0.38 O . 38 O. 4 6 * * * *

2 MWINGFULNESS O. 07 0.45 0.31***

F(2,84)=34.80, pc.0001

Note. *** p c.001. **** p ~0001.

 80 .
Table 11
Resression of Perceived Well-Beinq on Hassle Intensity,
bPtimism, Meanincrfulaess, and Spiritualitv

s t e ~ variable Partial R~ & -

b
1 OPTIMISM 0.38 0.38 O. 42****

2 MEANINGFULNESS 0.07 0.45 O. 2 9 * *

3 HASSLE

INTENS ITY 0.02 0.48 -0.17*

F ( 3 , 8 4 )=25.SS, p< .O001

Note. * p <.S. ** p c.01. **** p c.0001.

 81

Because this investigation was exploratory, and in order to

cross-validate the stepwise analysis (Cohen & Cohen, 1975),
the sample was randomly divided in half into groups 1 and 2
and the stepwise regression analyses were repeated for each
group. These analyses were carried out separately for al1
three hassle measures. Although sample size was diminished
this cornparison allowed to consider how "reproducibleu the
above models were. This procedure is based on the premise
that if the models are not particularly replicated it is
possible they were chosen by chance. Tables 12 and 13
illustrate the regression of perceived well-being on the
three Existential styles and the total hassle score. The
results were similar to those obtained when al1 respondents
were included in the analyses. Using group 1, a three-
variable mode1 explained 45 per cent of the variance in
perceived well-being, F ( 3 , 39)=10.49, pc.0001, and included
optimisrn, meaningfulness, and total hassle scores. Using
group 2, a two-variable rnodel explained 52 per cent of the
variance in perceived well-being, F ( 2 , 41)=22.08, pc.0001,
and included optimisrn and meaningfulness. In both groups,
standardized beta weights revealed optimisrn to be the most
powerful contributor to perceived well-being, followed by
meaningfulness.

Tables 14 and 15 report the stepwise regressions of the

 82

Existential styles together with hassle frequency for groups

1 and 2, respectively. Similar two-variable models were

derived, explaining 38 and 52 per cent of the variance,

respectively, and including optimism and meaningfulness. As

judged by standardized beta weights, optimism was the best

predictor of perceived well-being, followed by
meaningfulness. These results were sirnilar to those
calculated for al1 respondents.

Tables 16 and 17 summarize the regression of perceived well-

being ont0 the three Existential strategies and hassle
intensity. Using group 1, a three-variable mode1 explained
47 per cent of the variance in perceived well-being, F ( 3 ,
40)=11.72, p<.0001, and included optimism, meaningfulness,
and total hassle scores. Using group 2, a two-variable mode1
explained 52 per cent of the variance in perceived well-
being, F ( 2 , 41)=22.08, pc.0001, and included optimism and
meaningfulness. In both groups, standardized beta weights
revealed optimism to be the most powerful contributor to
perceived well-being, followed by meaningfulness. The
results were comparable to those obtained when al1
respondents were included.

Taken together, these results demonstrate that stepwise

regressions for both random groups yielded similar results,

 83

and thus the mode1 for predicting perceived well-being is

less likely to have occurred by chance.
 84

Table 12

Rearession of Perceived Well-Beincr on Total hassle Scores,

û p t i m i s m , Meaninqfulness, and Spiritualitv f o r Group 1

-

s t e ~ variable partial R~ & -

b
1 OPTIMISM 0.25 0.25 0.39***

2 MEANINGFULNESS 0.13 0.38 O .3 5 * *

3 TOTAL HASSLE
SCORE 0.06 0.45 -0.25*

F ( 3 , 39)=10.49, pc.0001
Note. * p <.OS. ** p c.01. *** p c.001.

T a b l e 13

Recrression of Perceived Weil-Beins on Total hassle Scorea,

ûptimism, Meaninufulnese, and Spiritualitv for Groun 2

step variable Partial '

R @ -b
1 OPTIMISM 0.48 0.48 O. 5 3 * * * *

2 MEANINGFULNESS 0.04 0.52 0.25

F ( 2 , 4 1 ) =22.08, pc .O001
Note. **** p c.0001.
Table 14
Resression of Perceived Well-Beina on Hassle Frequency,
.-tirniam. Meanincrfulneas, and Sairitualitv for Group 1

step variable P a r t i a l R~ @ -
b
1 OPTIMISM 0.25 0.25 0.41"""

2 MEANINGFULNESS O .13 0.38 0.38**

F ( 2 , 40)=12.44, pc.0001

Note. ** p < -01. *** p < ,001.

Table 15

Recrtession of Perceived W e l l - B e i n c r on Hassle Freauencv,

mtimism, Meanincrfulness, and Spirituality for Group 2

s t e ~ variable P a r t i a l R' -
b
1 OPTIMISM 0-48 0.48 O .53****
2 MEANINGFULNESS 0.04 0.52 0.25

F ( 2 , 4 1 ) =22 - 0 8 , ps .O001

Note. **** p c.0001.

 86

Table 16

R e c r r e s s i o n of Perceived W e l l - B e i n c r on Hassle Intensitv,

û p t i m i s m , Meanincrfulneas, and S~iritualityfor Group 1

step variable Partial R~ & -

b
1 OPTIMISM 0.25 0.25 O .38***

2 MEANINGFULNESS O. 13 0.38 O .32**

3 HASSLES INTENSITY 0.09 0.47 -0.31*

F ( 3 , 40)=Il.7 2 , p c . 0001

Note. * p c.05. ** p ~ 0 1 . * * * p c.001.

Table 1 7
R e c i r e a s i o n of Perceived Well-Beinct on Haasle Intensitv,
Optimisrn, Meanin~fulness, and Spirituality for Group 2

s t e ~ variable Partial R~ & -

b
L OPTIMISM 0.48 0.48 0.53****

2 MEANINGFULNESS 0.04 0.52 0.24

F ( 2 , 4 1 ) =22.08, pc. 0001

Note. **** p c.0001.

 87

2. Simultaneous Regression:

Table 18, 19, and 20 present the results of the simultaneous

regression mode1 for the three Existential styles and total
hassle scores, frequency and intensity, respectively. In
this mode1 al1 variables are considered (i.e., held constant
by partialling). Squared partial correlation statistics
indicate the estirnated unique arnount of variance in
perceived well-being associated with each variable which is
not estimated by the other variables in the regression. The
value of the squared partial correlations depends on the
other variables in the regression, In al1 three separate
regressions optimism was uniquely associated with 19 per
cent of the variance, meaningfulness accounted for ten to
eleven per cent, while spirituality predicted less t h a n one
per cent of the variance in perceived well-being. Of the
three hassle measures, hassle intensity was associated with
the most variance (five per cent), followed by total hassle
scores (three per cent) and hassle frequency (one per cent 1 .
Taken together, these results demonstrate that optimism made

the greatest contribution while spirituality failed to

uniquely contribute to the variance in perceived well-being.
As found with stepwise regression, hassle intensity, but not
frequency, was associated with the well-being variance.
 88

Table 18

Results of simultaneous multiple recrression analysis of

t o t a l hassle scores, spiritualitv, optimism, and

meanincrfulness on ~erceivedwell-beinq

Variable -
b P a r t i a l R*

TOTAL HASSLE
SCORE -0.14 O.03

SPIRITUALITY 0.03 0.00

OPTIMISM 0.42 0.19

MEANINGFULNESS 0.30 0.11

F = 18.24, p = .0001, & = 0- 4 7 , Adj R-sq = 0.45

Table 1 9
Results of simultaneous multiple resression analysis of
2
on perceived well-beinq

Variable -
b P a r t i a l lt2

HASSLE
FREQUENCY -0.08 0.01

SPIRITUALITY 0.03 0.00

OPTIMISM 0.44 0.19

MEANINGFULNESS 0.31 0.11

F = 17.44, p = .0001, & = 0.46, Adj R-sq = 0.43

Table 2 0

Results of simultaneoua multiple resression analysis of

hasale intensity, spirituality, optimism, and rneaninsfulnees

on ~erceivedwell-beinq

Variable Partial R~
EZASSLE

INTENS1TY
SPIRITUALITY
OPTIMISM
MEANINGFULNESS

F = 18.96, p = .0001, & = 0.48, Adj R-sq = 0.45

3. Interaction E f f e c t s

Interaction effects were not a part of the hypotheses as

there was no a priori rationale for predicting them.
However, post-hoc analyses were conducted to test for the
possibility that the interaction terms of the three
existential resources with each other added to the variance
in perceived well-being above and beyond the variance
predicted by the Existential styles. ~ppendixD presents the
results of hierarchical regressions in which perceived
general, physical and psychological well-being were
separately regressed on hassles, the three Existential
styles and their possible interactions. Following the main
effects, none of the interaction effects significantly
predicted or added to the variance in perceived general or
physical well-being. When perceived psychological well-being
was regressed onto these variables, only the optimism-
meaningfulness interaction significantly predicted and added
to the variance (b= -.SI, R' change = two per cent).

G. The Moderating Effect of the Three Bxistential styles on

the Relationahip Between Daily Haesles and Perceived Well-
Being
The seventh hypothesis stated that optimism, spirituality
and meaningfulness will moderate the impact of hassles on
perceived well-being. Hierarchical regressions were
 91

conducted in which the three Existential styles as well as

the interaction effects of hassle intensity with each of the
Existential coping styles were partialled out, allowing for
the separate examination of the variance associated with
hassle intensity. Tables 21 and 22 present the hierarchical
regression of psychological and physical perceived well-
being, respectively, on the three Existential coping styles
and interactions. Standardized beta weights were then used
to examine which of these variables had the greatest
moderating ef£ect.

Standardized beta weights indicated that meaningfulness was

the most effective moderator of perceived Psychological
well-being, followed by optimism and the spirituality -
hassle intensity interaction. However, none of the
interactions added significantly to the variance in
perceived psychological well-being.

Hierarchical regression of physical perceived well-being on

the three Existential coping styles and interactions
revealed that the most effective moderators were the
meaningfulness - hassle intensity interaction, followed by
the optimism - hassle intensity interaction, optimism, and
meaningfulness. However, none of the interactions added
significantly to the variance in perceived physical well-
 92

being. Therefore, no support was found f o r t h e hypothesis

that optimism, spirituality and rneaningfulness will moderate
the impact of hassles on either psychological or physical
perceived welf-being.
Table 21
Hierarchical Reqression Analyses of the Contribution of
HassLe Intensit~Score, Existential stvles and Interaction
Terms for Predictina Perceived Ps~cholocricalWell-Beinq

Variable b R~ R~ change

Step 1
HASSLE INTENSITY
Step 2

SPIRITUALITY
Step 3

OPTIMISM
Step 4

MEAINGFULNESS
Step 5

OPTIMISM - HASSLE INTENSITY

Step 6

MEANINGFULNESS -HASSLE INTENSITY

Step 7
SPIRITUALITY - HASSLE INTENSITY

Note. ** p c-01. *** p c.001. **** p c.0001.

 Table 2 2

Hierarchical Rearession Analyses of the Contribution of

Hassle Intensitv Score, Existential styles and Interaction
T e m a for Predictincr Perceived Phvsical Well-Beinq

Variable R~ R~ change
Step 1
HASSLE INTENSITY
Step 2

SPIRITUALITY
Step 3
OPTIMISM
Step 4

MEANINGFULNESS
Step 5

OPTIMISM - HASSLE INTENSITY

- dtep 6

M E A N I N G F W E S S -EiASSLE INTENSITY

Step 7

SPIRITUALITY - HASSLE INTENSITY

Note. ** p c.01. *** p c.001. **** p c.0001.

 95 .

Taken together, these results demonstrate that the variance

associated with hassle intensity was reduced once the
Existential styles and interaction effects were controlled
for. Thus, the three Existential styles were found to have
some moderating effect on the relationships between
perceived well-being and hassles.

H. The Effects of H e a l t h on Daily Hasalea and Perceived

Well-Being
The eighth hypothesis, stating that individuals in better
health will report fewer and/or less intense daily hassles
than persons in poorer health, was confirmed. Health was
substantially correlated with total hassle scores ( - - 3 2 1 ,
hassle frequency (- .30), and hassle intensity ( - . 3 9 ) ,

indicating better health was associated with a fewer and

less intense haqsles.

Based on their reported health status, respondents were

divided into a better health group (those with two or fewer
health problems) and a poorer health group (more than two
reported health problems). Table 23 presents the results of
t-tests where the two groups were compared on their
optimism, meaningfulness, spirituality, hassles, and
perceived well-being s c o r e s . Confirming the eighth
hypothesis, individuals in better health indicated fewer
total hassle scores and lower hassle frequency and intensity
than those with more health problems. Persons in better
health also reported higher perceived well-being and
perceived physical well-being but did not differ £rom those
in poorer health on perceived psychological well-being. The
two groups did not differ on optimism, faith, or
rneaningfulness scores.
Table 23

t-tests comparincr total hassle score, frecruencv, intensitv,

o~timism, spiritualitv, and meanincrfulness scores of

respondents i n better health with res~ondents in poorer

heal th

Variable

M
TOTAL HASSLE SCORE
Better 487.25 618 -40

Poorer 924.16 1030.07 -2.54

HASSLE FREQUENCY

Better 17.13

Poorer 23.06

HASSLE INTENSITY
Better 19.33

Poorex 30.52

OPTIMISM
Better

Poorer

SPIRITUALITY
Better

Poorer
 99

Since fourteen of the 64 hassles were health-related, the

data were further examined by a hierarchical multiple
regression analysis when health w a s the first item entered
in the regression equation (see Table 24). This allowed to
estimate the relative contribution of the Existential styles
while controlling for health status. Since this
investigation w a s exploratory, there was no theoretical
rationale for assigning a priori order for the three
Existential styles following health and hassles. Regardless
of their order, the total variance associated with these
variables rernains constant. Therefore, as presented in Table
24 the order of the three coping strategies is a r b i t r a r y .
When entered first, as the sole predictor, health accounted
for about nine per cent of the variance in perceived well-
being ( F ( 1 , 8 5 ) =8.84, p < . 01) . Total hassle score, entered
second, accounted for five per cent of the variance ( F ( 1 ,
84)=4.82, p <.OS) once the effects of health were partialled
out. Without controlling for the effects of health, hassles
accounted for about nine per cent of the variance in
perceived well-being ( F ( 1 , 85)=8.80, p =.004). This four per
cent decrease in variance illustrates the contribution made
by health-related hassles.

This regression demonstrates that the Existential styles

were associated with variance increases similar to those
 100 .
reported in Table 25 where health was not controlled for.
For example, with health and total hassle score partialled
out, optimism predicted an additional 29 per cent of the
variance ( F ( 1 , 83)=42.67, p c.0001). As the fourth variable
entered, meaningfulness accounted for six per cent of the
variance (F(1, 82)=9.74, p C . 01), while as the last variable

entered, spirituality was not associated with a significant

arnount of the variance in perceived well-being. Standardized
beta weights indicate that when controlling for health,
perceived well-being was predicted best by optimism,
followed by meaningfulness. Spirituality contributed to the
variance in perceived well-being only if it preceded the
other two Existential styles, and then only contributed four
per cent to the variance ( F ( 1 , 83)=4.05, p c.05).

Taken together, these results demonstrate that individuals

in better health reported fewer and less intense daily
hassles than perçons in poorer health. The reported health
status predicted a significant amount of the variance in
perceived well-being although the relative contribution of
the other variables did not change considerably when health
was controlled for. The inclusion of health in the
regression increased the total arnount of variance by two per
cent, from 47 to 49.
Table 2 4

Hieraschical Reqression Analyses for Variables Predictinq

Perceived W e l l - B e i n c r A f t e r Controllina f o r Health

Variable b R2 change
Step 1

HEALTH .15 .09**

Step 2

TOTAL HASSLE SCORE - .O8 .14** -05"

Step 3

OPTIMISM .42 43***+ .29****

Step 4

SPIRITUALITY .O3 .43**** .O0

Step 5
MEANINGFULNESS .2a 49**+* .06**

Note, ** p c.01. *** p c.001. **** p c.0001.

 102

Table 2 5

Hierarchical Resression Analyses f o r Variables Predictinq

Perceived Well-Beina Without Controllina f o r Health

Variable b 2 R" change

Step 1
TOTAL HASSLE SCORE - .14 .09**

Step 2

OPTIMISM
Step 3
SPIRITUALITY
Step 4

MEANINGFULNESS

Note. ** p c.01. *** p c.001. **** p c.0001.

 103

Since fourteen hassles are health-related, it is possible

they are confounded with symptoms (Landreville & Vezina,
1992). In order to examine whether such %ymptomatictl

hassles influenced the relationships between perceived well-

being (overall, psychological and physical) and the
Existential styles, stepwise regression analyses were
conducted in which non-symptornatic hassles were the
predictors. Tables 26, 27, and 28 presents the results of
these regressions, and compare them to regressions where the
entire hassle scale was used. Similar modelç of perceived
overall, physical and psychological well-being were
obtained. However, the total hassle score (which contributed
two and three per cent to the variance of perceived overall
and physical well-being, respectively) did not add to the
variance when non-symptomatic hassles were used. These
results demonstrate that the ?qmptornatic" hassles
contribute to t h e variance in perceived overall and physical
well-being.
Table 26
Rearession of Perceived Well-beins on Total Bassle Scores,
ûptimism, Meaninqfulness, and S~irituality,Usins Either the
Hassles Scale - E l d e r l y Form or Non-svm'~tomaticHaasles A s

Predictors

Hassles S c a l e - Elderly Fom

s t e ~ variable Partial R~ &
1 OPTIMISM 0.38 0.38

2 MEANING 0.07 0.45

3 TOTAL HASSLE
SCORE 0.02

F(3,83)=24.51, pc.0001

Non-symptomatic Hassles
s t e ~ variable Partial R' @
1 OPTIMISM 0.38 0.38

2 MEANING O. 07 0.45

F ( 2 , 8 5 )=34.98, p c . 0001

Note. * * p c.01. **** p <-0001.

Table 27

Recrression of Perceived Phvsical Well-beina on Total flassle

Scores. O~timiam,Meanincrfulness, and Soiritualitv. Usinq

Either the Hasales Scale - Elderly Form or Non-sym~tomatic

Haesles As Predictors

Hassles S c a l e - Elderly Form

step variable Partial R' &
1 OPTIMISM 0.22 0.22

2 TOTAL KASSLE
SCORE 0.03

F(21,84)=l4.34, pc.0001

Non-syrnptomatic Hassles
s t e ~ variable Partial R~
1 OPTIMI SM 0.22

F ( 1 , 8 6 )=24.82, p c . 0001

Note. **** p ~0001.

Table 28
Reqression of Perceived Psycholouical Well-beincr on Total
Hassle Scores, Optimism, Meaninufulnes~, and Spirituality,
Usinq Either the Hassles Scale - E l d e r l y Form o r Non-

symptomatic Bassles As Predictors

Hassles S c a l e - Elderly F o r m
step variable Partial R~
1 MEANING 0.38 0.38

2 OPTIMISM 0.09 0.47

F ( 2 , 8 6 )=39.27, pc. 0001

Non-symptomatic Hassles
s t e ~ variable Partial R~
1 MEANING 0-38 0.38

2 OPTIMISM O. 09 0.47

Note. **** p c.0001.

VIII. Discussion
The present study investigated the roles of three specific
emotion-focused coping styles (spirituality, optimism and
meaningfulness), effective for coping with major l i f e
stressors, in coping with daily hassles among non-
institutionalized o l a e r adults. When interpreting these
results one cannot assume that these coping styles were
actually used by respondents to cope with hassles since the
study was correlational (e-g., a report of high optimism and
few hassles does not necessarily indicate that respondents
used optimism to manage hassles). A future study may help
clarify these issues by initially assessing these
Existential styles. Once a base line is established, the
perception of hassle frequency and intensity is to be
assessed on several occasions. At each of these times
respondents will be questioned about which specific coping
styles were used to manage each hassle. This would provide
more information than correlations alone and would allow
conclusions on the specific effects of these coping styles.
With this caveat in mind, the following conclusions are
offered.

1. Perceived Well-Being and Daily Hassles

As predicted, the frequency and intensity of hassles were
negatively correlated with perceived well-being. This
 108

supports previous findings of the relationships between

hassles and well-being (e.g., Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer &

Lazarus, 1981 ; DeLongis, Coyne, Dakof , Folkman & Lazarus,

1982; DeLongis, Folkman and Lazarus, 1988; Wagner, 1990).

Hassle intensity predicted more of the variance in well-

being than frequency (thirteen and four per cent,
respectively). The implication is that the intensity of a
hassle has more of an effect on well-being than the mere
occurrence of that stressor. Once a hassle is experienced it
is the degree to which it is bothersome that is more highly
correlated with well-being.

2 . The Thxee Existential Styles and Daily Haaslea

Optimism, and to a lesser degree meaningfulness, were

negatively related to total hassle scores, frequency and
intensity of hassles, while spirituality failed to show such
patterns. This finding i s interesting since the literature
review provided no strong reason to believe that optimism
would prove to be the most çignificant Existential style.
Lack of optimisrn could serve as a marker of decreased well-
being and potential difficulty for dealing with daily
hassles. The negative correlation between optimism and daily
hassles could be contrasted with the curvilinear
relationships between optimism and subsequent outcorne
hypothesized to exist when coping with major stressors
 109

(Menninger, 1959). A study of three groups of older adults

(those awaiting admission to a nursing home, residing in an
institution, or living independently) found low levels of
optimism resulted in a marked decline in functioning while,
paradoxically, the highest level of optimism was associated
with death (Lieberman & Tobin, 1983). The latter may be
related to an unrealistic amount of optimism which, when not
materialized, could lead to disappointment and depression-
like state. Successful adaptation was associated with an
intermediate level of optimism. However, daily hassles do
not appear to involve a similar relationship. The present
study was not longitudinal and is therefore not predictive.
However, high levels of optimism were associated with fewest
and least intense hassles, as well as best perceived well-
being. It is uncertain whether optimism acts to buffer
against minor stressors prior to their occurrence or is
utilized only following the experience of daily hassles.
Both processes are likely to occur.

The moderate correlation between health and meaningfulness

might indicate that meaningfulness could act to protect
against poor health. However, it is also possible that
individuals who suffer from various health related problems
are less likely to report meaningfulness in their life,
perhaps since they are focused on their poor health and may
 110 .
not find solace or comfort in searching for meaning in their
life at that point, or rnay have given up on that pursuit.
Perhaps only major life stressors surpass a threshold which
then prompts one to use rneaningfulness in order to cope with
such stressors. On the other hand, it is also possible that
these coping strategies have less of an impact for the
experience of minor stressors.

3 . The Weakness of Spirituality as a Mechanism For Coping

WitL Daily Hassles

This investigation also examined whether spirituality, the
most frequently reported Existential style utilized by the
older adults to cope with major life events, played a role
with daily hassles. While no Existential style was
hypothesized to be more significant than others, the
literature review suggested spirituality rnay be the largest
contributor for variance in well-being. This is based on the
reported increase in spirituality with age (although this
finding is equivocal) and the reported frequency it is
utilized to deal with major stressors. Contrary to
expectations, spirituality was not correlated strongly with
overall hassle scores ( r = -. O4 , hassle f requency ( r = - 0. 3 ) ,
or intensity (r=-.03) .
There are several possible reasons for the lack of
significant relationships between spirituality and the
hassle indices. High spirituality scores required
respondents to agree with the first seven items on that
measure and to disagree with the final three items.
Therefore, it was hypothesized that these items might have
resulted in a response bias for some respondents, leading
them to agree with al1 ter. items and consequently lowering

their spirituality score. However, removal of the final

three items did not yield more robust correlations between
spirituality and the other variables.

There are several other plausible reasons for these

findings. The greater proportion of females in this
investigation, while representative of this cohort, might
help explain the relative weakness of spirituality. As
asserted earlier, this study did not include many of the
variables known to enhance well-being in old age.
Specifically, social support has been shown to be a powerful
contributor to the variance in well-being and for dealing
with both major stressors and daily hassles (Bengston,
Kasschau & Ragan, 1977; Kahn & Antonucci, 1983). Elderly
women frequently report greater social support than their
male counterparts, o f t e n due to the larger social networks
they had developed and maintained throughout their lives. In
contrast, males tend to report smaller social networks and
less social support in old age, relying primarily on their
spouse. Smaller social networks, together with greater
potential partner availability, were proposed to explain the
greater tendency of males to remarry in late life (Marshal,
1980; Gallagher, Breckenridge, Thompson & Peterson, 1983).

Older females rnay have social support as a powerful coping

strategy for dealing with daily hassles, one which most
elderly males may lack. Consequently, they rnay be less
likely than males to turn to spirituality when faced with
daily hassles. The present study does not provide evidence
to support this possibility since social support was not
investigated, and there were too few males to independently
assess the relationships between hassles and spirituality.

Spirituality might be a coping mechanism reserved for when

the stress is perceived to be great and/or overwhelming
(e-g., death of a spouse) rather than be employed with
mundane daily events. While daily hassles could prove to be
more debilitating in the long run, one might not perceive
faith as a suitable coping strategy to deal with each
individual hassle. Perhaps a particular stress threshold
needs to be passed and force one to seek comfort and
reassurance in a higher power. Daily hassles may not be of
sufficient magnitude to exceed that threshold. An
 113

examination of specific thought processes associated with

the perception of events, their influence on subsequent
labelling (as çtressful or not), and enlistment of coping
strategies ought to clarify this hypothesis.

Another possible explanation for the lack of correlation

between spirituality and hassles may be due to the nature of
spirituality. As outlined in the introduction, public
religiosity, prescribed by an institution, tends to be more
normative and conventional than spirituality which may be
more idioçyncratic and not as bound by institutional rules.
ûlder adults adhering to strict religious institutional
rules may be less flexible. Public religiosity could involve
a process similar to the just-world hypothesis (Lerner,
Miller, & Holmes, 1976), in which individuals may expect
that because they are "goodI1 religious persons they deserve
to experience positive consequences ( e - g . , suffer less
stress). Such b e l i e f s could be realized as part of a self-
fulfilling prophecy. In contrast, if intrinsically religious
individuals are less constrained by convention and
institutional rules, they may have lesser expectations of
deserving a better life and increased well-being.
Consequently, a high level of spirituality may not be
related as strongly to either daily hassles or perceived
well-being. This does not indicate that spirituality is
 114

uncorrelated with perceived well-being, for this correlation

was moderate. Rather, a highly spiritual person may hold on
to his or her beliefs without an expectation of a "payoff".

The nature of religious coping may also account for the very
weak correlations between spirituality and hassles.
According to Kim, Nesselroade, and Featherman (i996), much
of the research into religious coping in old age involved
treating this Existentid style as a trait-like set of
attributes, while little research has examined situational
determinants and short-term variations i .e. , state
attributes). Schaefer and Gorsuch (1993) demonstrated
variations in religious coping style based on individual
characteristics and situational factors. Kim and his
colleagues (1996) discovered intraindividual variation on
world views and religious beliefs of elderly persons ( M = 77

years) , traits which are generally assumed to be rather

stable. Kim et al. (1996) suggested that " (i)ntraindividual
variability in religious beliefs might be involved in
mediating both the effects of environmental events on
individualsr coping styles and the impact that individuals'
coping styles have on their contextu (p. 405). Thus, it is
possible for an older person with high spirituality to use
this coping style selectively depending on the nature of the
hassle experienced rather than resort to it each time a
hassle is encountered.

People who cope effectively with stressors. be they major or

minor, may have a greater repertoire of coping responses
from which to select. Recall that the coping effectiveness
of any single strategy is not boundless and it is unlikely
that older persons would use it to cope with every stressor
in their lives. As Antonovsky (1987) asserted, "the search
for the personality type or coping strategy that is
universally effective in successfully dealing with stressors
is not oniy useless; any such concrete type or strategy is
bound to be self-defeatingN(p.1441.

4 . The Three Existential Styles and Perceived Well-Being

Optimism and meaningfulness were also highly and positively
correlated with perceived well-being, while spirituality was
positively and moderately correlated with perceived well-
being. This suggests that both optimism and meaningfulness
have significant links with stress and perceived well-being.

A possible source of concern is the high correlation ( A 4 1

between optimism and perceived well-being. Appendix E
presents the correlation rnatrix of the individual items from
the two measures. The optimism items "1 always look on the
bright side of thingsn and " I t malways optimistic about my
futureu were most strongly correlated with PWB items.
Elimination of these two items lowered the overall
correlation between optimism and perceived well-being to
.54, p = .0001, a figure which still accounts for 29 per
cent of the variance in well-being. One needs to consider
the likelihood that optimism and perceived well-being scales
share certain attributes and that optimism items are used to
predict similar PWB items. Examination of specific
correlations revealed that the two optimism items were
highly correlated with the PWB items " 1 have a good appetite
for food" and "1 am in good shape physically". These items
pertain to physical attributes. Since the present
investigation was correlational and could not establish
causality, it is not possible to detemine whether high
optimism leads to a better physical shape. It is likely,
however, that older adults who are in better shape may feel
more optimistic about their future than elderly with more
health problems. The optimism items were also highly
correlated with the PWB items "It is exciting to be alive"
and "1 feel that life is worth living". The content of these
PWB components appear most similar to the optimism items.

However, when these items were eliminated the overall

correlation between optimism and PWB was nearly unchanged, r
= .61 p = -0001. This reduces the likelihood of item
similarity and adds credence to the possibility that
optimisrn is highly correlated but not confounded with
perceived well-being.

Also of concern are the high correlation (.55) and possible

item overlap between meaningfulness and perceived w e l l -
being. Appendix F presents the correlation matrix of the
individual items from the two measures. Several
meaningfulness items correlated highly with PWB items. For
example, the items concerning boredom (i .e . , the PWB item
"1 am often boredv, and the meaningfulness item "Most of the

things you do in the future will probably be: (completely

fascinating - deadly boring) " ) appear to be similar although
they were only correlated at .32. Similarly, the PWB item
"It is exciting to be alive" appears to be similar to some

meaningfulness items, including " L i f e is: (full of interest -

full of boredom) ( .37) ; "Most of the things you do in the
future will probably be: (completely fascinating - deadly
boring) " ( - 3 8 ); When you think about your life, you very
often: (feel how good it is to be alive - ask yourself why
you exist at all) (-47); "Doing the things you do every day
is: (a source of deep pleasure and satisfaction - a source
of pain and boredom) (.+IO) ; and "You anticipate that your
persona1 life in the future will be: (totally without
purpose or meaning - full of meaning and purpose)" ( .3l) .

It is possible that some item overlap had occurred, raising

 118

the possibility that a different measure of meaningfulness

might have been appropriate. On the other hand, since
meaningfulness concerns life and the values associated with
it, perhaps the nature of PWB incorporates some components

of meaningfulness-

5. T h e Three Existential Styles and Perceived Psychological

Versus Physical Well-Being

S i n c e optimism, spirituality and meaningfulness are

psychological in nature (as opposed to physical), they were

hypothesized to be better predictors of psychological than
physical well-being. No differences were found in the
overall amount of variance of perceived psychological versus
physical well-being accounted for by these coping
strategies. However, meaningfulness contributed to more of
the variance in psychological well-being than physical w e l l -
being. These finaings illustrate that meaningfulness,
defined as "the extent to which one feels that life makes
sense emotionally, that at least some of the problems and
demands posed by living are worth investing energy in, are
worthy of commitment and engagement, are challenges that are
'welcome' rather than burdens that one would much rather do
withoutu (Antonovsky, 1987, p. 18), is relevant to the
presence of positive emotions and the absence of negative
feelings. Compared with the regression of overall well-
 119

being, where meaningfulness played a secondary role while

optimism was the most robust contributor to variance, it
appears that meaningfulness is more effective in coping with
non-symptomatic hassles than with physical or health-related
hassles. Perhaps a more powerful Existential strategy, such
as optimism, is required for dealing with the deleterious
effects of poor health. Indeed, optimism predicted most of
the variance in physical well-being while meaningfulness
made no contribution.

6 . Relationships B e t w e a n the Three Existential styles

Together optimism and meaningfulness accounted for nearly
half of the variance in well-being. When major stressors are
encountered meaning rnay be irnplicit in optimism (Frankl,
1963; Weisskopf-Joelson, 1968; Lieberman & Tobin, 1983).
Since by definition optimism involves an orientation towards
the future, Smith (1965) asserted that optimism includes a
broad outlook with the purpose of achieving meaning. As
assessed in the present study, these coping styles may share
certain attributes in common, specifically items pertaining
to future expectations. However, it is unlikely they are a
part of the same construct. Stepwise regression indicates
that rneaningfulness accounted for an additional six to seven
per cent in perceived well-being once optimism is controlled
for. This is the unique contribution to the variance in
well-being which is not redundant with optimism.

Meaningfulness, or purpose in life, may originate £rom the

effort to attain values that are beyond those of the
individual's daily needs, for example, strive towards self-
actualization once basic needs have been gratified (Maslow,
1970). Optimism has been advanced as a process for achieving

self-actualization by integrating interna1 fantasies with

external realities, thus giving rneaning to life (Weisskopf-
Joelson, 1968). "In this view, optirnism bestows meaning by
integrating different spheres of reality in a new sense,
relating the realm of transcendent values to the realrn of
human l i v e s " (Lieberman & Tobin, 1983, p. 20) . With the
attainment of meaningfulness, optimism could become a
vehicle for organizing the different spheres of reality in
Limes of e x t r e m e stress. It is unlikely that the process of
self-actuafization is considered when few daily hassles are
encountered as the older person tends to them separately.
However, numerous hassles in later life may lead to the
examination of rneaningfulness should Problem-Focused Coping
styles prove ineffective and life become unbearable ( e - g . ,
question what the future holds when one is confronted with
declining health) .

It has also been postulated that optimism could be a part of

 121

spirituality (Pruyser, 1987; Carson, Soeken, h Grimm, 1988).

Although the correlation (r=.29)between the two coping
strategies is significant, both coping styles need not be
present simultaneously, and they do not appear t o constitute
a single construct.

7 . The Advantage of the Three Exiatential Styles Over Daily

Hasslea in Predicting Perceived Wall-Being
Together, the three Existential styles have added
significantly (38 per cent) to the amount of variance in
well-being accounted for by hassles ( n i n e per cent). These
results suggest that hassles alone, whether frequency,
intensity, or total hassle score, do not constitute a
satisfactory mode1 f o r explaining well-being. The lack of
hassles is not sufficient to result in improved well-being.

Hassles are omnipresent in the sense we al1 experience

events which could be construed as hassles. Therefore,
perhaps coping mechanisms are essential for dealing with
such events, whether by buffering against perceiving them as
stressors or by diminishing their intensity once they occur.
Well-being is considerably improved by optimism. Optimism
was the most powerful predictor of well-being in this study.
Given its robustness in dealing with major life events such
as death of a spouse (Herth, 1990), it is not surprising
ogtimisrn exerted a powerful effect over daily hassles.
Meaningfulness also displayed its prowess by predicting
seven per cent of the variance in well-being. Spirituality
did not contribute to the variance.

8. The Moderating Effect of the Three Existential styles on

the Relationahip Between Daily Bassies and Perceived Well-
Being

No support was £ound for the hypothesis that optimism,

spirituality and meaningfulness will moderate the impact of
hassles on either psychological or physical perceived well-
being. Only the meaningfulness-hassle intensity interaction
added to the variance in perceived physical well-being
following the main effects, although its contribution was
not significant. Although these existential resources are
correlated with both psychological and physical PWB, they do
not act to moderate the intensity of the hassles
experienced. Individuals with elevated levels of these
existential resources may experience greater well-being
while perceiving no change in hassle intensity. Perhaps it
is the experience of a hassle as intense which calls upon

t h e deployment of these resources in order to improve well-

being .

Not a l 1 of the variance in well-being was accounted for by

these coping styles, illustrating that other factors not
examined may be involved. For example, interna1 locus of
control has been shown to significantly contribute to well
being of older adults (Langer and Rodin, 1976; Schulz,
1976). Although this was not the goal of this study, it is

likely t h a t had control been included more of the variance

in well-being would have been accounted for.

9. The E f f e c t s of Health on Daily Hasslea and Perceived

Well-Being
This investigation confirmed the prominence of health
concerns in l a t e li£e. Although cause and effect cannot be
established, it is possible that with deteriorating health
one might become l e s s optirnistic about the future and
perceive less meaningfulness in life. An alternate, albeit
less plausible interpretation of these correlations is that
greater optimism could reduce the frequency (and subsequent
reported intensity) of health related hassles. Indeed, there
are daims attesting to the powerful effects of optimism as
b o t h prophylactic and as a cure of illness. However, lacking

longitudinal data it is not possible to conclude whether

optirnistic persons get sick less frequently, or, if t h e y
becorne ill, recover more quickly than those less optimistic.
Similar models of perceived overall, physical and
psychological well-being were found when using either the
entire hassle scale or the non-symptornatic hassles as
predictors (Tables 26, 27 and 28) . These results demonstrate
that the "symptomatic" hassles . e l health related)
contributed about two to three per cent to the variance in
perceived overall and physical well-being, but did not
predict the variance in psychological well-being. Given the
rather low amount of variance symptomatic hassles predicted
in physical well-being, it is less likely that there is a
confounding of measurement between the hassles and perceived
well-being, supporting previous findings (Lazarus, DeLongis,
Folkman & Gruen, 1985; Rowiison & Felner, 1988; Landreville
& Vezina, 1992).

Better health was associated with a fewer and less intense

hassles. Older persons in poorer health may be expected to
use Existential styles to a greater degree than healthier
older adults because of their symptomatic hassles may not be
(as readily) resolved by Problern-Focused Coping strategies.
However, in this study there were no differences in the
arnount of reported optimism, meaningfulness or spirituality
between respondents in better and poorer health. At first
these results appear to contradict the finding reported
above that more frequent and/or intense hassles were
associated with decreased optirnism, meaningfulness, and
perceived well-being. However, this apparent discrepancy
could be attributed to the relatively few health related
problems reported by respondents. Since most respondents
were relatively healthy as they did not report many
illnesses (a median of two reported health problems), the
attempt to separate respondents into a "betterH health and
"worse" health groups rnay have been futile. In addition,
because of their relatively good health, respondents rnay
still have a variety of Problem-Focused Coping styles
available to deal with their daily hassles. As part of the
data collection the author attended meetings of senior's
groups where he had observed first hand how some daily
challenges were handled with PFC styles. For example, at one
seniors1 centre the focus of the meeting involved arranging
suitable transportation for clients in the face of cuts to
government funding. This is not to discount the role of
Existential, but rather to realize that these are not the
only coping strategies available to healthy older adults.

IX. Conclusions and implications

Optirnism, meaningfulness and spirituality have been
advocated as emotion-focused coping styles. Yet it is
possible that they serve a problern-focused coping funciion
as well. Optimism is an Existential style which may also
 126

have a problem-focused function since it may keep a person

engaged in a behaviour (Staats & Partlo, 1993) . For example,
p e r s o n s with high optimism may be more inclined to persevere
and find solutions for the hassles encountered, receive
positive reinforcement in the future (Staats, 1991) , and
consequently r e p o r t fewer hassles. In contrast, low-optimism
persons rnight give up and experience a greater number of
hassles while receiving less positive reinforcements.
Meaningfulness rnay also serve a dual role. Sirnilar to the
coping process with major life stressors advocated by
Antonovsky (1987), persons with a high degree of
rneaningfulness may be more willing t h a n low-meaningfulness
individuals to take up the challenge posed by the event,
s e e k a meaning in it, and do their best to overcome it
(whether by coming to t e m s with the situation or by acting
to change the circumstances). These Existential strategies
rnay link one coping style to another by initially reducing
the emotional distress, thus preparing the individual to
engage in cognitive and/or behavioral strategies. However,
t h e PFC functions are not guaranteed since not al1 hassles
could be resolved even if the individual deals with the
emotional distress resulting from such hassles. Therefore,
optimism and meaningfulness are first and foremost
considered emotion-focused coping.
This was the first investigation (among English speaking
older persons) utilizing a measure specifically designed to
assess daily hassles in the general non-institutionalized
older adult population. Other measures of hassles target
either younger populations (Lazarus & Launier, 1978;
Folkman, Lazarus, Pimley & Novacek, 1987), or older persons
residing at nursing homes (Kedas, 1992). Such measures
include hassles which may not be relevant to non-
institutionalized older population ( e . g . , items pertaining
to work or to quality of care by institutional staff).
Therefore, with an instrument designed specifically for non-
institutionalized older adults (Vezina & Giroux, 1988), this
research augmented our knowledge of specific hassles
experienced by thiç population. By learning more about the
role of daily hassles in the daily lives of senior citizens
w e may be in a better position to intervene effectively in
order to lower stress and improve quality of life. Since
hassles occur more frequently than the more sporadic major
life events, they provide a greater opportunity for
intervention. Intervention could take two directions,
targeting both the hassles themselves and/or teaching coping
techniques to older persons when hassles cannot be
eliminated (Staats, 1991). This is significant given the
growing need for and emphasis on keeping older adults in the
community (with some supports) for as long as possible
rather than opting for institutionalization.

These findings indicate several types of hassles which need

to be targeted by policy makers and/or assistance providers
in order to lessen the stress experienced and consequently
increase the life quality of older adults. The most frequent
hassles were health related, followed by worries about the
future, crime and safety, activities of daily living,
financial concerns, and psychological concerns, Given the
prominence of health-related hassles in the current and
previous research (Landreville & Vezina, 1992; Voyer &

Vezina, 19951, interventions ought to continue targeting

this population's health concerns. Other interventions may
include community services to assist independently-living
older adults with some household chores (e.g., homemaking
services). Since becoming dependent on others was reported
as a predominant hassle by 59% of respondents, efforts could
be directed at maintaining one's independence at home for as
long as possible, perhaps through outreach services and/or
education about utilization of such support services. The
significance of dependency on others is supported by
previous longitudinal research indicating that the elderly
increasingly attribute the locus of control to powerful
others (Lachman & Le£f, 1989; Willis & Jay, 1990) . By
maintaining individuals at their homes for as long as
possible the strain on institutions could be reduced.
Psychological concerns such as loneliness or the impression
of growing old too fast could be addressed through greater
accessibility to individual counselling and group-based
discussions for this population (the latter is currently
being offered in a variety of settings).

Lack of longitudinal data does not allow any conclusions

regarding how well daily hassles might act as predictors of
physical and psychological well-being. About nine per cent
of the variance in well-being was accounted for by total
hassle score. It is possible daily hassles did not figure
prominently since the measure of daily hassles utilized in
the present study is exploratory. Ongoing evaluation and
revision may result in a better measure of daily hassles in
late life. The relatively good physical health of most
respondents vis-a-vis the large health factor in this
hassles scale could also have added to these findings, as
fewer hassles would have been reported.

In conclusion, the present investigation found that

optimism. and to a lesser degree meaningfulness. were
correlated with reduced number and intensity of hassles and
with improved well-being. Design limitations do not allow
for causal attributions or for stating that optimism or
 130 -
meaningfulness were actually being used to cope with daily
hassles- Nevertheless, among older adults these coping
strategies may be beneficial in dealing with the emotional
component associated with minor stressors. The strength of
the particular Existential style appears to determine
whether it operates directly by buffering against stressors
so that older adults experience fewer of them, as in the
case of optimism, or for dealing with the intensity of the
hassle once it has been experienced, as with meaningfulness.
By acting effectively, such coping style could serve to
enhance one's perceived well-being.

Spirituality was moderately correlated with improved well-

being but was not correlated with reduced hassles. While
faith m a y help an older person feel better about himself or
herself, it might not buffer against the occurrence of
hassles nor help diminish their effects. Future longitudinal
research could inquire directly whether, and if so how,
faith is used to cope with hassles.

while the three coping styles were related to one another,

they are not thought to be a part of a singular construct.
Yet undoubtedly there are instances where the three are
thought of as closely related, particularly concerning forms
of religiosity which instill a sense of optimism and
 131

meaningfulness in followers. Such could occur among elderly

persons who are near death and wish for the assurance that
there is more, whether it is an afterlife, heaven, or the
like. The relatively good health of respondents (and the
process of self-selection which weeded out potential
participants in poor health) might have attenuated these
relationships.

Even with the relatively good health of respondents, most

frequent and intense hassles were health-related, confirming
previous findings. This highlights the ongoing need to d e a l
effectively with health problems not only by problem-focused
coping but as well to consider the emotional impact of these
hassles, both those which could effectively be resolved and
those that cannot.
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Appendix A: Consent to Participate Form

The Consent to Participate Form was based on the guidelines

on research with human participants as set by York
University. It is printed in large letters in order to make
reading easier for respondents with visual difficulties. It
was placed at the front of the questionnaire and reads as
follows:
1 understand that 1 am being asked to participate in a

research study that looks at how older adults feel about

their lives. The s t u d y w i l l require that I complete one
written questionnaire which will. take about 30 to 45
minutes.

1 understand that m y answers will be held in strict

confidence, there will be no cost to me because of any

answers 1 give and that the results of this research will
have no direct benefit for me. However, my participation may
serve to enhance the lives of o t h e r s .

I understand that 1 will not be asked to reveal my name and

will be identified by a number o n l y . Furthemore, 1 will not
be required to provide any information about myself that is
of such personal nature that my identity would be apparent
in the study results.
 148

1 understand t h a t 1 a m free t o withdraw £rom the study at

any t ime .

1 have had the opportunity to a s k any questions 1 had, and 1

a m aware that 1 rnay a s k any f u r t h e r questions that may arise

while completing the questionnaire.

Signature
Date
Appendix B: Measures as Administered to Respondents

Gender: Male -Fema le

Educalron level:
a. primary school -
b. junior school -
c. high school -
d. coIlegelunivers~ty-
e. none -

Pas t occupation(s)

Marital status:
a. rnarried
a. living together (cornmon-law) -
a. widowed
a. separa tedld ivorced
a. never married -

Place o f residence:
a. alone -
b . with spouse
c . with significantother -
d. with children
e. with peer(s) (specify number and gender) -

Religion:
Pro testant -
Catholic
Jew is h
Mos lem
Hindu
Buddhist
O ther
no religion (atheistlagnostic) -
 Survey o f Health Prob lems

Please place a c heckmark next to eac h condition you presentlv have.

Do you presently suffer from :

-1. Diabetes
-2. Thyro id d isorders
-3. Anemia
-4. Headaches
-5. Sig h t d isorders
-6. Hear ing d isorders
- 7. Hypertension
-8. Heartdisease
-9. Ac ute resp iratory illness
- 10. Influenza
-11. Bronchitis and emphysema
- 12. As thma
-13. Hayfever and other allerg les
-14. Dental trouble
-15. Gastric and duodenal ulcers
-16. Func tional digestive disorders
- 17. Sk in allergies and other skin disorders
- 18. Arthritis and rheumatism
-19. Back, limb and jointdisorders
-20. Trauma (acc idents and in jury)
-21. Cancer
-22. Other
 151

For each o f the following questions please indicate your answer by

ClRCLlNG ONE o f the 4choices below esch question.

1. Can you remem ber what clothes you wore yesterday'J

AImos t Never Sometimes Often Almos t Always

2. Can you recall where you parked your car or where your ride will pick

you up7

Alm os t Never Som e times O&n Almos t Alwayç

3. Doyourecallyourtelephonenumberorthelicensenumberofyour

car3

Almos t Never Sometimes Often Almos t Always

4. Can you shop for groceries without a list and not forget any items'?

AIm os t Never Som e tim es Often Almost Always

5. Doyouusuallyrememberwhereyouputyourglasses?

Alm os t Never Som e tim es O&n Almost Always

 152

6. Do you usually remember where you p u t your keys7

Alm os t Never Som e tim es Often AImos t Always

7. Do you forget birthdays in your fam ily?

Alm os t Never Som e times Often Almost Always

8. Ifsomeonecallsyou,canyougivehimdirectionstoyourhouse?

AImos t Never Sometimes O ften Almost Always

9. After leaving your house or apardnent, could you remember whether

or no t you locked the door?

Almost Never Sometimes Often AImos t AIways

1 O. When you have left the supermarketare you able to recall whatchange

you received?

A lm os t Never Som e trm es Often AImos t Always

11. Can you describe what you did last Sunday afkrnoon?

Alm os t Never Som e tim es Ofbn AImos t AIways

 153

12. Does your spouse have to rem ind you o f things he or she had asked

you to do7

AImos t Never Some times Often Almost Always

13. 1sitdifficuItforyou tofind therightwordsthatyouwanttouse?

Almos t Never Sometimes Often Almost Always

14. Can you recali al1 o f your financial obligations (bills, bank accounts,

sav ings)?

Almost Never Sometrmes Ofkn Almoçt Always

 154

The Hasales Scale

Hasçles are sources of irritations which can be anything from minor

worries to major pressures, big problems or great difficulties. They

frequently pertain to the life o f the individual.

In the following pages, a number o f differentsituations are Iisted

that can contribute to irritate you, bother you, andlor cause you to wony.

First, circle the hassles that you have experienced during the past rnonth.

Next, indicate to what point each o f the situations bothered you:

1. a little

2. modera tely

3. exbernely

nia no t app licab le

if a hassle did not take place during the past month, mark nla.

1. Worries about your future. nla 1 2 3

2. The health of a fam ily member. nia 1 2 3

3. not enough money for c lothing (for yourself). nla 1 2 3

4. Worryingaboutpaymentsofbillsorloans

(owing money)
 155 -
5. Worrying about getting credit or money for

business or a loan nla 1 2 3

6. The thoug h t of becom ing dependent on someone. nla 1 2 3

7. Waiting for important news. nia 1 2 3

8. Pets (tak mg care o f a pet). nia 1 2 3

9. Planning meals. nia 1 2 3

10. DifficulQ in relaxing. nla 1 2 3

11. Home maintenance (taking care o f the house, car, etc.) nla 1 2 3

12. Not enough money for perçonal needs or basic

necess ities nla 1 2 3

13. Having too much free time. nla 1 2 3

14. Feeling lonely. nla 1 2 3

20. Not enough money to pay for the rentlmortgage. nla 1 2 3

21. A physical illness. nla 1 2 3

22. Prob lems with your grandc hildren. nia 1 2 3

23. Side effects o f medicat'ons. nla 1 2 3

24. Not enough money for food. nia 1 2 3

25. Worries about health and well-being . nla 1 2 3

26. Not seeing many people. nla 1 2 3

27. Cooking (preparing meals). nla 1 2 3

28. Lack o f securiîy in your neighbourhood. nla 1 2 3

 156

29. Unsatisfy ing marital relationship. nla 1 2 3

30. living in a low-security residence. nla 1 2 3

31. Having to Iine with the conflicts between generations nla 1 2 3

32. Not having enough space [to live). nia 1 2 3

33. Worries concerning a person close to you (spouse,

parent, ch ild, h-iend). nla 1 2 3

34. Having too rnuch space (to live). nla 1 2 3

35. A decrease in physical capac ities. nla 1 2 3

36. Being or feeling taken advantage o f (exp loited). nla 1 2 3

37. Having the impression o f getting old too fast. nia 1 2 3

38. Worries about bodily functions. nla 1 2 3

39. Fam ily con flic ts. nla 1 2 3

40. NO[ resting enou&. nia 1 2 3

41. Not having enough sleep. nla 1 2 3

42. Probiems wiVi aging parents. nla 1 2 3

43. Prob lems with your c hlldren. nla 1 2 3

44. Problems with governrnent organizations. nla 1 2 3

45. Oifficulties in seeing or hearing. nla 1 2 3

46. Gossip. nla 1 2 3

47. Notenough strength. nla 1 2 3

48. Worries about m e r con flic ts. nla 1 2 3

 157

49. Fear of no t being ab le to move ahead. nia 1 2 3

50. Problems with methods o f transportation. nia 1 2 3

51. Not enoug h money for en tertainmenUrecreation. nia 1 2 3

52. Not enough money for transportation. nla 1 2 3

53. Doing your own shopping. nia 1 2 3

54. Being sublec ted to prejudice or discrim ination. nla 1 2 3

55. Noise. nia 1 2 3

56. Worrying about insuffic lent monetary funds in case o f an

unseen event nia 1 2 3

57. Crime nia 1 2 3

58. Traffic. nia 1 2 3

59. Worries about a med ical teabnent nia 1 2 3

60. Pollution. nla 1 2 3

61. Fear of being raped, attacked. nla 1 2 3

62. Not having enough leisure time. nla 1 2 3

63. Having new respons ib ilities. nla 1 2 3

If some o f your hassles were not listed, please write them below and rate

them according ly (1 . a little; 2. moderately; 3. extremely)

 165

For each of the items below, please indicate your degree of

agreement or disagreement by circling one of the 7 choices
from 1 (strongly agree) to 7 (strongly disagree). There are
no correct or incorrect answers.

1. 1 DON'T HAVE MANY PHYSICAL COMPLAINTS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

strongly moderate weakly neutral weakly moderate strongly

agree agree agree disagree disagree disagree

2. NO ONE REALLY CARES WHEXHER 1 AM DEAD OR ALrVE

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

strongly moderate weakly neutral weakly moderate strongly

agree agree agree disagree disagree disagree

3. 1 DON'T?HSNK 1 HAVE A H E A R T ' r n r n r n O N

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

strongly moderate weakly neutral weakly moderate strongly

agree agree agree disagree disagree disagree

4. 1: HAVE A GOOD APPETITE FOR FOOD

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

strongly rnoderate weakly neutral weakly moderate strongly

agree agree agree disagree disagree disagree
5. 1 AM OFIE=N EBRED
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

strongly moderate weakly neutral weakly moderate strongly

agree agree agree disagree disagree disagree

6. 1 HAVE AND PAINS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

strongly moderate weakly neutral weakly moderate strongly

agree agree agree disagree disagree disagree

IT IS MLlTIK 113 BE ALIW

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

strongly moderate weakly neutral weakly moderate strongly

agree agree agree disagree disagree disagree

EDMETtîîESIWISHINEVERWAKEXJP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

strongly moderate weakly neutral weakly moderate strongly

agree agree agree disagree disagree disagree

9. 1 AM IN GûûD SHAPE PHYSICALLY

I 2 3 4 5 6 7

strongly moderate weakly neutral weakly moderate strongly

agree agree agree disagree disagree disagree
10, X FEEL THAT LIFE IS WORTH LIVING
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

strongly moderate weakly neutral weakly modexate strongly

agree agree agree disagree disagree disagree

11. 1 mMY HEALTH 1s D r n O R A ' G

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

strongly moderate weakly neutral weakly moderate strongly

agree agree agree disagree disagree disagree

12. 1 DON'T SEM ?D CARE AEDUT' WHAT WPENS ?D ME

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

strongly moderate weakly neutral weakly moderate strongly

agree agree + agree disagree disagree disagree

13. 1 WN'T GET' TlIRED VERY EAÇILY

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

strongly moderate weakly neutral weakly moderate strongly

agree agree agree disagree disagree disagree

14. 1 CAN STAND A FAIR AîDW OF PHYSICAL STRAIN

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

strongly moderate weakly neutral weakly moderate strongly

agree agree agree disagree disagree disagree
 171
Appendix C : Calculation of Sample Size using Power Analysis

Power analysis for R~ (total variance accounted for) :

1. alpha (two tailed) set at .O5

2. s e t desired power for F test (probability of rejecting

the nul1 hypothesis) : 1 - beta = -80

3. number of Independent Variables ( k B ) = 3

4. look up in Table the value of L for a given (kB)and

specified power: L = 10.90

5. set R~ = - 1 0 (interested in variance as small as 10%

which would account for a minimum r =.3)

6. determine the population effect s i z e : ES=£^ = R'/~-R~=

- 1 0 / - 9 0 = -111

7. n = L/£* + k +l = i0.90/.li1 + 3 + 1 = 102

APPENDIX D: Interaction Effects

Table 29 presents the hierarchical regression of perceived

well-being ont0 the total hassle score, three Existential
styles and their interactions. This regression model
examined whether the interactions added to the variance in
perceived well-being. Steps i to 4 were collapsed together
to summarize the variance predicted by the total hassle
score and three Existential styles. The three interactions
added about one per cent to the variance, and none were
significant. The full model accounted for 48.40% and 43.83%
of the unadjusted and adjusted variance, respectively ( F ( 7 ,
7 9 ) = 10.59, p = .0001), compared with 47.08% and 44.50% for

the mode1 not containing the interaction terms (F(4, 82) =

18.24, p = ,0001).

Table 30 presents the results of hierarchical regression of

perceived physical well-being ont0 the total hassle scores,
three Existential and their interactions. The results
indicate that the interactions did not significantly predict
the variance in perceived physical well-being.
Table 29

Hiesarchical Reqression Analyses of the Contribution of

Interaction Terms F o l l o w i n c r Total Eassle Score and
Existential styles f o r Predictinq Petceived Well-Being

Variable 'R change

Steps 1-4

TOTAL HASSLE SCORE, OPTIMISM,

SPIRITUALITY, AND
MEANINGFULNESS
Step 5
OPTIMISM - SPIRITUALITY - -13
Step 6
OPTIMISM - MEANINGFULNESS -.31 .47**** .O0

Step 7

MEANINGFULNESS

Note. ** p c.01. *** p c.001. **** p c.0001.

T a b l e 30

Hierarchical Recrression Analyses of the Contribution of

Interaction Terms Followina Total Hassle Score and
Existential styles for Predictinq Perceived Phvsical Well-
Beinq

Variable b $ change

Steps 1-4
TOTAL HASSLE SCORE, OPTIMISM,

SPIRITUALITY,
AND MEANINGFULNESS 27*+**

Step 5

OPTIMISM - SPIRITUALITY .O7 .27**** .O0

Step 6

OPTIMISM - MEANINGFULNESS .15 .27**** .O0

Step 7
SPIRITUALITY -
MEANINGF-SS 1.01 .28**** .O1

Note. ** p c.01. *** p c.001. **** p c.0001.

 175

Table 3 1 presents the results of hierarchical regression of

perceived psychological well-being ont0 the total hassle
scores, three Existential and their interactions. The
interactions predicted about four per cent of the variance
in psychological well-being, F ( 7 , 81) = 12.70, p = -0001.
The six possible combinations of the three interactions
demonstrate that of al1 interactions, only the optimism-
meaningfulness interaction was significantly associated with
the variance when entered after first following the three
Existential styles, about four per cent, F(1, 81) = 7.58, p
c.01.
Table 3 1
Hieraschical Reqression Analyses of the Contribution of
Interaction Terms Followincr Total Eassle Score and
Existential styles for Predictincr Perceived Psvcholo~ical
Well-Beinq

Model 1 (Interactions Order): ûptimism - Spirituality,

ûptimiam -Meaningfulness, Spirituality - Meaningfulness
Variable b $ 'R change
Steps 1-4
TOTAL HASSLE SCORE, OPTIMISM,
SPIRITUALITY,
AND MEANINGFULNESS
Step 5
OPTIMISM - SPIRITUALITY
RELIGIOSITY
Step 6
OPTIMISM - MEANINGFULNESS
Step 7

SPIRITUALITY -
 177 -

Mode1 2 (Interactions Order): ûptimism - Spirituality,

Spirituality - Meaningfulness, ûptimism -Meaningfulness

Variable b R~ $
change
Steps 1-4
TOTAL HASSLE SCORE, OPTIMISM,
SPIRITUALITY,
AND MEANINGFULNESS
Step 5
OPTIMISM - SPIRITUALITY
RELIGIOSITY
Step 6
SPIRITUALITY -
MEANINGFULNESS - .3 0 .SO**** .O0

Step 7
OPTIMISM - MEANINGFULNESS -1.26 .52**** .02*
Mode1 3 (Interactions Order): ûptimism -Meaningfulnees,
Spirituality - Meaningfulnesa, û p t i m i s m - Spirituality
Variable b $ @ change
Steps 1-4
TOTAL HASSLE SCORE, OPTIMISM,
SPIRITWALITY,
AND MEANINGFULNESS
Step 5
OPTIMISM - MEANINGFULNESS -1.00
Step 6
SPIRITUALITY -
MEANINGFULNESS
Step 7
OPTIMISM - SPIRITUALITY
RELIGIOSITY
Model 4 (Interactions Order) : O p t i m i s m -Meaningfulness,
Optimism - Spirituality, Spirituality - Meaningfulness
Variable b $ R~
change
Steps 1-4

TOTAL HASSLE SCORE, OPTIMISM,

SPIRITUALITY,
AND MEANINGFULNESS

Step 5
OPTIMISM - MEANINGFULNESS
Step 6
OPTIMISM - SPIRITUALITY
RELIGIOSITY
Step 7
SPIRITUALITY -
MEANI NGFULNESS

/Cont inued
 180

Mode1 5 (Interactions Order) : Spirit u a l i ty - Meaningfulness,

OPTIMISM - Spirituality, ûptimism -Meaningfulness
Variable b
change
S t e p s 1-4

TOTAL HASSLE SCORE, O P T I M I S M ,

SPIRITUALITY,
AND MEANINGFULNESS
Step 5

SPIRITUALITY -
MEANINGFUSJNESS

Step 6

OPTIMISM - SPIRITWALITY
RELIGIOSITY
Step 7
OPTIMISM - MEANINGFULNESS

/Cont inued
 181

Mode1 6 (1nteractione Order) : S p i r i tuality - Meaningfulness,

O p t i m i s m -Meaningfulneaa, ûptimism - Spirituality
Variable b
change
Steps 1-4
TOTAL HASSLE SCORE, OPTIMISM,
SPIRITU%ITY,
AND MEANINGFULNESS
Step 5

SPIRITUALITY -
MEANINGFULNESS
Step 6
OPTIMISM - MEANINGFULNESS
Step 7
OPTIMISM - SPIRITUALITY

Note. * p c.05. ** *** p ~ 0 0 1 .

p ~ 0 1 . **** p c.0001.
 182

Taken together, these results demonstrate that the

interaction effects were did not predict or contribute to
the variance in perceived general or physical well-being.
Only the optimism-meaningfulness interaction was
significantly associated with the variance in perceived
psychological well-being.
 183

Appendix E: Correlation matrix of the individual items from

the optimism and perceived well-being measures

-
PWB

Items
O ~ t i m i s m Items
BEST" WRONG'"RIGHT'~ FUTURE'^ MYWAY'~
PWB

Items Optimism Items

w M O CLOUD~'

Note. * p <.OS ** p <.O1 *** p <.O01 **** p <.O001

Note. ' 1 dontt have many physical complaints

No one really cares whether 1 am dead or alive

1 dontt think 1 have a heart condition

1 have a good appetite for food

ont inued
 1 am often bored

1 have aches and pains

It is exciting to be alive
Sometimes I wish 1 never wake up
1 am in good shape physically

1 feel that l i f e is worth living

I think m y health is deteriorating

I dontt seem to care about what happens to m e
1 don't get tired very easily
1 can stand a fair amount of physical strain

I n uncertain times, 1 usually expect the best.

If something can go wrong, it will.
1 always look on the bright side of things.

I ' m always optimistic about my future.

1 hardly ever e x p e c t things to go my way.

Things never work out the way 1 want them to.

I f m a believer in the idea that "every cloud has a
silver liningo.
1 rarely count on good things happening to m e .
 186

Appendix F: Correlation matrix of the individual items from

the meaningfulness and perceived well-being measures

1tems

Meaninqfulness Items
CARE" LIFEIS'~ UNTIL'~ MOST'^ OFTEN'~
PWB

Items O ~ t i m i s m Items
DOING~O ANTICIP~'

Note. * p < -05 ** p c.01 *** p <.O01 **** p c.0001

Note. ' 1 donft have manyphysical complaints

N o one r e a l l y cares whether I a m dead o r a l i v e

1 donrt t h i n k 1 have a heart condition

1 have a good appetite f o r food

 1 am often bored

1 have aches and pains

I t is exciting to be alive

Sometimes 1 wish 1 never wake up

1 am in good shape physically

1 feel that life is worth living

f think my health is deteriorating

1 donft seem to care about what happens to me

1 donft get tired very easily

1 can stand a fair amount of physical strain

For Meaningfulness items, extremes of Likert-like scales are

indicated in brackets)
Do you have the feeling that you really donft care
about what goes on around you: (very seldom or never
- very often)
Life is:(full of i n t e r e s t - full of boredom)
Until now your life has had: (no clear goal or
purpose at al1 - very clear goals and purpose)
Most of the things you do in the future will
probably be: (completely fascinating - deadly
boring)
When you think about your life, you very often:
(feel how good it is to be alive - ask yourself why
you exist at all)
/Centinued
 189
'O
Doing the things you do every day is : (a source of
deep pleasure and satisfaction - a source of pain
and boredom)
" You anticipate that your persona1 life in the
future will be: (totally without purpose or meaning
- full of meaning and purpose)
22 HOW often do you have the feeling that therets
little meaning in the things that you do in your
daily life? (very often - very seldom or never)