Vision Ias Gs 3 Value Addition Material - 2

GS 3 COMMUNICATION-NETWORK
GS 3 CROPS AND CROPPING PATTERN

GS 3 CYBER-SECURITY
GS 3 DISASTER MANAGEMENT
GS 3 ECONOMICS-OF-ANIMAL-REARING
GS 3 FARM-SUBSIDIES-AND-MSP
GS 3 FOOD PROCESSING
GS 3 GOVERNMENT-BUDGETING
GS 3 INDUSTRAL POLICY CHANGES AND THEIR
GS 3 INFRASTRUCTURE
GS 3 INVESTMENT MODELS
GS 3 LAND REFORMS IN INDIA
GS 3 LINKAGES BETWEEN DEVELOPMENT AND EXTREMISM
GS 3 MONEY-LAUNDERING
GS 3 PDS BUFFER STOCKS-AND-FOOD-SECURITY
GS 3 ROLE OF SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES
GS 3 TECHNOLOGY-MISSIONS
GS_3_SECURITY_CHALLENGES_AND_THEIR
VISION IAS
www.visionias.in
VALUE ADDITION MATERIAL – 2018

PAPER III: SECURITY
CHALLENGES TO INTERNAL SECURITY THROUGH

COMMUNICATION NETWORK
Copyright © by Vision IAS

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Student Notes:
1. Introduction
Communication networks are a part of Critical Information Infrastructure (CII) and are crucial
for the connectivity of other critical infrastructure, viz. Energy; Transportation (air, surface, rail
& water); Banking & Finance; Telecommunication; Defence; Space; Law enforcement, security &
intelligence; Sensitive Government organisations; Public Health; Water supply; Critical
manufacturing; E-Governance etc. Threats to communication networks can be both through the
network as well as to the network.
The cyber-attacks coordinated from remote locations have potential to compromise these
communication networks and disrupt critical infrastructure which depends on them. In India,
where various threats are already present in the form of terrorism, insurgency, naxalism, hostile
nations etc., the protection of communication network pose significant challenges to internal
security.
2. What is Communication Network

Communication network is the interconnection of electronic gadgets and devices that enable
them transmit information in the form of data, voice and videos. The network infrastructure
includes hardware and software resources such as mobile, laptops, sensors, servers, web
applications, satellites, SCADA, LAN, WAN, Optic fiber network etc. It provides the
communication path and services between users, processes, applications, services and external
networks/the internet.
Critical Infrastructure (CI) - “Those facilities, systems, or functions, whose incapacity or
destruction would cause a debilitating impact on national security, governance, economy and
social well-being of a nation”.
In section 70 of IT Act 2000, Critical Information Infrastructure (CII) is defined as: “The
computer resource, the incapacitation or destruction of which, shall have debilitating impact on
national security, economy, public health or safety.”
With the increasing convergence of communication technologies and shared Information
systems in India, critical Sectors are becoming increasingly dependent on their CII. These
CIIs are interconnected, interdependent, complex and distributed across various geographical
locations. Threats to CII, ranging from terrorist attacks, through organized crimes, to espionage,
malicious cyber activities etc., are following a far more aggressive growth trajectory. Any delay,
distortion or disruption in the functioning of these CIIs has the potential to quickly cascade
across other CII with the potential to cause political, economic, social or national instability.
Protection of CII and, hence, Critical infrastructure of the Nation is the one of the paramount
concerns of the Government.
3. Role of Communication Network in Today’s World

• Critical Infrastructure sectors use communication network to perform not just auxiliary
functions but also every vital function, be it human resource management, production,
project management or business analytics.
• It enables voice and data communication
• The financial sector is increasingly using digital technologies like net banking, ATM networks
etc. which are dependent on communication network. Any breach in the communication
infrastructure of banking sector could pose danger to the financial stability of India.
• It connects infrastructure systems, subsystems and constituents in such a manner that
they have subsequently become highly interrelated and interdependent. For instance, the
power sector is getting transformed into Smart Grid using communication networking
technologies.

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Student Notes:
• Similarly, smart cities, smart agriculture etc. are heavily dependent on interconnected
systems.
• Large industrial and manufacturing facilities also use automation and thus depend on
information infrastructure
• Also, the government is investing huge resources in creation of e-government though
various programs such as National e-Governance Plan, Digital India, e-Kranti etc.
• Thus, the network infrastructure has become the backbone of the entire critical
infrastructure and is ubiquitous in our lives.
3.1. Special Case – Communication Network in the Smart city
Communications play a very important role in smart city. Communications drives every aspect
of a smart city, from relaying the position of traffic, to transferring data on air quality,
to providing citizens with remote services through apps or their computers.
Communications infrastructure networks allow the city to create the city of the future.
The Communication Network for Indian smart cities include-
• Wired network – optical fiber networks
• Wireless networks – 4G, 5G, Wi-Fi
• Satellite network
• Machine-to-Machine connectivity
• Networks including MAN, WAN, PAN, HAN
• Dedicated resources that could be allocated for critical communication or communication
during emergencies or disasters.
4. Threats to Communication Networks
As the price of failure of communication network is too high, they are the potential soft targets
for disruption. Threats to network infrastructure can be broadly classified into two categories:
natural threats and human induced threats.
4.1. Natural Threats

Natural threats encompass floods, earthquake, tsunami, volcanic activities, etc. These natural
disasters could physically damage communication network. For instance, in an ICT driven smart
city, if a minor earthquake snaps local telecommunication towers, it will disrupt all the ICT
dependent utility services such as power, water supply etc. The local ATMs and banking services
might stop functioning. Similarly, solar storms might damage communication satellites orbiting
earth which will affect all the sectors dependent on satellite communications such as weather
forecasting, mobile services, DTH, tele-medicine etc.
4.2. Human induced threats
Various actors may work as a threat to Communication network such as-
• Various actors may work as a threat to communication networks such as-
o Insiders in the form of disgruntled employees or compromised/socially engineered
employees
o Economic, military or adversary nation states
o Criminal syndicates to terrorist outfits
• Types of threats- This includes all the attempts made by malicious actors to gain access to
the system with the intent of causing a harm or damage. The threat actors exploit the
underlying vulnerabilities within the application software, control systems software,
hardware or even the people to get access to the desired location in the network.

Student Notes:
• Once the network is breached, they can execute commands, steal sensitive information
such as design or configuration or corrupt the information flowing to the interfaces.
• All of actors have different capacities and capabilities. A nation state has the technological
means and the requisite wherewithal to conduct and sustain long-term operations, which
include espionage, data or credentials theft and execution and monitoring of attacks.
• The terrorist organizations are also alleged to be capable of perpetrating attacks on CII, with
the ease of access to the professional skills available in the market.
• Following are the possible targets in network operation infrastructure-
• the devices in form of routers, switches, firewalls, mobile phones, database and domain
name system (DNS) servers;
• Web portals, protocols, the ports and communication channels;
• Satellite network communication systems;
• Network applications such as cloud-based services;
• SCADA
Classification of Human Threat Actors
Though, there is no clear distinction between the human threat actors, but they can be broadly
classified as follows-
• Terrorists and Non-state Actors
The primary objective of a terror outfit generally is to instigate terror in the minds of the
victims as well as the onlookers. An attack
on communication network – physical or Examples of Terrorist Attacks and Crippling
Effects
cyber- would have crippling effects and
• 9/11 attack on the World Trade Center
far-reaching impact on the victims and
directly affected banking and finance,
the psychology of the witnesses, thus telecommunications, emergency services,
fulfilling the objective of terrorists. air and rail transportation and energy and
With the growing radicalization among water supply.
the educated youth, these terror outfits • Attacks on the urban transit systems in
London and Mumbai
have access to the human resources
possessing good working knowledge of computers, networks and programming. As a matter
of fact, some of the groups such as the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and Lashkar-e-
Taiba are known to have developed their own secure communication applications for
smartphones.
Even more, with the support of the adversarial states, terror groups have become a more
credible threat as they are equipped with enough financial resources and access to
technology and skills.
In addition to terror outfits, cyber criminals are also direct threat to critical information
infrastructure. Their prime driver is monetary gains that can be easily leveraged by any
adversary – terror group or nation state.
• Nation States
Nation states are the most potent threat to information infrastructure in terms of resources
at their disposal. In the absence of globally agreed upon norms or legal measures to
dissuade nation states from targeting each other’s CII in the face of any eventuality, the CII
remains a lucrative target. Under such circumstances, cyber-based attacks have the
potential to amount to an act of warfare as they might be utilized to destabilize a nation
state.

Student Notes:
Lately, advanced persistent

States Acquiring Offensive Cyber Capabilities
threats (APTs) have wholly
Several countries have established institutions to develop
transformed the threat offensive cyber capabilities. United States has raised US
landscape. These are the state Cyber Command (USCYBERCOMM) for offensive capabilities.
– sponsored campaigns Consequently, South Korea created a Cyber Warfare
targeted against Critical Command in 2009. This was also in response to North
information infrastructure, Korea’s creation of cyber warfare units. The British
especially communication Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) has
network. APTs are begun preparing a cyber force, as also France. The Russians
sophisticated, targeted and have actively been pursuing cyber warfare. In 2010 China
prolonged attempts of overtly introduced its first department dedicated to
defensive cyber warfare and information security in
intrusion and information
response to the creation of USCYBERCOM. The race is thus
theft using a wide variety of on across the world.
techniques, including SQL
injection, malware, spyware, phishing and spam. Attacks led by the APTs infiltrate into
sensitive systems, such as email servers, and they are designed to remain undetected or
hidden from the administrators— sometimes for years. Since APTs are highly advanced,
planned and executed meticulously, they hardly leave any trace, and therefore render
traditional means of security and forensics incapacitated. The APTs can be used to
disruption of industrial operations or even destruction of industrial equipment.
5. Importance of Securing Communication Networks

• The communication networks form the basis of digital ecosystem. For ensuring overall
cyber security, it is imperative to secure communication networks from all types of possible
threats – human as well as natural.
• National Security: Disruption of Case of Estonia
communication networks can disturb The intensity of the impact of communication
stability of country especially if network failure in Estonia which is one of the most
communication networks supporting densely connected countries and has pioneered
critical sector are targeted. The failure facilities such as e-government, Internet voting and
of communication network has online banking transactions (98 percent). India is
potential to cripple security agencies also aspiring to follow the same path.
rendering them ineffective. This can be In 2007, Estonia witnessed massive Internet traffic,
understood by following- which brought down the networks of its banks,
o Security agencies follow hierarchy broadcasters, police, parliament and ministries.
and have certain chain of The scale and timing of this attack targeted at the
commands. For exchange of core of its information infrastructure. It practically
brought Estonia to a standstill.
information such as intelligence–
both horizontally and vertically, the security forces and agencies use communication
technologies such as wireless handsets. The working of these devices requires robust
communication network infrastructure. The attacks on such communication
infrastructure could have far reaching implication on capabilities of securities agencies.
o The gathered intelligence by local intelligence officer cannot be communicated to
competent decision-making authorities in wake of such failure. The resulting delay in
decision making would prevent forces and authorities taking timely corrective actions.
• Growing Interdependencies: All the critical sectors, such as transportation,
communications and government services, depend upon the power/electricity sector for
their basic requirement of electricity supply, which powers the railways, airports and
communication systems such as switching centres or telephone exchanges. In an
interdependent function, the power/electricity sector itself depends on transportation for

Student Notes:
fuel supplies and communications for its data transmission or to maintain health of the
transmission/distribution networks. Similarly, governments depend on the banking and
financial services for all monetary needs. The banking sector is technology driven, and
communications sector plays a pivotal role in seamless banking operations.
• Protecting Digital Sovereignty: From individual’s perspective, digital sovereignty is all about
exercising control and authority by internet users to decide freely and independently which
data can be gathered, distributed, used and saved about them. Since all these data flow
over the communication networks, digital sovereignty of people would get compromised if
communication networks are not secured properly.
• Building Confidence on Digital Technology: Internet is penetrating all aspects of our lives
and the government also is encouraging its people to use digital services such Digi-Locker
for storing important documents. For people to use these services and participate in such
initiative, it is imperative to secure such communication networks so as to build confidence
and trust of people on digital technology.
6. Challenges in Securing Communication Network
The process of protecting communication networks has many challenges; some of them are
discussed below:
• External sourcing of equipment and technology: Much of the software and hardware that
makes up communication system are imported from other countries (Chinese devices
account for more than 60% of total telecom equipment imports). These devices may
contain back-window for transmitting information. Recently, Indian Electrical and
Electronics Manufacturers Association (IEEMA) highlighted the concern of “security threat”
in critical power infrastructure with increased use of foreign automation and
communication systems in operation and management of the electricity grid. The malware
and spyware in these communicable devices can be activated any time even by remote.
• Evolving nature of threats: Pace of technology evolution means continuous evolution of
threats to security systems. This leads to constantly evolving security systems to thwarts
such attacks which becomes a tedious work as attackers can have the privilege of
anonymity and a wide choice available as their target system.
• Involvement of state and non-state actors: The present-day threats are ambiguous,
uncertain and indistinct in terms of their identity and goals. While nation states have
broader political or security motivations, motivations of malicious non-state actors are hard
to comprehend, and could be anything from monetary gain to terrorism or even a narrow
political agenda.
• Inadequate understanding of interdependencies: This is one of the reasons for critical
infrastructure being so complex. The lack of scientific analysis and tools for comprehending
inter-sector and intra-sector dependencies is the primary reason that interdependencies
have not been understood by our security agencies.
• Structural Challenges: India faces structural challenges also where there is demarcation of
powers between Union and states and there is multiplicity of security agencies.
o Federalism- Cyber space transcends geographical boundaries and spread across the
country. Cyber security as a subject is not specifically listed in any of the three lists in 7 th
Schedule. Due to this, sometimes Central Government faces challenges from state
governments in the form of their opposition to its several initiatives. The state
governments’ major concern relate to the preserving federal polity of India For
instance, when NATGRID was setup for coordination of intelligence between security
agencies, it was opposed by state governments.
o Coordination among security agencies: Various departments and ministries of the
government and private sector associations have set up cyber security agencies, which

Student Notes:
are more aligned to serve their own mandates and interests. This fragmented approach
poses a substantial challenge, as most of these agencies work in silos and devise
policies according to the small set of stakeholders.
o Lack of a national security architecture that can assess the nature of cyber threats and
respond to them effectively.
• Private sector owning and operating a significant part of the information infrastructure
such as telecom sector (mostly by private sector), banking sector (large number of private
banks), stock exchanges, energy utilities etc. They see measures such as security auditing
and other regulations and frameworks as adding to their costs.
o The government cannot leave it to the private sector alone for securing its own CII.
For example if any cyber-attack takes place on CII owned by a private company, the
consequences of such an attack may have an adverse impact on the entire nation and
not restricted to the company owning the CII. For example, if there is a cyber-attack on
one of our national stock exchanges, it could possibly bring down the entire trade
operations, impacting the economy and creating panic among investors.
o Lack of incentives to improve Cybersecurity: In uncompetitive markets, private firms
are less likely to adequately invest in cyber-security than ordinary firms in competitive
markets. For instance, power companies and other utilities face little competition; a
given customer typically will be served by only one Power Company. This absence of
beneficial market forces may help explain why public utilities often fail to
implement even relatively costless security measures.
o Poor enforcement of regulations- Private sector views regulatory control of
government as an impediment in their organizational objectives, which primarily
revolve around creation of wealth for the shareholders. Therefore, many firms that
operate critical infrastructure tend to underinvest in cyber-defence. They deliberately
search for loopholes in regulations and bypass them for cutting their cost of operation.
Also, lack of testing capacity with government agencies help network operators procure
the cheaper but vulnerable communication equipment.
7. Recent Developments
India has elevated its response to protect communication infrastructure in the recent years.
• The legal framework to address the threats emanating from cyberspace to it, especially
from cyber terrorism, was developed in the amendment made in 2008 to the IT Act, 2000.
• The government launched National Telecom Policy of 2012 where it has set a target for
domestic production of telecom equipment to meet the Indian telecom sector’s demand to
the extent of 60 to 80 per cent by 2020.
• To ensure that imported communication equipment are free from vulnerabilities, number
of measures, such as making local certification mandatory, have been announced. They
include setting up of equipment testing laboratory.
• The government has notified National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre
(NCIIPC), under the auspices of National Technical Research Organisation, as the nodal
agency with respect to Critical Information Infrastructure Protection. The NCIIPC aims to
reduce the vulnerabilities of CII against cyber terrorism, cyber warfare and other threats. It
is tasked with:
o Identification of all CII elements;
o Providing strategic leadership and coherence across government; and
o Coordinating, sharing, monitoring, collecting, analysing and forecasting national level
threat to CII for policy guidance, expertise sharing and situational awareness.

Student Notes:
8. Way Forward
Communication networks form the core of critical infrastructure of our country. Any disruption
to communication networks would have huge implication on stability of India and so their
protection is essential to maintenance of internal security of India. Due to its importance, now
communication network itself is considered as critical infrastructure. Few points to keep in
mind while forging a strategy to secure communication network-
• Today, significant part of critical infrastructure and CII is developed, operated and
maintained by the private sector. The private firms typically know more about their system
architecture and are in a better position to know about weaknesses that intruders might
exploit. On the other hand, the government’s highly skilled intelligence agencies typically
know more than the private sector about malware used by foreign governments and how
to defeat it. This suggests that responsibility for defending the most sensitive systems
against the most sophisticated adversaries should be shared.
• Therefore, government have to move beyond their traditional roles as regulators, and
rather forge partnerships with private sector.
• It is essential for both the private and public sectors to foster the trust and confidence
which is vital to information sharing and success of any policy measure adopted to protect
the critical infrastructure.
• Going forward, the protection strategy for critical infrastructure and CII has to address
technological, policy and legal dimensions.
• From global perspective, India is a key stakeholder in the future of cyberspace governance.
As a progressive economy relying upon its CII, It has to pitch its voice to preserve its
national interests at various multilateral forums.
9. Previous Years Vision IAS GS Mains Test Series Questions

1. What are the threats posed by communication networks to internal security of India?
Answer:
Students should begin by giving the importance and relevance of communication
networks to the country in a paragraph. Thereafter the answer should focus on
loopholes in the communication networks that pose a threat to national security.
• Communications networks are crucial to the connectivity of other critical
infrastructure, viz. civil aviation, shipping, railways, power, nuclear, oil and gas,
finance, banking, communication, information technology, law enforcement,
intelligence agencies, space, defence, and government networks. Therefore, threats
can be both through the networks as well as to the networks.
• Securing the networks is complicated by a number of factors. For example, much of
the hardware and software that make up the communications ecosystem is sourced
externally; as a case in point, Chinese manufacturers such as Huawei and ZTE have
supplied about 20 per cent of telecommunications equipment while Indian
manufacturers have about 3 per cent of the market
• As recent incidents have shown, foreign governments are not behind in taking
advantage of the market penetration and dominance of their companies to
infiltrate and compromise telecommunications networks.
• Expanding wireless connectivity to individual computers and networks has
increased their exposure and vulnerability to attacks. The traditional approach of
securing the boundaries are not effective in this space.

Student Notes:
• Evolution of communication networks has made communication system more user-

friendly and accessible. This had made it possible for miscreants in the society to
use these tools for their benefits.
• It has become really difficult to track a message through VOIP services & various
other services. This has served to spread terrorism ideology even across liberal
population sphere.
• In the not-too-distant future, major powers will be focused on the proliferation of
weapons of mass destruction, terrorism, narcotics, and organized crime more than
conventional armed conflicts. Information warfare, threats emanating from cyber
space and aerospace will consume more national resources than ever before.
• Few other ways which are impacting the security of the country are, knowledge of
strategic location, important spots, private identity of people & use of that in mal
documents, cyber attack on strategic infrastructure etc.
2. ICT revolution is not only a great equalizer for smaller states, but has also brought
power to non-state actors, individuals and terrorist organizations. Examine the
statement in the context of challenges to India’s national security.
Approach:
Firstly, elaborate on the first statement, quoting various examples. Then bring out the
challenges associated in the realm of cyberspace which could be a threat to India’s
National security and suggest measures for tackling the same.
Answer:
The ICT revolution has brought new challenges to state’s internal security apparatus.
The dependence of not only state’s critical infrastructure on ICT but of the whole
system encompassing military, administrative and economic apparatus has increased
vulnerability of the system not only among states but also to non-state actors which
could destabilize the whole system with the speed of a light.
The effect of ICT on warfare is evident in command and control, in the new surveillance
and communication technologies and in cyber operations.
Between states, information technologies and their effects have made asymmetric
strategies much more effective and attractive. In situations of conventional imbalance
between states we see that asymmetric strategies are increasingly common. Cyber war
and anti-satellite capabilities are uses of technology by a weaker state to neutralise or
raise the cost and deter the use of its military strength by a stronger country.
Currently, In the name of defence all the major powers are developing offensive cyber
capabilities as well as using cyber espionage and so are smaller powers that see ICT as
an equaliser.
These technologies have also enabled individuals and small groups to use cyberspace
for their own ends The ICT revolution has also brought power to non-state actors and
individuals, to small groups such as terrorists. ICT helps Terror organisation in
Propaganda, Financing, Training, Planning and Execution of their agendas.
Thus it has given small groups and individuals the means to threaten and act against
much larger, more complex and powerful groups. Since the technology is now
available or accessible widely, and is mostly held in private hands, ICT has
redistributed power within states.
Challenges to internal security of India

Student Notes:
The technology has placed an increasingly lethal power in the hands of non-state
actors. These are not just law and order problems, and they are not amenable to the
traditional responses that states are accustomed to.
What makes this more complicated is the fact that these technologies are not just
available to the state, where laws and policies can control and limit their use. They are
widely available in the public domain, where commercial and individual motives can
easily lead to misuse that is not so easily regulated unless we rethink and update our
legal and other approaches.
Expanding wireless connectivity to individual computers and networks has increased
their exposure and vulnerability to attacks. The traditional approach of securing the
boundaries are not effective in this space.
Evolution of communication networks has made communication system more user-
friendly and accessible. This had made it possible for miscreants in the society to use
these tools for their benefits.
It has become really difficult to track a message through VOIP services & various other
services. This has served to spread terrorism ideology even across liberal population
sphere.
Thus need is to create a climate and environment within which security is built into the
cyber and communications working methods. And, most important, the government
must find ways to indigenously generate the manpower, technologies and equipment
that it requires for maintaining cyber security.
3. Monitoring social networking sites, phone tapping etc. are an infringement on the
privacy, but need of the hour in wake of the recent domestic scenario. Examine.
Approach:
Examine both the pros and cons of such surveillance programs and offer some practical
suggestions on how the concerns of groups on both sides of the divide could be
addressed.
Answer:
• Given the rising incidences of terrorism and security threats, nations across the
world, have been monitoring electronic communications for the purpose of
protecting and preserving their sovereignty, integrity and security.
• This has come to be seen as inevitable given the use of technology by criminals,
terrorists and organized crime syndicates for anti-national activities.
• India’s Central Monitoring System (CMS) and the Prism Program of USA are
instances of surveillance programs put in place by countries across the world.
• It has been argued that in the event of a conflict between national interest and
individual liberties, it is the former that shall prevail. Also, the Right to Privacy is
subject to reasonable restrictions on various grounds.
• The proponents of government surveillance argue that such projects will eventually
strengthen the security environment in the country.
• The proponents also argue that while in traditional surveillance systems secrecy
could be easily compromised due to manual intervention at various stages, this
shall be minimized in new systems like the CMS. This is because in CMS, functions
will be performed on a secured electronic link and there will be minimum manual
intervention.

Student Notes:
• However, the critics express concern over the sheer lack of public information on
such projects. There is hardly any official word from the government about which
government bodies or agencies will be able to access the data, how they will use
this information, what percentage of population will be under surveillance, or how
long the data of a citizen will be kept in the record.
• This makes it impossible for citizens to assess whether surveillance is the only, or
the best, way in which the stated goal can be achieved. Also, citizens cannot gauge
whether these measures are proportionate i.e. they are the most effective means
to achieve this aim.
• In such projects, often there is also no legal recourse for a citizen whose personal
details are being misused or leaked from the central or regional database.
• Blanket surveillance techniques, like the CMS, also pose a threat to online business.
With all the data going in one central pool, a competitor or a cyber criminal rival
can easily tap into private and sensitive information by hacking into the server.
• There is also the possibility that as vulnerabilities will be introduced into Internet
infrastructure in order to enable surveillance, it will undermine the security of
online transactions.
• These projects can also undermine the confidentiality of intellectual property
especially pre-grant patents and trade secrets. Rights-holders can never be sure if
their IPR is being stolen by some government in order to prop up national players.
• Civil rights groups also argue that security cannot be prioritized by large-scale
invasions of privacy, especially in a country like India where there is little
accountability or transparency.
• In light of these arguments there is an urgent requirement for a strong legal
protection of the right to privacy; for judicial oversight of any surveillance; and for
parliamentary or judicial oversight of the agencies, which will do surveillance.
• Moreover, an attempt must be made to reach a middle ground between privacy
and security - a system, which takes care of national security aspect and yet gains
the confidence of the citizens. The secrecy period can be kept restricted to three to
four years in such projects. Thereafter who all were snooped and when and why
and under whose direction/circumstances must be made public through a website
after this time gap.
10. Previous Years UPSC Questions

1. Discuss the advantage and security implications of cloud hosting of server vis-a-vis in-house
machine-based hosting for government businesses. (CSM 2015)
11. References
• Securing Critical Information Infrastructure – IDSA report
• India’s cyber security challenges – IDSA task force report
• Supply Chain integrity 2015 report by ENISA
• Communication networks challenges in utility industry – report by FUJITSU
• https://www.polyas.de/blog/en/digital-democracy/digital-sovereignty
• http://www.in4com.de/8-digital-rights/28-digital-sovereignty-what-is-it
• http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/testing-of-telecom-equipment-in-india-mandatory-from-next-
year/article6304138.ece
• http://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/power/foreign-power-equipment-should-the-domestic-
industry-lobby-be-worried-on-grid-security/57548903
• http://csrc.nist.gov/scrm/documents/briefings/Workshop-Brief-on-Cyber-Supply-Chain-Best-Practices.pdf

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PAPER III: SECURITY
CYBER SECURITY


Student Notes:
CYBER SECURITY
Contents
1. Introduction to Cyber Security................................................................................................3
1.1. Cyberspace......................................................................................................................3
1.2. Cyberthreats ...................................................................................................................3
1.2.1. Cyber Crime/ Cyber Attacks ......................................................................................3
1.2.2. Cyber terrorism.........................................................................................................3
1.2.3. Cyberwarfare ............................................................................................................3
1.2.4. Cyber Espionage .......................................................................................................4
1.3. Importance of Cyberspace ...............................................................................................4
1.4. Challenges in defending cyberspace ................................................................................4
2. Cybersecurity in India .............................................................................................................5
2.1. Current situation .............................................................................................................5
2.2. Steps taken by Government in Cybersecurity ...................................................................5
2.3. Legal Framework .............................................................................................................5
2.3.1. National Cybersecurity Policy 2013 ...........................................................................5
2.3.2. Information Technology Act 2000 (As Amended in 2008) ..........................................6
2.3.3. Criticisms of the Information Technology Act ............................................................6
2.3.4. National Telecom Policy 2012....................................................................................7
2.4. Institutional Framework ..................................................................................................7
2.4.1. National Cybersecurity Coordination Centre (NCCC), .................................................7
2.4.2. India’s Computer Emergency Respose Team (CERT-In)...............................................7
2.4.3. National critical information infrastructure protection centre (NCIIPC) ......................8
2.4.4. Indian cyber-crime coordination centre (I4C) and Cyber Warrior Police force ............8
2.4.5. Cyber Swachchta Kendra (CSK) ..................................................................................8
2.5. Other Measures ..............................................................................................................8

Student Notes:
1. Introduction to Cyber Security

As per Information Technology Act, 2000, “Cyber security means protecting information,
equipment, devices computer, computer resource, communication device and information
stored therein from unauthorised access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification or
destruction.”
1.1. Cyberspace
India’s Cyber Security Policy 2013 defines cyberspace as a complex environment comprising
interaction between people, software and services, supported by worldwide distribution of
information and communication technology devices and networks.
1.2. Cyberthreats
Cyberthreats can be disaggregated into four baskets based on the perpetrators and their
motives - Cyber Espionage, Cyber Crime, Cyber Terrorism, Cyber Warfare.
1.2.1. Cyber Crime/ Cyber Attacks

Cyber-attack is “any type of offensive maneuver employed by individuals or whole organizations
that targets computer information systems, infrastructures, computer networks with an
intention to damage or destroy targeted computer network or system.”
These attacks can be labeled either as Cyber-campaign, Cyber-warfare or Cyber-terrorism
depending upon the context, scale and severity of attacks. Cyber-attacks can range from
installing spyware on a PC to attempts to destroy the critical infrastructure of entire nations.
1.2.2. Cyber terrorism

Acts of Terrorism related to cyber space or act of terrorism executed using Cyber technologies is
popularly known as 'cyber terrorism'.
“Cyber terrorism is the convergence of terrorism and cyber space. It is generally
understood to mean unlawful attacks and threats of attacks against computers,
networks, and information stored therein when done to intimidate or coerce a
government or its people in furtherance of political or social objectives, Further, to
qualify as cyber terrorism, an attack should result in violence against persons or
property or at least cause enough harm to generate fear, Serious attacks against critical
infrastructures could be acts of cyber terrorism depending upon their impact.”
It should be noted here that if they create panic by attacking critical systems/infrastructure,
there is no need for it to lead to violence. In fact such attacks can be more dangerous.
Besides, terrorists also use cyberspace for purposes like planning terrorist attacks, recruiting
sympathizers, communication purposes, command and control, spreading propaganda in form
of malicious content online to brain wash, funding purposes etc. It is also used as a new arena
for attacks in pursuit of the terrorists’ political and social objectives.
1.2.3. Cyberwarfare
Oxford Dictionary defines Cyberwarfare as “The use of computer technology to disrupt the
activities of a state or organization, especially the deliberate attacking of information systems
for strategic or military purposes.” These hostile actions against a computer system or network
can take any form. On one hand, it may be conducted with the smallest possible intervention
that allows extraction of the information sought without disturbing the normal functioning of a
computer system or network. This type of intervention is never notice by user and is continuing.

Student Notes:
Other type may be destructive in nature which alters, disrupts, degrades, or destroy an
adversary’s computer systems.
1.2.4. Cyber Espionage

As per Oxford dictionary, Cyber espionage is “The use of computer networks to gain illicit access
to confidential information, typically that held by a government or other organization.” It is
generally associated with intelligence gathering, data theft and, more recently, with analysis of
public activity on social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter. These activities could be by
criminals, terrorists or nations as part of normal information gathering or security monitoring.
Examples of Cyber Espionage include- 2014 hacking of major US companies to steal trade
secrets by Chinese officials; Titan Rain; Moonlight Maze; NSA surveillance Program as revealed
by Edward Snowden in USA.
1.3. Importance of Cyberspace
Cyber Security has assumed strategic and critical importance because of following reasons:
• Cyberspace has become key component in the formulation and execution of public policies.
• It is used by government to process and store sensitive and critical data which if
compromised can have devastating impact.
• Taking down cyberspace will result into disruption of many critical public services like-
railways, defense systems, communication system, banking and other financial system etc.
• Several states are developing the capabilities in the area of cyberattacks which can alter
outcomes in the battlefield.
• Individuals are using internet based services at a growing pace making them vulnerable to
cybercrimes, such as- online bank frauds, surveillance, profiling, violation of privacy etc.
1.4. Challenges in defending cyberspace
The task of tackling cyber-attacks is more difficult than conventional threats due to following
reasons
• Diffused and intangible threat in the absence of tangible perpetrators coupled with low
costs of mounting an attack makes it difficult to frame an adequate response.
• Difficult to locate the attacker who can even mislead the target into believing that the
attack has come from somewhere else.
• Absence of any geographical constraints enabling attackers to launch attack anywhere on
the globe
• Need of international cooperation - Cyberspace are inherently international even from the
perspective of national interest. It is not possible for a country to ignore what is happening
in any part of this space if it is to protect the functionality of the cyberspace relevant for its
own nationals.
• Rapidly evolving technology needs investment, manpower and an ecosystem to keep track
of global developments, developing countermeasures and staying ahead of the
competition.
• Non-existence of foolproof security architecture due to low resources requirement for
attacker to launch attack coupled with potential bugs in any system
• Human element in cybersecurity – Target users, themselves, make mistakes and fall prey to
cyberattack. Most sophisticated cyberattacks have all involved a human element: Stuxnet
needed the physical introduction of infected USB devices into Iran’s nuclear facilities; the
2016 cyber-heist of $950 million from Bangladesh involved gullible (or complicit) bankers
handing over SWIFT codes to hackers.

Student Notes:
2. Cybersecurity in India
At the end of December 2017, India had 481 million users, growing 11.34% from 2016. The
pace of growth of internet usage is pushing us towards a digital society and government itself
has rolled out various programs for digitization of India, e.g.- Digital India Programme.
2.1. Current situation
The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) in 2016 reported 12,317 cybercrime cases, an
increase of 6% as compared to 2015. Some of the statistics related to cybersecurity are as
follows:
• The number of cybercrime cases registered in India has risen by 350 per cent in the three-
year period from 2011 to 2014, according to a joint study by PwC and Assocham
• Attacks have been mostly initiated from countries such as the U.S., Turkey, China, Brazil,
Pakistan, Algeria, Turkey, Europe, and the UAE.
The implications on security of India due to cyber-attacks can be seen from the following
examples:
• In 2012, a high profile cyber-attack breached the email accounts of about 12,000 people,
including those of officials from the Ministry of External Affairs, Ministry of Home Affairs,
Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), and the Indo-Tibetan Border
Police (ITBP).
• In 2013, The Executive Director of the Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL) stated
that his company alone was forced to block up to ten targeted attacks a day.
• 32 lakh debit cards were compromised in 2016.
• Hacking of emails and twitter accounts by a group of hackers who call themselves ‘Legion’.
This group also claimed access to “over 40,000 servers” in India, “encryption keys and
certificates” used by some Indian banks, and confidential medical data housed in “servers
of private hospital chains”.
2.2. Steps taken by Government in Cybersecurity
Government has taken a number of steps to acquire and increase capacity in the field of
cybersecurity. Some of which are discussed below.
2.3. Legal Framework
2.3.1. National Cybersecurity Policy 2013
It was brought in the backdrop of revelations by Edward Snowden of the massive NSA
surveillance program. Its key provisions include-
• Set up a 24×7 National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC)
for protecting critical infrastructure of the country
• Create a taskforce of 5,00,000 cyber security professionals in next five years.
• Provide fiscal schemes and benefits to businesses for adoption of standard security
practices.
• Designate CERT-In as the national nodal agency to co-ordinate cyber security related
matters and have the local (state) CERT bodies to co-ordinate at the respective levels.
• Use of Open Standards for Cyber Security.
• Develop a dynamic legal framework to address cyber security challenges
• Encourage wider use of Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) for government services.

Student Notes:
• Engage infosec professionals / organizations to assist e-Governance initiatives, establish

Centers of Excellence, cyber security concept labs for awareness and skill development
through PPP - a common theme across all initiatives mentioned in this policy.
Key concerns
• The National Cyber Security Policy 2013 mainly covers defensive and response measures
and makes no mention of the need to develop offensive capacity.
• The cyber security policy suffers from lack of proper implementation with respect to
provisions like recruitment of 5 lakh professionals etc.
• It is inadequate to balance cybersecurity needs with the need to protect civil liberties of
Indians including privacy rights.
2.3.2. Information Technology Act 2000 (As Amended in 2008)
The Information Technology Act, 2000 regulates the use of computer systems and computer
networks, and their data. The Act gives statutory recognition to electronic contracts and deals
with electronic authentication, digital signatures, cybercrimes, liability of network service
providers etc.
A Digital Signature is an electronic form of a signature. Just as one authenticates a document with
handwritten signature, a digital signature authenticates electronic documents.
A Digital Signature Certificate (DSC) can be presented electronically to prove identity, to access
services on the internet or to sign certain documents digitally. A DSC provides with a high level of
security for online transactions by ensuring absolute privacy of information exchanged using a DSC.
The certificate contains information about the user’s identity (name, pin code, country, email address,
the date the certificate was issued and the name of the certifying authority). A licensed certifying
authority (CA) issues the digital signature. CA means a person who has been granted a license to issue
a digital signature certificate under Section 24 of the Information Technology Act, 2000. The time
taken by CAs to issue a DSC may vary up to a week.
2.3.3. Criticisms of the Information Technology Act

• The issues relating to confidential information and data of corporates and their adequate
protection have not been adequately addressed.

Student Notes:
• The maximum damage, by way of compensation, stipulated by the cyber law amendments
is Rs.5 crore. This is a small figure and hardly provides any effective relief to corporates.
• The issue pertaining to spam has not been dealt with in a comprehensive manner. In fact,
the word ‘spam’ is not even mentioned anywhere in the IT Amendment Act. It is pertinent
to note that the countries like U.S.A., Australia and New Zealand have demonstrated their
intentions to fight against spam by coming across with dedicated anti-spam legislations.
This make India a heaven as far as, spam is concerned.
• It does not address jurisdictional issues. Numerous activities on the internet take place in
different jurisdictions and that there is a need for enabling the Indian authorities to assume
enabling jurisdiction over data and information impacting India, in a more comprehensive
way than in the manner as sketchily provided under the current law.
2.3.4. National Telecom Policy 2012
The telecom policy, adopted in 2012, also includes provisions to address the concerns related to
communication security and network security. The strategy adopted to implement security
measures are:
• Telecom service providers must take adequate measures; to ensure security of the
communication sent and received through their networks.
• Telecom service providers must assist law enforcement agencies within legal framework
and also keeping in view the individual privacy and also following international practices to
the extent possible for fulfilling national security needs.
• Regulatory measures to ensure that safe to connect devices are inducted on to the
network. To build national capacity around security standards, security testing, and
interception and monitoring capabilities.
2.4. Institutional Framework
2.4.1. National Cybersecurity Coordination Centre (NCCC),
It is India’s cyberspace intelligence agency which will conduct security and electronic
surveillance. It aims to screen communications metadata and work in close coordination with
various law-enforcement agencies for intelligence gathering. The body, functioning under the IT
ministry, would strengthen the country’s cybersecurity posture. Some have expressed concern
that the body could encroach on citizens' privacy and civil-liberties, given the lack of explicit
privacy laws in the country.
2.4.2. India’s Computer Emergency Respose Team (CERT-In)
The CERT-In has been established to thwart cyber-attacks in India. It is mandated under the IT
Amendment Act, 2008 to serve as the national agency in charge of cyber security.
• Charter- "The purpose of the CERT-In is, to become the nation's most trusted referral
agency of the Indian Community for responding to computer security incidents as and
when they occur”
• Mission- “To enhance the security of India's Communications and Information
Infrastructure through proactive action and effective collaboration."
• Constituency - The CERT-In's constituency is the Indian Cyber-community.
CERT-Fin has also been established based as a specialized agency on the recommendation of a
sub-committee of the Financial Stability and Development Council (FSDC) to tackle threats
related to financial sector.

Student Notes:
2.4.3. National critical information infrastructure protection centre (NCIIPC)

It is designated as the National Nodal Agency in respect of Critical Information Infrastructure
Protection. Its Functions and Duties are
Critical Information Infrastructure is
• protecting nation's critical information defined as those facilities, systems or
infrastructure functions whose incapacity or destruction
• Identification of all critical information would cause a debilitating impact on
infrastructure elements national security, governance, economy
and social well-being of a nation.
• Developing and executing national and
international cooperation strategies for protection of Critical Information Infrastructure.
2.4.4. Indian cyber-crime coordination centre (I4C) and Cyber Warrior Police force
These have been established under newly created Cyber and Information Security (CIS) Division
(under Ministry of Home Affairs) to tackle internet crimes such as cyber threats, child
pornography and online stalking.
2.4.5. Cyber Swachchta Kendra (CSK)
Minister of Electronics and Information Technology launched the Cyber Swachchta Kendra–
Botnet Cleaning and Malware Analysis Centre for analysis of malware and botnets that affect
networks and systems. It is part of Digital India initiative. This centre will work in coordination
with the internet service providers (ISPs) and Industry and will also enhance awareness among
citizens regarding botnet and malware infection.
CSK provides various tools to prevent cyberattacks, like-
M Kavach: Special anti-virus tool for smartphones and tablets.
USB Pratirodh: It is a USB protector to help clean various external storage devices like USB(s),
memory cards, external hard disks, etc.
AppSamvid: This is a whitelisting tool for the desktop.
Browser JSGuard: It helps to block malicious JavaScript and HTML files while browsing the web.
Free Bot Removal Tool: It’s a QuickHeal partner tool.
2.5. Other Measures
2.5.1. Digital Army Programme
A dedicated cloud to digitize and automate processes, procedures and services for the Indian
Army, launched as a part of Digital India. This is similar to Meghraj, the national cloud
initiative.
2.5.2. Cooperation with other countries
India along with other countries is undertaking mutual sharing of information and best-
practices, both of which are critical in constructing a robust response to conspicuous cyber
incidents. For instance, India is working with UK, USA, China, Malaysia, Singapore, Japan and
many other countries on diverse issues such as joint training of cybersecurity professionals,
information exchange, law enforcement and technical capacity building to jointly combat
cybercriminal activity.

Student Notes:
2.6. Challenges – Cybersecurity in India

2.6.1. Structural
• The rapid rate of growth of this sector in both scope and meaning of cybersecurity.
• Internet, by its design, has been created for openness and connectivity and not for
ensuring security and protection from unauthorized access.
2.6.2. Administrative
• Lack of best practices and statutory backing for the same, e.g.- India does not have norms
of disclosure.
• The government is yet to identify and implement measures to protect “critical information
infrastructure”.
• The appointment of National Cyber Security Coordinator in 2014 has not been
supplemented by the creating liaison officers in states.
2.6.3. Human Resource Related
• Huge under-staffing of Cert-In.
• Attitudinal apathy of users towards issues of cybersecurity.
2.6.4. Procedural
• Lack of awareness in local police of various provisions of IT Act, 2000 and also of IPC related
to cybercrimes.
• Post-demonetisation, government has pushed the citizenry to go ‘cashless’, without
building capacity and awareness on the security of devices or transactions thus increasing
vulnerability.
• Also, the core infrastructure elements of a smart city cover urban mobility, water and
electricity supply, sanitation, housing, e-governance, health and education, security and
sustainability, all bounded and harnessed by the power of information technology (IT).
Given the massive use of IT in the delivery and management of core infrastructure services,
the volume of citizen data generated in a smart city is expected to grow exponentially over
time. The current IT Act might not give adequate protection to the citizen data that smart
cities will generate.
2.7. Way forward
Cyber warfare encompasses public and private domains. There is a requirement for intimate
involvement of the private sector, as they are equal, if not larger, stakeholders. Regular
meetings must be held and, if needed, working groups created. Current organisations which
could be tasked to take on the cyber warfare challenge include the NTRO, DRDO, RAW and IB,
representatives of CERT, NASSCOM, etc. Various measures which may be taken by government
of India are as follows:
• India can raise a cyber command with responsibility of combating cyberwarfare should be
of the Armed Forces along with the DRDO and other experts.
• Perception management and social networks should be handled carefully as the “instant
availability of information” provides a potential tool for psychological and no-contact
warfare. It should form part of any offensive or defensive action.
• Adequate capacity building should be done with required investment and R&D as apart
from being critical from security point of view, this field is going to create millions of jobs in
the future which India can benefit from.

Student Notes:
• Legal aspects of developing capacities, understanding use of cyberspace as a “force”,

implications of the UN Charter, negotiating international laws and treaties – all of this needs
trained personnel. All this needs special attention.
• As the private sector is an equally important partner in providing critical information
infrastructure (e.g.- telecom sector which is mostly governed by private players), there is a
need to work with private sector using Public-Private Partnership model.
• A mechanism for information sharing and coordination between government sector like
CERT-In and private sector through Security Information Sharing and Analysis Centres
should be established.
• The government can put in place a regulatory mechanism to ensure protection of private
sector Critical Information Infrastructure and should also provide incentives for adhering to
such norms.
• Indian government along with NASSCOM should promote startups working in the field of
digital security.
• India can follow international best practices such as Tallinn Manual which is an academic
work related to laws that apply to cyber-crimes which developed nations such as USA are
following.
3. Other Miscellaneous Terms

3.1. Malwares
The term ‘Malware’ is contraction of “Malicious Software” and is any piece of software that can
do harm to data, devices or to people.
Working of a Malware
• A malware has specific instructions programmed into it which direct the malware to take
over as many devices connected to the internet as possible.
• Depending on its programming, the malware turns internet-connected devices into ‘bots’,
and starts building a botnet.
• Malwares like Reaper and Saposhi are capable of identifying weaknesses in devices and
exploiting them to turn the devices into bots.
• Once a large enough botnet is created, simultaneous pings are sent to a single server,
causing a server failure, which is called a Distributed Denial of Service (DDOS) attack.
• Depending on the size of the botnet, malwares can execute multiple DDOS attacks at the
same time, or over a period of time.

Student Notes:
Different kinds of Malware include-

• Virus: They attach themselves to clean files and spread uncontrollably, damaging a system’s
core functionality and deleting or corrupting files. They usually appear as an executable file.
• Trojans: They disguise themselves as legitimate software and tend to act discretely and
create backdoors in your security to let other malware in.
• Spyware: It hides in the background and takes notes of what one does online, including
passwords, credit card numbers, surfing habits and more.
• Worms: Worms infect entire networks of devices, either local or across the internet, by
using network interfaces. It uses each consecutive infected machine to infect more.
• Ransomware: Also called scareware, this kind of malware can lock down computer and
threaten to erase everything — unless a ransom is paid to its owner.
• Adware: These can undermine security which can give a lot of other malware a way in.
• Botnets: Botnets are networks of infected computers that are made to work together under
the control of an attacker.
3.2. Global Cyber Strategy
United Nations General Assembly has regularly passed resolutions on information security.
Several regional initiatives like the European Convention on Cybercrime have been in existence
for decades. These efforts can be consolidated in the form of a global cyberspace convention.
3.3. Need of a global strategy
• Risks in cyberspace can destabilize international and national security.
• The growth of social media (Twitter, Facebook, etc.) has created a new medium for strategic
communication that by-passes national boundaries and national authorities.
• The global data transmission infrastructure also depends critically on the network of
undersea cables, which is highly vulnerable to accidents and motivated disruptions.
3.4. Key Components of such Global Cyber Strategy would include:
• National critical infrastructures should not be harmed.
• Secure, stable and reliable functioning of the Internet should be ensured.
• A common understanding of Internet security issues should be evolved.
• National governments should have the sovereign right to make national policies on ICT
consistent with international norms.
• A global culture of cyber security based on trust and security should be encouraged.
• The digital divide should be overcome.
• International cooperation should be strengthened.
• PPP should be encouraged.
• CIA (Confidentiality – Integrity – Availability) of information systems should be ensured.
• Balance between the need to maintain law and order and fundamental human rights
should be maintained.
• It would put the obligations on states not to take any overt or clandestine measures which
would result in cyber warfare.
• It would also define what the use of force in cyberspace means and in what circumstances
such force can be used, if at all.
• How would a state react if it is subjected to cyber attacks by a state, or a non-state actor, or
by a combination of the two?

Student Notes:
3.5. Why Should India not join these Global Efforts?

• These may lead to technology control regimes like those existing in other fields like- space,
missile etc. undermining national sovereign interests of India.
• Such treaties like the European Convention of Cybercrime are biased in favour of the
requirements of the major international players/powers
• India should first develop its own cyber capabilities to a level that they are beyond the
ambit of control regimes.
3.6. Why should India join these Global Efforts?
• Isolationist approach derives little or no benefits of the opportunities that arise by engaging
with these treaties and conventions.
• As these treaties and conventions are in their infancy and undergoing development. India
can proactively engage in drafting them, thus, moulding them to suit its sovereign interests.
3.7. Global initiatives
3.7.1. Budapest Convention
• It is the only multilateral treaty on cyber security that addresses Internet and computer
crime
• Its focus is on harmonizing national laws, improving legal authorities for investigative
techniques and increasing cooperation among nations.
• Developing countries including India have not signed it stating that the developed countries
lead by the US drafted it without consulting them
3.7.2. Ground Zero Summit
Ground Zero Summit is the largest collaborative platform in Asia for Cyber security experts and
researchers to address emerging cyber security challenges and demonstrate cutting-edge
technologies. It is the exclusive platform in the region providing opportunities to establish and
strengthen relationships between corporate, public sector undertakings (PSUs), government
departments, security and defense establishments.
• The Summit gets its name from a piece of ancient Indian history. India is the ground where
zero was discovered and zero is integral part of digital systems.
• It is being organized by the Indian Infosec Consortium (IIC), which is an independent not-
for-profit organization formed by leading cyber experts.
• Aim of the summit: The summit was organized to deliberate upon various issues related to
cyber security challenges emerging due to the latest technological developments.
• The theme for the Summit - Digital India – ‘Securing Digital India’
3.7.3. ICANN
• ICANN, or the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, is a non-profit public
benefit corporation and also a global multi-stakeholder organization that was created by
the U.S. government.
• It coordinates the Internet Domain Name Servers, IP addresses and autonomous system
numbers, which involves a continued management of these evolving systems and the
protocols that underlie them.
• While ICANN began in the U.S. government, it is now an international, community-driven
organization independent of any one government.
• ICANN collaborates with a variety of stakeholders including companies, individuals, and
governments to ensure the continued success of the Internet. It holds meetings three times
a year, switching the international location for each meeting.

Student Notes:
4. Miscellaneous
4.1. Ransomware Cyber Attacks
Recently, a ransomware called Wannacry,
infected more than 100,000 computers A ransomware typically logs users out of their own
all over the world. There are many types systems through forced encryption of data and asks
of malware that affect a computer, them to pay a ransom (in the case of WannaCry, the
ransom was demanded in bitcoin) if they want to
ranging from those that steal information
access the encrypted data. Infected computers
t those that just delete everything on the
appear to largely be out-of-date devices or, in some
device. The country most affected by cases, machines involved in manufacturing or
WannaCry was UK, where National hospital functions that proved too difficult to patch
Health Service trusts were impacted, without possibly disrupting crucial operation.
causing widespread disruption to health
services.
Effect on India
• India’s vulnerability was higher because most official computers run Windows and regular
updates were not a habit.
• A lot of personal data online is now connected to the Aadhaar data and therefore future
such attacks can make privacy of millions of Indians vulnerable.
Another ransomware attack named Petya was What is encryption?
reported about which CERT-In issued an advisory.
Encryption is the process of encoding
4.2. Issue of Encryption in India messages or information in such a way
that only authorized parties can read it.
Under Section 84A of Information Technology Act, For example: word "IAS" can become "JBT"
2000 Rules are to be framed to prescribe modes or in encrypted form, if every letter is
methods for encryption. In this regard, a draft replaced by next alphabet. Those who
National Encryption Policy was formulated by an know how it is encoded can only able to
Expert Group setup by Government. However, the read "IAS" correctly.
draft policy was withdrawn later. The aim was to
enable information security environment and secure transactions in Cyber Space for individuals,
businesses, Government including nationally critical information systems and networks.
Key features of the policy included:
• Storing the plain text of the encrypted messages for 90 days by all citizens and provide it to
law enforcement agencies as and when required.
• All vendors of encryption products need to register their products with the designated
agency of the Government
• All encryption technology used in India shall be cleared by the government and only those
encryption technologies can be used which are in the government’s prescribed list. It
means government knows every encryption technology used in India
Key concerns
• Policy affected almost all Internet users- a majority of them were not even aware that they
were using encryption technologies.
• “On demand” need to store all communication in plain text for 90 days and making it
available to law enforcement agencies poses challenges like - Most of the users in India do
not know the meaning of plain text and in such a case they can be held liable for not storing
their encrypted data in plain text format.

Student Notes:
• Additionally, service providers located within and outside India, using encryption
technology for providing any type of services in India, would be required to enter into an
agreement with the government. This is seen as impractical as there are many service
providers around the world that use encryption. It would be highly unrealistic for all of
these to enter into an agreement with the Indian government.
• Keeping a copy of the data will require huge storage and that will come at a cost.
• There is a fear that the policy will start a new “registration raj”, now that all encryption
technologies that can be used in India will need to be certified and listed by the agencies
concerned.
However, India needs encryption policy due to following reasons:
• To promote use of encryption for ensuring the security/confidentiality of internet
communication and transactions
• To facilitate investigation of crimes and threats to national security in the age of
sophisticated encryption technology
• To promote research in encryption technology as it is restricted and not available to India
under Wassenaar agreement.
• To build consumer confidence in retail and e-governance, encouraging more Indians to go
online and strengthening the country’s underdeveloped cybersecurity sector.
• To check misuse of encryption.
For example - Take the case of terrorist Abu Dujana’s iPhone 7. While dealing with secure
devices, law enforcement agencies themselves rue the increasing use of encryption. Thus far,
Indian intelligence agencies have relied on ‘zero days’ — vulnerabilities that exist in the original
design of a software — to break into encrypted devices, but Internet companies now promptly
patch their flaws, diminishing the utility of such tools.
The reality is that a lot of online content is today out of the reach of law enforcement officials.
Platforms like WhatsApp and Telegram are ‘end-to-end’ encrypted, making it difficult for police
at the State and local level — who don’t have access to zero days — to register cases based on
information contained in them. The distinct trend towards greater adoption of encryption poses
a dilemma for Indian policymakers. Strong encryption protocols increase consumer confidence
in the digital economy, but the Indian government fears a scenario where criminals or terrorists
can easily “go dark” behind secure channels.
Way ahead for new policy
The policy should leave room for innovation in the field of encryption technology so that
industry leaders have incentives to innovate and offer consumers more secure information
services. The policy should go for securing information through a minimum standard, instead of
rendering it insecure by dictating a standard that might get obsolete.
The policy must be sensitive to the need to promote cybersecurity research in India. The
process to retrieve encrypted data must be transparent and necessarily be backed by a court
warrant from a civil court, obtained through an open judicial hearing. The policy should provide
guidance on the use of information/ data within the country in a regulated manner and ensure
that our government agencies can access them for investigating serious issues related to
terrorism, national security and critical infrastructure.
The new policy would need to focus on enterprises such as e-commerce companies to ensure
their encryptions were good enough to secure customer's financial and personal data. The
policy should prescribe technologies which are globally accepted. It should also talk about
revising them from time to time, which is very important as this is a dynamic space.

Student Notes:

1. It has been argued that the success of Digital India is critically dependent on the way
we handle our cyber security. Examine.
Approach:
• Briefly discuss the Digital India programme.
• Discuss its vulnerability to cyber-attacks.
• Explain the lacunae in our cyber security apparatus that make Digital India
programme vulnerable to security threats and how their redress is critical to its
success.
Answer:
In order to transform the entire ecosystem of public services through the use of
information technology, Government has launched Digital India programme with the
vision to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy.
Online Cyberspace touches nearly every part of our daily lives through broadband
networks, wireless signals and mobile networks. Digital India will further bring all the
government and citizens’ data and transactions in cyberspace and will bring
transparency, efficiency and citizen participation in the public governance.
However, cyber space is under constant threat because:
• India has little control over hardware used in India as well as the information
carried on internet.
• India’s infrastructure is susceptible to espionage, which involves intruding into
systems to steal information of strategic or commercial value; cybercrime, referring
to electronic fraud or other acts of serious criminal consequence; attacks, intended
at disrupting services or systems for a temporary period; and war, caused by a
large-scale and systematic digital assault on India’s critical installations.
• Constant cyber attacks in Banking sector, Social media accounts and even
government websites exemplifies the need of having strong cyber security
infrastructure.
• No national security architecture that can assess the nature of cyber threats and
respond to them effectively.
• Security risk associated with using Open Source Software.
• Lack of personnel trained in cyber-security, although mandated by National Cyber
Security Policy (NCSP).
These vulnerabilities in the cyberspace put the success of Digital India programme at
risk, in fact, if cyber-security is not adequate then it can cause more harm than
benefits. It can threaten the national security, privacy of citizens, financial security and
make poor citizens vulnerable to fraud and cheating. Therefore, cyber-security
architecture needs to be strengthened for optimising benefits:
• Developing a comprehensive cyber-security policy with emphasis on protection of
scyber infrastructure and data.
• Addressing loopholes of NCSP and implementing it earnestly.
• Establishing National Cyber Security Agency (NCSA) guided by a document outlining
India’s cyber strategy, much like its nuclear doctrine.
• Training of personnel in cyber-security and harnessing the highly skilled IT
workforce. Lessons can be learned from China, which has developed robust cyber
security infrastructure.

Student Notes:
• India should develop legal architecture to deal with increasingly complex

cybercrimes.
Thus, it is important that India streamline its cyber-security apparatus for the success of
e-governance initiatives and electronic services provided in the country both by
government and private enterprises. It would be prudent to take help of private sector,
which has developed a world class IT and ITES industry in the country for this purpose.
2. NATGRID has been touted as an idea, which would help a great deal in combating
terrorism emerging out of Indian soil. In this context, examine how NATGRID would
strengthen India's security architecture.
Approach:
• Start the answer with providing brief background about the genesis and objective
of idea of NATGRID.
• Then show how it would be an important tool in strengthening India’s security
architecture and fighting terrorism.
• Then also highlight some apprehension about this project.
• Then conclude with a positive note with suggesting safeguard against misuse.
Answer:
Background of NATGRID:
• The idea of setting up Natgrid or National Intelligence Grid came into much focus
after 26/11 Mumbai terrorist attack. The concept behind this is to merge all
databases of individuals into one which could be accessed by various agencies.
• The Natgrid is supposed to network and mesh together 21 sets of databases to
achieve quick, seamless and secure access to desired information for intelligence
and enforcement agencies.
Benefits and importance:
• Coordination and cooperation - Security agencies point out that although India
does have a capable policing wing across all states they remain handicapped for
the want of data. Take for instance if a terrorist of Gujarat origin is nabbed in
Rajasthan, then the police teams of both states will need to coordinate. In the past
we have seen due to lack of coordination and most of the time ego clashes
between the police departments of both states information is not shared. With
Natgrid, this issue would be solved and the respective departments could access
the data base without having to coordinate with each other.
• Natgrid would also help the police and the Intelligence Bureau keep a tab on
persons with suspicious backgrounds. The police would have access to all his data
and any movement by this person would also be tracked with the help of this data
base. An operational Natgrid, for instance, could have intercepted David Coleman
Headley, the Pakistani-American terrorist who played a key role in the 26/11
Mumbai attacks, when he undertook nine trips to India between 2006 and 2009.
• Timely access to information - When there is an issue with a particular person, the
police would have access to that person at the click of a button. Prior to this, the
police of a particular state had to call his colleague in another state and after a lot
of bureaucratic procedures, the data was shared. This procedure normally took
anything between a week or two, which in turn gave time for the person in
question to slip out.

Student Notes:
Challenges:
• But the apprehensions related to security of private data and its possible misuse by
over-zealous officers are creating fear regarding this new security tool.
• Also there will be need to update the data from local police station, which is not an
easy task as our police is not that much e-literate.
• There are also issues regarding the agencies, which can access the database.
Although the need for an integrated database for the purpose of India’s security from
terrorist attacks cannot be overemphasized but there are some outstanding
issues/challenges, which are being considered. After addressing them in their entirety
only, India can accrue the maximum benefit from NATGRID.
3. Cyberspace, like outer space, is unbounded and equally accessible to all. In this
context, evaluate the merits and demerits of having a body like the United Nations to
govern it. Also, comment on the role that India has played so far in reforming internet
governance structures.
Approach:
The introduction should reflect clear understanding of the current governance
structure. Discuss multilateral approach arguments- democratisation v/s centralisation
and multiple governments exercising control. Mention the independent position taken
by India regarding multilateral approach with participation of multiple stakeholders.
Answer:
Cyberspace is virtual space of all IT systems linked at data level on a global scale. The
basis for cyberspace is the Internet as a universal and publically accessible connection
and transport network. Currently, the Internet is governed largely by three non-profit
institutions- ICANN (International Commission for Assigned Names and Numbers), IETF
(Internet Engineering Task Force) and the Internet Society. ICANN is the body that
manages Critical Internet Resources (CIRs), such as Domain Name Servers (DNS). These,
along with private companies like Verisign, which own .com and .net domains, are
incorporated under Californian laws and all the edits they make are audited and
approved by the US Department of Commerce (US-DoC). This political oversight by US
gives it unilateral power over control of Internet. As Internet has grown and spread
across the globe, many countries question as to why the US should have outsize
influence over how internet is run.
Cyberspace governance comprises of both issues – the public policy aspects, i.e.
freedom, privacy, access and human rights, as well as technical aspects, i.e.
management of CIRs. Even though states have laws regarding the former, their
implementation will depend on if the states have access to manage of CIRs. In this
regard, various models of management of CIRs or, more specifically, the oversight of
ICANN have been put forward by different countries. This process has gained currency
due to abuse of position by the US as exposed by Edward Snowden.
Countries like Russia and China, which exercise large degree of control over their
domestic internet access, have proposed multilateral oversight through International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) of the United Nations.
Merits:
• Democratisation of oversight mechanism, with representations of various
governments.

Student Notes:
• Making nation-States capable to exercise their sovereign right, as per Geneva

declaration, to formulate internet public policy with the power to enforce it.
• Curtailing the power of non-state actors to make public policy decisions via
technical governance.
• Making use of International Law to extract accountability from ICANN, rather than
US specific laws which it is subject to currently.
Demerits:
• Erosion of bottom-up processes- states represent their interest as States (like
security and defence) and not as interest of their Citizens. Geo political meddling in
a multipolar world will lead to fragmentation of internet.
• Inter-governmental oversight will slow down the advancement and decision making
process. With limited understanding of internet architecture and requirements, and
threat of veto powers, the hard work of technical community would be vulnerable
to be overturned.
• With ITU dominated by telecom service providers, net-neutrality, if not the growth
of internet itself, would be under serious threat.
• The institutions meant to enforce international law are only remotely accessible,
slow and ineffective. ICANN under the oversight of various countries will make it
even less accountable to grievances of individual users.
It can be seen that demerits for having a multilateral body like the UN far outweigh the
merits. Upending the fundamentals of the multilateral model is likely to balkanize the
Internet at best and suffocate it at worst.
Role played by India in reforming Internet governance structure:
India has been critical of the unilateral control enjoyed by the United States and has
advocated for a democratic, transparent and inclusive arrangement for running the
medium. Earlier, the Indian position was for a multilateral approach, but lately, it has
changed to a multi stakeholder approach– involving civil society and private
organisations, so that national governments are held accountable to other stakeholders
and vice-versa. Along with proposing a UN Committee for Internet Related policies (UN-
CIRP), another demand has been that traffic originating and terminating in a country
should stay within that country, rather than routing through servers located under
foreign jurisdictions. Even though it has argued for making current system of IP address
allocation by ICANN as ‘fair, just and equitable’, its (ICANN) relationship with CIRP,
absence of clear definitions, composition of governing body and precise role of
stakeholders is still shrouded in ambiguity.
4. Explain the need and recently faced challenges of Deep Web.
Approach:
• Use the examples of intelligence agencies’ surveillance practices and Silk Road to
explain the need and challenges respectively.
Answer:
The Deep Web is the part of the Internet that search engines do not reach. There is a
lot of information hidden in the form of websites that standard search engines do not
find because those pages do not exist until they are created dynamically through a
specific search.

Student Notes:
It makes use of an anonymity network called ‘Tor’ which encrypts the data and then
distributes the small packets of data across multiple relays set-ups by users across the
world.
There is a certain need of deep web these days. With news of intelligence agencies’
surveillance practices, it has become crucial to keep critical and important documents
private. It can also be the solution for research of sensitive topics, facilitator for hidden
military communication and safe submission of sensitive documents to governments,
police etc. The journalist community should make maximum use of the Deep Web
because it is safer than any other privacy measure.
But it can raise some major challenges also. Deep Web exists in order to provide
services to people and organisations that require anonymity to release information or
communicate without fear. This can cause some problems. There is a sense of security
below the surface of the Deep Web, an assumption that with a bit of vigilance any
online action could be invulnerable the law. The Tor browser lets users access and even
host websites anonymously, Bitcoins allow payment, and an ever-more efficient global
postage system will even deliver. Recently FBI arrested the alleged administrator of a
flourishing anonymous online drug market called ‘Silk Road’. Apart from drugs there
are many such illegal anonymous businesses such as arms dealing and contract killing
that are operational. So before using Deep Web frequently, a good cyber security
infrastructure has to be put in place.
5. "Indian cyber laws lack teeth to bite data hackers." Analyze.

Approach:
• Explain that the fertile liberal treatment meted out to cyber criminals, by the IT Act,
facilitating the environment where they can tamper with, destroy and delete
electronic evidence, is likely to make a mockery of the process of law and would put
the law enforcement agencies under extreme pressure.
Answer:
The current cyber laws are not sufficient to deal with data hacking in India. A lot more
needs to be done under the Indian cyber security law to deal with hackers:
• Indian information technology (IT) laws are not stringent enough to deal with
hacking instances. In case any university or institute network is hacked by someone,
the maximum punishment is three years and Rs. 5 lakh fine under Section 66 of the
Information Technology Act.
• In the 14-odd years since Internet has been commercially introduced in our
country, India has got only three cyber crime convictions.
• Hacking is a bailable offence in India, unlike say, the US, where it is a non-bailable
offence.
• Keeping in account human behavior and psychology, it will be but natural to expect
that the concerned cyber criminal, once released on bail, will immediately go and
evaporate, destroy or delete all electronic traces and trails of his having committed
any cyber crime, thus making the job of law enforcement agencies to have cyber
crime convictions, a near impossibility.
• It is often difficult to attribute guilt using the existing statutes since the act of
trespassing into a system and tampering with virtual data is not specifically defined
in law.
• In the US and Europe, there is a complete legislation dedicated to data protection.

Student Notes:
However, under the Indian law, there are only two related provisions. And even
under these, there is no clarity.
• While hacking attacks remain under the jurisdiction of cyber laws, it is the lack of
privacy laws in India that allows cyber criminals to misuse user's data on social
networks.
• Cyber criminals recognize the confusion over cyber laws and are making the most
of it. In most forms of cyber attacks on social networks, it is the user who clicks on
malicious links and, unknowingly, passes on the virus or spam to his contacts. There
are no specific provisions in Indian cyber law to deal with these kinds of threats.
• In the US, when the Sony Playstation network was hacked, users filed lawsuits
against the company. In India, users who lost their data could do nothing against
the company.
• Cyber crimes like data hacking in India are investigated by a low-level police
inspector. The efficacy of such an approach is hardly likely to withstand the test of
time, given the current non- exposure and lack of training of Inspector level police
officers to cyber crimes, their detection, investigation and prosecution.
The expectations of the nation for effectively tackling cyber crime and stringently
punishing cyber criminals have all being let down by the extremely liberal IT act, given
their soft corner and indulgence for cyber criminals. All in all, given the glaring
loopholes as detailed above, the IT Act are likely to adversely impact all users of
computers, computer systems and computer networks, as also data and information in
the electronic form.
6. Crisis Management Plan for Cyber Attacks is inadequate without Public Private
Partnership (PPP) in Critical information Infrastructure. Examine.
Approach:
• Role of private players in Critical Information Infrastructure
• Why its security cannot be left alone in private hands alone
Answer:
Department of IT of govt. of India has identified critical IT-dependent infrastructure,
namely Defence, Finance, Energy, Transportation and Telecommunications. The
following analysis of some of these sectors shows that a significant part of the Critical
Information Infrastructure (CII) is owned and operated by the private sector in India:
• The telecom sector is mostly governed by private players, except MTNL and BSNL.
The global undersea cable communication infrastructure(GUCCI) is largely owned
by private players.
• The banking sector, where more than30% of the transactions are done online, and
the value of these transactions is over 80% of total transaction value, has a large
number of foreign and private banks.
• Stock Exchanges – The major stock exchanges BSE and NSE are private players,
wherein most of the transactions are done through the electronic medium.
• The airline industry is dominated by private players, with Air India being the only
government enterprise.
• Energy and Utilities – Though this sector is largely dominated by government
players, the distribution in major cities is largely controlled by private partners.
Thus, the private sector is equally important when it comes to securing a nation’s

Student Notes:
cyberspace. However, the government cannot leave it to the private sector alone for
securing its own CII. This is because if any cyber-attack takes place on CII owned by a
private company, the consequences of such an attack may have an adverse impact on
the entire nation and not restricted to the company owning the CII. For example, if
there is a cyber-attack on one of our national stock exchanges, it could possibly bring
down the entire trade operations, impacting the economy and creating panic among
investors.
Therefore, there is an urgent need of appropriate collaboration and partnership
between the government and the private sector for securing CII and the private sector
needs to be greatly involved in government’s cyber security initiatives through various
mechanisms, which can include PPP in the following areas:
• Security Information Sharing and Analysis
• Innovation in Regulatory Approach
• Innovation in Security Programs
• Pro-active threat and vulnerability management
• Promoting best practices in CII
• Assessing and monitoring security preparedness
• IT supply chain
• Taking leadership and partnership in international efforts like Financial Action Task
Force (FATF).
• R&D, capacity building, creating awareness in general masses and collaboration in
specific areas such as defence etc. are other prominent areas which seek the PPP in
CII.

1. Discuss the potential threats of Cyber attack and the security framework to prevent it.
(2017)
2. Use of Internet and social media by non-state actors for subversive activities is a major
concern. How have these been misused in the recent past? Suggest effective guidelines to
curb the above threat. (2016)
3. Discuss the advantage and security implications of cloud hosting of server vis-a-vis in-house
machine-based hosting for government businesses. (2015)
4. Considering the threats cyberspace poses for the country, India needs a “Digital Armed
Force” to prevent crimes. Critically evaluate the National Cyber Security Policy, 2013
outlining the challenges perceived in its effective implementation. (2015)
5. What are social networking site and what security implications do these sites present?
(2013)
6. What is digital signature? What does its authentication mean? Giver various salient built in
features of a digital signature. (2013)
7. Cyber warfare is considered by some defense analysts to be a larger threat than even Al
Qaeda or terrorism. What do you understand by Cyber warfare? Outline the cyber threats
which India is vulnerable to and bring out the state of the country’s preparedness to deal
with the same. (2013)

Student Notes:
7. References
1. http://www.idsa.in/system/files/book/Transcriptcybersecurity.pdf
2. http://www.idsa.in/idsacomments/NationalCyberSecurityPolicy2013_stomar_260813
3. http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/soon-the-net-will-be-free-of-us-control-have-new-
governors-in-new-icann-who-can/
4. https://niccs.us-cert.gov/glossary
5. https://www.enisa.europa.eu/topics/csirts-in-europe/glossary?tab=articles
6. http://fortune.com/2015/09/01/why-israel-dominates-in-cyber-security/
7. http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/Vulnerable-in-cyberspace/article16835147.ece
8. http://nciipc.gov.in/
9. http://www.cyberswachhtakendra.gov.in/
10. https://www.icann.org/
11. http://www.idsa.in/backgrounder/china-first-cyber-security-law_apsingh_231216
12. http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=93289
13. http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/but-what-about-section-69a/
14. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ddMpugGIHVE&t=308s
15. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2OzbwH-9oZA
16. http://indianexpress.com/article/technology/tech-news-technology/digital-signature-electronic-
documents-digital-signature-certificate-online-transactions-2844290/

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PAPER III: DISASTER MANAGEMENT
DISASTER AND THEIR MANAGEMENT


CHAPTER–1
1. Introduction to Disaster Management
Disasters - natural or human-made are common throughout the world. It is believed that in the recent past there is
an increase in their magnitude, complexity, frequency and economic impact. India is at the highest risk of exposure
to natural hazards in the world.
1.1. What is a Disaster?
The term disaster owes its origin to the French word “Desastre” which is a combination of two words ‘des’ meaning
bad and ‘aster’ meaning star. Thus the term refers to ‘Bad or Evil star’. A disaster can be defined as “A serious
disruption in the functioning of the community or a society causing widespread material, economic, social or
environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected society to cope using its own resources”.
Disaster damage occurs during and immediately after the disaster. This is usually measured in physical units (e.g.,
square meters of housing, kilometres of roads, etc.), and describes the total or partial destruction of physical assets,
the disruption of basic services and damages to sources of livelihood in the affected area.
Disaster impact is the total effect, including negative effects (e.g., economic losses) and positive effects (e.g.,
economic gains), of a hazardous event or a disaster. The term includes economic, human and environmental impacts,
and may include death, injuries, disease and other negative effects on human physical, mental and social well-being.
A disaster is a result of the combination of hazard, vulnerability and insufficient capacity to reduce the potential
chances of risk.

1.2. What is a Hazard?

The word ‘hazard’ owes its origin to the word ‘hasard’ in old French and ‘az-zahr’ in Arabic meaning ‘chance’ or
‘luck’. Hazard may be defined as “a dangerous condition or event, that threat or have the potential for causing injury
to life or damage to property or the environment.”
Any hazard – flood, earthquake or cyclone along with greater vulnerability (inadequate access to resources, sick and
old people, lack of awareness etc.) would lead to disaster causing greater loss to life and property.
For example; an earthquake in an uninhabited desert cannot be considered a disaster, no matter how strong the
intensities produced. An earthquake is disastrous only when it affects people, their properties and activities. Thus,
disaster occurs only when hazards and vulnerability meet. Also, with greater capacity of the individual/community
and environment to face these disasters, the impact of a hazard reduces.
Difference between Natural Hazard and Disaster
Hazard Disaster
Hazard is a threat. A hazard is a dangerous Disaster is an event. It is a calamity or tragedy or a consequence
physical condition or event. of a hazard. Natural hazards that cause great loss to human life
and economy are called disasters and catastrophes. A disaster
disrupts the normal function of the society.
Earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruption, It causes damage to property and loss of life but it also disrupts
landslides, droughts etc. are called natural the opportunities of employment.
hazards before they cause great loss of life and
damage to property.
Small numbers of people are affected. A large number of people are affected.
It may cause injury, loss of life or damage of It causes wide spread loss to life and property.
property.
Earthquakes, floods, volcanoes, tsunami, land It affects the society to such an extent that external aid
slide, drought etc. are natural hazards. becomes sate the losses.
1.3. What is Vulnerability?

Vulnerability may be defined as “conditions determined by physical, social, economic, and environmental factors or
processes, which increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards.”

Vulnerability may be of different forms, such as:

• Economic Vulnerability: Poorer families may live in squatter settlements because they cannot afford to live in
safer (more expensive) areas.
• Physical Vulnerability: Wooden homes which are less likely to collapse in an earthquake, but are more
vulnerable to fire.
• Social Vulnerability: When flooding occurs some citizens, such as children, elderly and differently able, may be
unable to protect themselves or evacuate if necessary.
1.4. What is Risk?
Risk is a “measure of the expected losses due to a hazard event occurring in a given area over a specific time period.
Risk is a function of the probability of particular hazardous event and the losses each would cause.”
Risk = Hazard x Vulnerability
The level of risk depends upon nature of the hazard, vulnerability of the elements which are affected and economic
value of those elements.
1.5. What is Capacity?
Capacity can be defined as the combination of all the strengths, attributes and resources available within an
organization, community or society to manage and reduce disaster risks and strengthen resilience. Capacity may
include infrastructure, institutions, human knowledge and skills, and collective attributes such as social relationships,
leadership and management.
Coping capacity is the ability of people, organizations and systems, using available skills and resources, to manage
adverse conditions, risk or disasters. The capacity to cope requires continuing awareness, resources and good
management, both in normal times as well as during disasters or adverse conditions. Coping capacities contribute to
the reduction of disaster risks.
1.6. Classification of Disasters
Disasters can be grouped into two broad categories namely natural and manmade.
Natural disasters are disasters which are caused because of natural phenomena (meteorological, geological or even
biological origin). Examples of natural disasters are cyclones, tsunamis, earthquake and volcanic eruption which are
exclusively of natural origin. Landslides, floods, drought, fires are socio-natural disasters since their causes are both
natural and manmade. For example flooding may be caused because of heavy rains, landslide or blocking of drains
with human waste.
Manmade disasters are disasters which occur due to human negligence. These are associated with industries or
energy generation facilities and include explosions, leakage of toxic waste, pollution, dam failure, wars or civil strife
etc. Many occur frequently while others take place occasionally. However, on the basis of their genesis, they can be
categorized as follows:
1.7. Disaster Management Cycle
Disaster Risk Management includes sum total of all activities, programmes and measures which can be taken up
before, during and after a disaster.
A typical disaster management continuum consists of:
• A Pre-disaster risk management phase which includes prevention, mitigation and preparedness.
• Post-disaster crisis management phase which includes relief, response, rehabilitation, reconstruction and
recovery.

The three key stages of activities that are taken up within disaster risk management are:
1. Before a disaster (pre-disaster)
It includes activities taken to reduce human and property
losses caused by a potential hazard. For example-carrying
out awareness campaigns, strengthening the existing
weak structures, preparation of the disaster management
plans at household and community level etc. Such risk
reduction measures taken under this stage are termed as
mitigation and preparedness activities.
2. During a disaster (disaster occurrence)
Initiatives taken to ensure that the needs and provisions
of victims are met and suffering is minimized. Activities
taken under this stage are called emergency response
activities.
3. After a disaster (post-disaster)
Initiatives taken in response to a disaster with a purpose
to achieve early recovery and rehabilitation of affected
communities, immediately after a disaster strikes. These are called as response and recovery activities.

CHAPTER–2
2. Disaster Management in India
2.1. Background
Disaster management in India has evolved from an activity-based reactive setup to a proactive institutionalized
structure and from a relief-based approach to a ‘multi-dimensional pro-active holistic approach for reducing risk’.
In the pre-Independence era, the policy was relief oriented and relief departments were set up for emergencies
during disasters. Activities included designing the relief codes and initialising food for work programmes. Post-
Independence, the task for managing disasters continued to rest with the Relief Commissioners in each state, who
functioned under the Central Relief Commissioner, with their role limited to delegation of relief material and money
in the affected areas.
A permanent and institutionalised setup began in the decade of 1990s with setting up of a disaster management cell
under the Ministry of Agriculture, following the declaration of the decade of 1990 as the ‘International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction’ (IDNDR) by the UN General Assembly. Following a series of disasters such as Latur
Earthquake (1993), Malpa Landslide (1994), Orissa Super Cyclone (1999) and Bhuj Earthquake (2001), a high
powered Committee under the Chairmanship of Mr. J.C. Pant, Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture was constituted.
Consequently, the disaster management division was shifted under the Ministry of Home Affairs in 2002 and a
hierarchical structure for disaster management evolved in India.
The Tenth Five-Year Plan document also had, for the first time, a detailed chapter on Disaster Management. The
Twelfth Finance Commission was also mandated to review the financial arrangements for Disaster Management.
Paradigm Shift in Disaster Management
On 23rd December 2005, the Government of India (GoI) enacted the Disaster Management Act, 2005, which
envisaged the creation of the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), State Disaster Management
Authorities (SDMAs) and District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs), to adopt a holistic and integrated
approach to Disaster Management. This acted as a paradigm shift, from the erstwhile relief-centric response to a
proactive prevention, mitigation and preparedness-driven approach to minimise loss of life, livelihood and
property.
2.2. National Disaster Management Act, 2005
The National Disaster Management Act, 2005 lays down institutional, legal, financial and coordination mechanisms
at the National, State, District and Local levels. The Act provides for the setting up of NDMA at national level, and,
the SDMA at the state level and the DDMAs at the district level.
The primary responsibility for management of disaster rests with the State Government concerned. The
institutional mechanism put in place at the Centre, State and District levels helps states to manage disasters in an
effective manner.
2.2.1. Institutional Framework at National Level
Disaster Management Division, Ministry of Home Affairs: The overall coordination of disaster management vests
with the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA). The Disaster Management Division is responsible for response, relief and
preparedness for natural calamities and man-made disasters (except drought and epidemics).
On behalf of the Central Government, DM Division in the Ministry of Home Affairs co-ordinates with disaster
affected State Governments, concerned line ministries/departments, National Disaster Management Authority
(NDMA), National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) and the
Directorate General of Fire Services, Home Guards and Civil Defence, and Armed Forces for effective disaster risk
reduction.

National Executive Committee

It acts as the coordinating and
monitoring body for disaster
management. It is chaired by the Union
Home Secretary and comprises of
Secretary level officers from the
Ministries and departments having
control of agriculture, atomic energy,
defence, drinking water supply,
environment and forests, finance
(expenditure), health, power, rural
development, science and technology,
space, telecommunications, urban
development and water resources. The
Chief of Integrated Defence Staff of the
Chiefs of Staff Committee, ex-officio, is
also its member.
The NEC will coordinate response in the event of any threatening disaster situation or disaster where central
assistance is needed. The NEC may give directions to the relevant Ministries/Departments of the GoI, the State
Governments, and the State Authorities regarding measures to be taken by them in response to any specific
threatening disaster situation or disaster as per needs of the State.
[UPSC Question: Comment on the following in not more than 50 words: Composition and functions of the
National Executive Committee of the National Disaster Management Authority. (2011)]
The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) and the National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) are the key
committees involved in the top-level decision-making with regard to disaster management. The Cabinet Committee
on Management of Natural Calamities was discontinued in 2014.
Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS)
The CCS deals with issues related to defence of the country, law and order, and internal security, policy matters
concerning foreign affairs that have internal or external security implications, and economic and political issues
impinging on national security. CCS will be involved in the decision making if the disaster has serious security
implications.
National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC)
The NCMC deals with major crises that have serious or national ramifications. These include incidents such as those
requiring close involvement of the security forces and/or intelligence agencies such as terrorism (counter-
insurgency), law and order situations, serial bomb blasts, hijacking, air accidents, CBRN, weapon systems, mine
disasters, port and harbour emergencies, forest fires, oilfield fires, and oil spills.
National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (NPDRR)
The Government of India recognized the need to evolve a participatory process of decision making with active
involvement of the Central & State Governments and other stakeholders including people representing different
interests in the field of disaster management. Accordingly, a multi-stakeholder and multi-sectoral National Platform
for Disaster Risk Reduction (NPDRR) was constituted.
The NPDRR is chaired by the Union Home Minister and Minister of State in- charge of Disaster Management in the
Ministry of Home Affairs and Vice-Chairman, National Disaster Management Authority is Vice-Chairperson of NPDRR.
Special Secretary/Additional Secretary in-charge of Disaster Management Division in the Ministry of Home Affairs
will be the convener of NPDRR. It performs the following functions:

• To review the progress made in the field of disaster management from time to time
• To appraise the extent and manner in which the Disaster Management Policy has been implemented by the
Central and State Governments, and other concerned agencies, and to give appropriate advice in the matter
• To advise regarding coordination between the Central and State Governments/UT Administrations, local
Governments and civil society organisations for development of Disaster Risk Reduction
• To advise suo-moto or on a reference made by the Central Government or any State Government or a Union
Territory Administration on any question pertaining to disaster management.
• To review the Disaster Management Policy
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
The NDMA, is the apex body for disaster management, which has the responsibility for laying down the policies,
plans, and guidelines for disaster management. The guidelines of NDMA assist the Central Ministries, Departments,
and States to formulate their respective Disaster Management (DM) plans. The NDMA has the mandate to deal with
all types of disasters – natural or human-induced.
• It approves the National Disaster Management Plans and plans of the Central Ministries / Departments.
• The general superintendence, direction, and control of the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) are vested
in and are exercised by the NDMA.
• The National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) works within the framework of broad policies and
guidelines laid down by the NDMA.
• NDMA has the power to authorise the Departments or authorities, to make emergency procurement of
materials for rescue and relief in a threatening disaster situation or disaster.
• It takes such other measures, as it may consider necessary, for the prevention of disasters, or mitigation, or
preparedness and capacity building, for dealing with a threatening disaster situation or disaster.
• It oversees the provision and application of funds for mitigation and preparedness measures.
Other emergencies such as terrorism (counter-insurgency), law and order situations, hijacking, air accidents, CBRN
(Chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear) weapon systems, which require the close involvement of the security
forces and/or intelligence
agencies, and other incidents
such as mine disasters, port and
harbour emergencies, forest fires,
oilfield fires and oil spills are
handled by the National Crisis
Management Committee
(NCMC).
NDMA Advisory Committee
The 15-member Advisory
Committee under NDMA consists
of experts from various areas of
Disaster Management and allied
disciplines and has
representatives from academia,
governments, Non-Governmental
Organisations (NGOs) and civil
society members.
National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)

The National Institute of Disaster Management is the nodal agency responsible for human resource development,
capacity building, training, research, documentation and policy advocacy in the field of disaster management.

• The NIDM has built strategic partnerships with various ministries and departments of the central, state, and
local governments, academic, research and technical organizations in India and abroad and other bi-lateral and
multi-lateral international agencies.
• It provides technical support to the state governments through the Disaster Management Centres (DMCs) in the
Administrative Training Institutes (ATIs) of the States and Union Territories.
• Presently it is supporting as many as 30 such centres. Six of them are being developed as Centres of Excellence in
the specialised areas of risk management – flood, earthquake, cyclone, drought, landslides, and industrial
disasters.
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)
The NDRF is a specialist response force that can be deployed in a threatening disaster situation or disaster. The
general superintendence, direction and control of this force is vested in and exercised by the NDMA and the
command and supervision of the Force vests in the Director General of National Disaster Response Force.
At present, National Disaster Response Force consists of 12 battalions, three each from the BSF and CRPF and two
each from CISF, ITBP and SSB. Each battalion has 18 self-contained specialist search and rescue teams of 45
personnel each including engineers, technicians, electricians, dog squads and medical/paramedics. At present, each
Battalion consists of 1149 personnel.
The “proactive availability” of this Force to the States and its “pre-positioning” in threatening disaster situations has
immensely helped minimise damage, caused due to calamities in the country.
• The first major test of disaster for NDRF was Kosi Floods in 2008. The situation was handled by the NDRF on a war
footing by sending flood rescue trained to the five flood affected districts with utmost promptitude. As a result,
over 1,00,000 affected people were rescued during the initial stage itself. The prompt and timely response of
NDRF was appreciated by the then Chief Minister of Bihar.
• In the 2015 earthquake in Nepal (magnitude 7.8) India’s National Disaster Response Force made the headlines by
capitalizing the golden hours’ rule of disaster management by being the first on the ground. In the rescue
operations, the personnel of NDRF pulled out 11 live victims out of a total figure of 16.
• NDRF has also acquired considerable expertise in facing CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological & Nuclear)
challenges. The creditable task of NDRF in retrieving Cobalt-60 radiological material at Mayapuri, Delhi, during
April and May 2010 has been an acid test of NDRF's CBRN capability.
2.2.2. Institutional Framework at State Level
As per the DM Act of 2005, each state in India shall
have its own institutional framework for disaster
management and shall prepare its own Disaster
Management Plan. The DM Act, mandates that each
State Government shall take necessary steps for
integration of measures for prevention of disasters or
mitigation into state development plans, allocation of
funds, and establish Early Warning Systems.
Depending on specific situations and needs, the State
Government shall also assist the Central Government
and central agencies in various aspects of Disaster
Management.
The DM Act, 2005 mandates the setting of a State
Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) with the
Chief Minister as the ex officio Chairperson. Similar
system will function in each Union Territory with
Lieutenant Governor as the Chairperson.

State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)

As per the DM Act, each State Government shall establish a State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) with the
Chief Minister as the Chairperson. In case of other UTs, the Lieutenant Governor or the Administrator shall be the
Chairperson of that Authority. For the UT of Delhi, the Lieutenant Governor and the Chief Minister shall be the
Chairperson and Vice-Chairperson respectively of the State Authority. Responsibilities of the SDMA include:
▪ It lays down policies and plans for Disaster Management in the State.
▪ It approves the State DM Plan in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the NDMA.
▪ It coordinates the implementation of the state disaster management plan and recommends provision of funds
for mitigation and preparedness measures.
▪ It reviews the developmental plans of the different departments of the State to ensure the integration of
prevention, preparedness and mitigation measures.
State Executive Committee
The State Governments constitute a State Executive Committee (SEC), headed by the Chief Secretary, to assist the
SDMA in the performance of its functions. The SEC will coordinate and monitor the implementation of the National
Policy, the National Plan, and the State Plans for disaster management. It will also provide information to the NDMA
relating to different aspects of disaster management.
2.2.3. Institutional Framework at District Level
District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)
At the district level, District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA), headed by the District Collector/District
Magistrate, is responsible for overall coordination of the disaster management efforts and planning.
• As per provisions of the Act, each State Government establishes a District Disaster Management Authority for
every district in the State.
• The DDMA is headed by the District Collector with the elected representative of the local authority as the Co-
Chairperson.
• The State Government appoints an officer not below the rank of Additional Collector/Additional District
Magistrate of the district to be the Chief Executive Officer of the District Disaster Management Authority.
• The DDMA prepares the Disaster Management plan for the District and monitors its implementation.
• It also ensures that the guidelines laid down by the NDMA and the SDMA are followed by all the district-level
offices.
Local Authorities
Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI), Municipalities, District and Cantonment Boards, and Town Planning Authorities,
which control and manage civic services ensure capacity building of their employees for managing disasters, carrying
out relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction activities in the affected areas. They also prepare their disaster
management plans as per the national and state guidelines.
Strengthening of State Disaster Management Authorities and District Disaster Mangement Authorities
Ministry of Home Affairs has sanctioned the scheme to improve the effectiveness of all SDMAs and selected DDMAs
and to make them functionally operational by providing dedicated disaster management professionals. The scheme
is implemented by the Scheme Implementation unit (SIU) at NDMA.
2.2.4. Financial Arrangements under NDM Act, 2005
National Disaster Response Fund
It is a fund managed by the Central Government for meeting the expenses for emergency response, relief and
rehabilitation due to any threatening disaster situation. In the event of a calamity, if the requirement of funds for
relief operations is beyond the funds available in the State Disaster Response Fund account, additional Central
assistance is provided from National Disaster Response Fund. The National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF)

introduced by 11th Finance Commission was merged with NDRF.

State Disaster Response Fund
The SDRF is used only for meeting the expenditure for providing immediate relief to the victims of disasters. The
state-specific disasters within the local context in the State, which are not included in the notified list of disasters,
are also eligible for assistance from State Disaster Response Fund.
National Disaster Response Fund and State Disaster Response Fund have provision for Gratuitous Relief, Search and
Rescue ops, Relief measures, Air dropping of essential supplies, Emergency supply of drinking water, Clearance of
affected area, including management of debris, Agriculture, Animal husbandry, fishery, Handicraft, artisans, Repair/
Restoration (of immediate nature) of damaged Infrastructure and Capacity development.
National Disaster Mitigation Fund
The National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF) has not been set up. The Government feels that at present there are
sufficient schemes to take care of mitigation measures in different projects and the need for creation of separate
NDMF has not been felt.
The objective of creation of National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF) is for the projects exclusively for the purpose
of mitigation which is being served by the existing Centrally Sponsored Schemes / Central Sector (CS) Schemes such
as Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana, National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture, Namami Gange-National Ganga
plan, River Basin Management, National River Conservation Plan and Water Resource Management.
National Disaster Response Reserve
The 13th Finance commission recommended for creation of a National Disaster Response reserve (NDRR) with a
corpus of Rs.250 crore to meet the immediate requirement of relief material/equipment after a disaster. The
purpose of creating National Disaster Response Reserve (NDRR) is to mitigate the sufferings of the victims of the
disaster which are beyond the coping capacity of the States.
14th Finance Commission on Fund Mobilisation for DM
The Finance Commission is required to review the arrangements regarding financing of Disaster Management funds
as envisaged in the Disaster Management Act, 2005.
Recommendations of the fourteenth Finance Commission are:
• It recommended that up to 10 percent of the funds available under the SDRF can be used by a State for
occurrences which State considers to be ‘disasters’ within its local context and which are not in the notified list
of disasters of the Ministry of Home Affairs.
• As the financing of NDRF has so far been almost wholly through the levy of cess on select items, it recommended
that Union Government must ensure an assured source of funding for NDRF once the various cess and levies
were subsumed under the GST.
• The FFC recommended an allocation of Rs 55,000 crores to all states under the Disaster Management head.
2.2.5. Drawbacks of the National Disaster Management Act, 2005
The implementation of the National Disaster Act, 2005 has been slow, and slack. There was a seven year delay,
from 2006 to 2013, in finalising the National Plan on Disaster Management which was finally released in 2016. The
act has been criticized for marginalizing Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), elected local representatives,
local communities and civic groups. It has also been accused of fostering a hierarchical, bureaucratic, command and
control, 'top down', approach that gives the central, state, and district authorities sweeping powers.
A performance audit report of the disaster management mechanism in the country by was released by the
Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India in 2013. The CAG report highlighted several other loopholes in the
functioning of NDMA.

• It said none of the major projects taken up by NDMA was complete. The projects were either abandoned
midway or were being redesigned because of initial poor planning.
• As per the CAG report, NDMA has also not been performing several functions such as recommending provision
of funds for the purpose of mitigation and recommending relief in repayment of loans.
• It also highlighted that several critical posts in NDMA were vacant and consultants were used for day to day
working.
The Public Accounts Committee submitted its report on ‘Disaster Preparedness in India’ in December 2015. It made
the following observations:
• Under the Act, the National Executive Committee is required to meet at least once in three months. However, it
was found that the committee met infrequently even when there had been disasters, such as the 2007 floods in
West Bengal and the 2008 stampede in Rajasthan.
• The centre, states and districts had not constituted Mitigation Funds which could be utilised for disaster
preparedness, restoration, etc.
• Various projects undertaken for strengthening the communications network for disaster management were
either at the planning stage, or were delayed.
The CAG report summary suggested that against a target of installing 219 telemetry stations (flood forecasting
instrument) between 2012 and 2017, only 56 had been installed as of August 2016 and 59% of the existing
telemetry stations were non-functional.
• 27% posts in the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) were vacant. The NDRF’s training institute, the
National Institute of Disaster Response, had not been established, though it had been approved in 2006.
2.3. National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009
NDMA came up with a ‘National Policy on Disaster Management’ (NPDM) in 2009. It is prepared with the vision “To
build a safe and disaster resilient India by developing a holistic, proactive, multi-disaster oriented and technology
driven strategy through a culture of prevention, mitigation, preparedness and response”.
Disaster Management is a multidisciplinary activity which is to be performed with cohesive synergy among all
stakeholders. The National Policy on Disaster Management provides for an integrated approach for management
with emphasis on building strategic partnerships at various levels.
Objectives of the National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009
• Promoting a culture of prevention, preparedness and resilience at all levels through knowledge, innovation and education.
• Encouraging mitigation measures based on technology, traditional wisdom and environmental sustainability.
• Mainstreaming disaster management into the developmental planning process.
• Establishing institutional and techno-legal frameworks to create an enabling regulatory environment and a compliance
regime.
• Ensuring efficient mechanism for identification, assessment and monitoring of disaster risks.
• Developing contemporary forecasting and early warning systems backed by responsive and fail-safe communication with
information technology support.
• Ensuring efficient response and relief with a caring approach towards the needs of the vulnerable sections of the society.
• Undertaking reconstruction as an opportunity to build disaster resilient structures and habitat for ensuring safer living.
• Promoting a productive and proactive partnership with the media for disaster management.
It places an enabling environment for all and addresses the concerns of all the sections of the society including
differently abled persons, women, children and other disadvantaged groups.
It also aims to bring in transparency and accountability in all aspects of disaster management through involvement of
community, community based organizations, Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), local bodies and civil society.
2.4. The National Disaster Management Plan, 2016
The Government of India, for the first time, released its first National Disaster Management Plan in 2016. The Vision
of the Plan is to “Make India disaster resilient, achieve substantial disaster risk reduction, and significantly decrease
the losses of life, livelihoods, and assets – economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental – by maximizing the

ability to cope with disasters at all levels of administration as well as among communities."
It has been aligned broadly with the goals and priorities set out in the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction, the Sustainable Development Goals 2015-2030 and the Paris Agreement on Climate Change at COP-21.
While Sendai framework is the first international agreement adopted within the context of post 2015 development
agenda, the Sustainable Development Goals also recognize the importance of disaster risk reduction as integral to
sustainable development. The Paris Agreement notes the urgent need to take into account the increasing frequency
of extreme weather events due to global climate change.
Major highlights of the Plan
• For each hazard, the approach used in this national plan incorporates the four priorities enunciated in the Sendai
Framework into the planning framework for Disaster Risk Reduction under the five Thematic Areas for Actions:
✓ Understanding Risk
✓ Inter-Agency Coordination
✓ Investing in DRR – Structural Measures
✓ Investing in DRR – Non-Structural Measures
✓ Capacity Development
It covers all phases of disaster management: Prevention, Mitigation, Response and Recovery and covers human
induced disasters like chemical, nuclear etc. It plans for short medium and long run respectively 5, 10, and 15
years to deal with disasters.
• Integrating approach with role clarity
✓ It provides for horizontal and vertical integration among all the agencies and departments of the
Government and also spells out the roles and responsibilities of all levels of Government right up to
Panchayat and Urban local body level in a matrix format.
✓ Ministries are given role for specific disasters e.g. Ministry of Earth Sciences is responsible for Cyclones
✓ The plan has a regional approach, which will be beneficial not only for disaster management but also for
development planning.
✓ It is designed in such a way that it can be implemented in a scalable manner in all phases of disaster
management.
• Major activities
✓ It identifies major activities such as early warning, information dissemination, medical care, fuel,
transportation, search and rescue, evacuation, etc. to serve as a checklist for agencies responding to a
disaster.
✓ It also provides a generalised framework for recovery and offers flexibility to assess a situation and build
back better.
• Information & media regulation
✓ To prepare communities to cope with disasters, it emphasises on a greater need for Information, Education
and Communication activities.
✓ It calls for ethical guidelines for the media for coverage of disasters as well as self-regulation.
✓ The plan wants the media to respect the dignity and privacy of affected people.
✓ Also, in a move aimed to stop rumours and spread of panic, the plan directed the authorities to schedule
regular media briefing (depending on the severity of the disaster) and designate a nodal officer for
interacting with the media on behalf of the government
• It lays focus on training, capacity building and incorporating best international practices.
Significance of the NDMP
• It provides a framework and direction to the government agencies for all phases of disaster management cycle.
• It recognizes the need to minimize, if not eliminate, any ambiguity in the responsibility framework. It, therefore,
specifies who is responsible for what at different stages of managing disasters.
• It is envisaged as ready for activation at all times in response to an emergency in any part of the country.

• It is designed in such a way that it can be implemented as needed on a flexible and scalable manner in all phases
of disaster management:
✓ Mitigation (prevention and risk reduction),
✓ Preparedness,
✓ Response and
✓ Recovery (immediate restoration to build-back better).
Shortcomings of National Disaster Management Plan, 2006
The National Disaster Management Plan, 2006 is devoid of many important elements that make a good and robust
action plan.
Drawbacks
▪ It fails to lay down a clear and practical roadmap. It is too generic in its identification of the activities to be
undertaken by the central and states governments for disaster risk mitigation, preparedness, response,
recovery, reconstruction, and governance.
▪ The plan refrains from providing a time frame for undertaking these activities beyond vaguely prescribing that
these must be taken up in short, medium, mid- and long-term basis.
▪ The plan does not project the requirement of funds needed for undertaking these activities, nor does it provide
any clue as to how funds shall be mobilised for this purpose.
▪ The plan further does not provide any framework for monitoring and evaluation of the plan.
▪ The plan is aligned with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and Sustainable Development Goals,
but unlike in the Sendai Framework or the SDGs, the plan does not set any goals or targets, nor does it spell
out how the Sendai goals and targets shall be achieved.
Therefore, the national plan needs to be supplemented by national roadmaps for disaster resilience with clear goals,
targets, timeframe, and ideas about how resources shall be mobilised for its implementation.
2.5. Disaster Management Cycle in India
2.5.1. Reducing Risk and Enhancing Resilience
In the terminology adopted by
the UNISDR, the concept and
practice of reducing disaster
risks involve systematic efforts
to analyse and manage the
causal factors of disasters,
including through reduced
exposure to hazards, lessened
vulnerability of people and
property, wise management of
land and the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse events. The DM Act 2005 defines "Mitigation" as
measures aimed at reducing the risk, impact, or effects of a disaster or threatening disaster situation. Following
Picture depicts Prime Minister's ten point agenda on Disaster Risk Reduction
The National Policy suggests a multipronged approach for disaster risk reduction and mitigation consisting of the
following:
• Integrating risk reduction measures into all development projects.
• Initiating mitigation projects in identified high priority areas through joint efforts of the Central and State
Governments.
• Encouraging and assisting State level mitigation projects.
• Paying attention to indigenous knowledge on disaster and coping mechanisms.
• Giving due weightage to the protection of heritage structures.

The guiding principles of Sendai Framework state that disaster risk reduction requires responsibilities to be shared by
different divisions of governments and various agencies. The effectiveness in disaster risk reduction will depend on
coordination mechanisms within and across sectors and with relevant stakeholders at all levels. For each hazard, the
approach used in the national plan incorporates the four priorities enunciated in the Sendai Framework into the
planning framework for Disaster Risk Reduction under the five thematic areas for action:
1. Understanding Risk: It focuses on understanding risk and is a priority 1 under Sendai Framework. It involves a)
Observation Networks, Research, Forecasting, b) Zoning / Mapping, c) Monitoring and Warning Systems, d)
Hazard Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (HRVA), and e) Dissemination of Warnings, Data, and Information.
Having adequate systems to provide warnings, disseminate information are an integral part of improving the
understanding of risk.
2. Inter-Agency Coordination: Inter-agency coordination is a key component of strengthening the disaster risk
governance. The major areas where improvement in top level interagency coordination is required are: a) Overall
disaster governance b) Response c) Providing warnings, information, and data and d) Non-structural measures.
3. Investing in DRR – Structural Measures: Undertaking necessary structural measures is one of the major areas for
action for disaster risk reduction and enhancing resilience. These consist of various physical infrastructure and
facilities required to help communities cope with disasters.
4. Investing in DRR – Non-Structural Measures: Sets of appropriate laws, mechanisms, and techno-legal regimes
are crucial components in strengthening the disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk. These non-
structural measures comprise of laws, norms, rules, guidelines, and techno-legal regime (e.g., building codes)
etc. and empower the authorities to mainstream disaster risk reduction and disaster resilience into development
activities.
5. Capacity Development: The capacity development includes training programs, curriculum development, large-
scale awareness creation efforts, and carrying out regular mock drills and disaster response exercises.
Hazard-wise Responsibility Matrices for Disaster Risk Mitigation have been developed and relevant stakeholders
have been identified.
Sustainable Reduction in Disaster Risk in 10 Multi-Hazard Districts
To build the capacity of the most hazardous districts in the most vulnerable states, the Government of India has
launched a project on sustainably reducing disaster risks in two districts each in five identified states (Uttarakhand,
Assam, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir)
2.5.2. Disaster Preparedness and Response
Response measures are those taken immediately after receiving early warning from the relevant authority or
immediately after the occurrence of an event. It is considered as the most visible phase amongst various phases of
disaster management. Response includes not only those activities that directly address the immediate needs, such
as search and rescue, first aid and temporary shelters, but also rapid mobilization of various systems necessary to
coordinate and support the efforts.
Preparedness, as defined by UNISDR, consist of “the knowledge and capacities developed by governments,
professional response and recovery organizations, communities and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to,
and recover from, the impacts of likely, imminent or current hazard events or conditions.” Based on the
preparedness, the response process begins as soon as it becomes apparent that a disastrous event is imminent and
lasts until the disaster is declared to be over.
No single agency or department can handle a disaster situation of any scale alone. There are specific tasks, roles and
responsibilities in the domain of response, which is the most critical and time-sensitive aspect of disaster
management.
The institutional arrangements for the response system consist of the following elements:
a) Nodal Central Ministries with disaster-specific responsibilities for national-level coordination of the response and
mobilization of all the necessary resources.

b) Central agencies with disaster-specific responsibilities for Early Warning Systems and alerts.
c) National Disaster Response Force (NDRF).
d) State Disaster Response Force (SDRF).
National Early Warning System
The GoI has designated specific agencies to monitor the onset of different natural disasters, set up adequate Early
Warning Systems (EWS), and disseminate necessary warnings/ alerts regarding any impending hazard. These
agencies provide inputs to the MHA, which will issue alerts and warnings through various communication channels.
Role of Central Agencies/Departments

The National Emergency Operations Centre (NEOC) will act as the communication and coordination hub during this
phase and it will maintain constant touch with early warning agencies for updated inputs. It will inform State
Emergency Operations Centre (SEOC) and District Emergency Operations Centre (DEOC). The DM Division of the
MHA will communicate and coordinate with designated early warning agencies, various nodal Ministries, and State
Governments.
Coordination of Response at National Level
At the national level,
the Central
Government has
assigned nodal
responsibilities to
specific Ministries for
coordinating disaster-
specific responses. At
the national level, the
Central Government
has assigned nodal
responsibilities to
specific Ministries for
coordinating disaster-
specific responses.
The NEC will
coordinate response in
the event of any
threatening disaster
situation or disaster.

Relief Measures
It is essential that the first responders and relief reach the affected areas in the shortest possible time. Often, there
are inordinate delays due to real constraints imposed by the location, nature of disaster and, most regrettably, due to
inadequate preparedness. Relief tends to arrive in a highly fragmented or uncoordinated form with multiple
organisations acting independently of each other without a cohesive plan or mechanism to avoid overlaps and
without proper prioritization of different aspects of relief such as shelter, clothing, food, or medicine.
NDMA guidelines on Minimum Standards of Relief
NDMA has prescribed guidelines on minimum standard of relief, which include the following:
1. State/District Administration must pre-identify locations and buildings like schools, anganwadi centres which
can be used as relief shelters. Advance MoUs can be made with suppliers for provision of tents/toilets/urinals
etc.
2. Special care and arrangements must be made for women, children, old and differently abled persons. A
minimum area of 3.5 sq. m/person with lighting facilities must be made available.
3. Men and women must be supplied food with minimum calorie intake of 2,400 Kcal/day. Minimum supply of 3
litres water per person per day must be ensured.
4. Maintenance of Hygiene must be ensured at camps with provision of sufficient water for personal cleanliness.
Drainage from toilets should not run towards any surface water source.
5. Mobile medical teams should visit the camps regularly and arrangements for safe delivery should be made for
pregnant women.
6. Death certificate of spouse for widows should be issued within 15 days of the disaster by the district
administration and necessary financial assistance must be arranged within 45 days.
7. Relief centres should be temporary and closed as soon as normalcy returns in the area.
Fire and Emergency Services
FES is one of the first responders during the Golden Hour after a disaster and plays a vital role in saving lives and
property. The primary role of Fire and Emergency Service (FES) is of responding to fire incidents. However, besides
fire fighting, FES attends to other emergencies such as building collapse, road traffic accidents, human and animal
rescue, and several other emergency calls.
At present, States and UTs, and ULBs are managing the FES. However, there is no standardization with regard to the
scaling of equipment, the type of equipment, or the training of their staff. Each State it has own standards according
to the initiatives taken by the States and the funds provided for the FES.
2.5.3. Disaster Risk Governance
From the mid-2000s onwards, governance was commonly accepted as the crux of Disaster Risk Reduction. Disaster
risk governance is the way in which public authorities, civil servants, media, private sector, and civil society
cooperate at various levels in order to manage and reduce disaster related risks.
This requires ensuring sufficient levels of capacity and resources available to prevent and prepare for disasters. It
also entails institutions and processes for citizens to articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights and
obligations, and mediate their differences.
The Sendai Framework states that disaster risk governance at different levels is of great importance for an effective
and efficient management of disaster risk. The Sendai Framework lays emphasis on the following to strengthen
disaster risk governance:
a) Mainstream and integrate disaster risk reduction within and across all sectors. It must guide both the public and
private sectors and clearly spell out the roles and responsibilities. Mechanisms and initiatives for increasing
disaster risk transparency must be encouraged.
b) Adopt and implement disaster risk reduction strategies and plans, across different levels (local to national) and
timescales to the strengthen resilience – economic, social, health and environmental.

c) Carry out assessment of disaster risk management capacity to deal with the identified risks at different levels
d) Promote necessary mechanisms and incentives to ensure high levels of compliance with the safety-enhancing
provisions.
e) Periodically review and assess the progress on various DM plans as well as encourage institutional debates,
including by parliamentarians and relevant officials, on DRR plans. Also establish grievance redress mechanisms.
f) Assign clear roles and tasks to community representatives within disaster risk management
g) Establish and strengthen government coordination forums composed of relevant stakeholders at the national
and local levels, such as national and local platforms for disaster risk reduction.
h) Work with parliamentarians and other elected representatives for disaster risk reduction by developing or
amending relevant legislation and setting budget allocations
i) Promote the development of quality standards, such as certifications and awards for disaster risk management.
2.5.4. Recovery and Build Back Better (BBB)
Globally, the approach towards post-disaster restoration and rehabilitation has shifted to one of betterment
reconstruction. The recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction phase is seen as an opportunity to “Build Back
Better” (BBB) and integrate disaster risk reduction into development measures, making communities resilient to
disasters.
The approach to re-construction and recovery in India is guided by the National Policy on Disaster Management
2009. It states that:
• the reconstruction process has to be comprehensive. Incorporating disaster resilient features to ‘build back
better’ will be the guiding principle.
• Reconstruction plans and designing of houses need to be a participatory process involving the government,
affected community, NGOs and the corporate sector. While owner driven construction is a preferred option,
participation of the NGOs and corporate sector will be encouraged.
• Essential services, social infrastructure and intermediate shelters/camps will be established in the shortest
possible time.
• the plans for reconstruction in highly disaster prone areas need to be drawn out during the period of normalcy,
which may include architectural and structural designs in consultation with the various stakeholders.
Recovery Process
According to UNISDR (2009), recovery is the restoration, and improvement of facilities, livelihoods and living
conditions of disaster-affected communities. It includes efforts to reduce disaster risk factors.
Three recovery stages, in which appropriate policies and programmes tend to be planned and implemented are: a)
Early, b) Mid-Term, and c) Long-Term.

Major Steps of the recovery

The major steps of the recovery process and the key steps involved are as follows:
1. Post-Disaster Needs Assessment: It includes credible damage assessment led by government and assisted by
humanitarian response agencies. A qualitative and quantitative baseline assessment is made for damage, loss
and needs across sectors.
2. Developing a vision for Build-Back Better: Wider consultations with experts, civil society and key stakeholders are
done and consensus is arrived at.
3. Ensure Coherence of BBB with the development goals: Discussions at the top level must be done to align the
recovery vision with government's broader longer term development goals.
4. Incorporating resilience in recovery vision: It involves consultations on disaster resistant physical recovery,
addressing gender and equity concerns, vulnerability reduction etc.
5. Balancing recovery across sectors: Public and private sector programs should be balanced. Infrastructure
reconstruction should be prioritized while showing sensitivity to affected population.
6. Prioritising Sectors for recovery: Determine relative importance of various sectors such as housing, water and
sanitation, governance, transport, power, communications, infrastructure, environment, livelihoods, tourism,
social protection, health, and education.
Reconstruction
Long term recovery efforts must focus on redeveloping and restoring the socio-economic viability of the disaster
area(s). The reconstruction phase requires a substantial commitment of time and resources by the Governments
(State and Central) and other agencies. These reconstruction efforts include:
• Reconstruction of public infrastructures and social services damaged by the disaster, which can be completed
over the long-term
• Re-establishment of adequate housing to replace that has been destroyed
• Restoration of jobs/ livelihood that was lost
• Restoration of the economic base of the disaster areas
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation is defined as a strategy of institutional reform and improvement of infrastructure and services aimed
towards supporting the affected populations. Generally, rehabilitation package includes total reconstruction of
damaged physical and psychological infrastructure, as well as economic and social rehabilitation of the people in the
affected region. The rehabilitation is classified into the following:
Physical Rehabilitation
Physical rehabilitation is a very important facet of rehabilitation. It includes:
• Reconstruction of physical infrastructure such as buildings, railways, roads, communication network, water
supply, electricity etc.
• Short-term and long-term strategies towards watershed management, canal irrigation, social forestry, crop
stabilization, alternative cropping techniques, job creation, employment generation and environmental
protection.
• Rehabilitation of agriculture, artisan work and animal husbandry.
• Adequate provision for subsidies, adherence to land-use planning, flood plain zoning, retrofitting or
strengthening of undamaged houses, and construction of model houses.
Relocation is a very sensitive part of the physical rehabilitation process and it must be ensured that need based
considerations and not extraneous factors should drive the relocation policy. Relocation efforts should consider the
following:
• Avoid secondary displacement as far as possible.
• Gain consent of the affected communities.

• Clearly define land acquisition process.

• Take into consideration urban/ rural land use planning before moving ahead.
• Provide customized relocation packages.
• As far as possible, ensure relocation site is near to their sources of livelihood,
[UPSC Question: Rehabilitation of human settlements is one of the important environmental impacts which
always attract controversy while planning major projects. Discuss the measures suggested for mitigation of this
impact while proposing major developmental projects. (2016)]
Social Rehabilitation
Social rehabilitation is also an important part of disaster rehabilitation. The vulnerable groups such as the artisans,
elderly, orphans, single women and young children would need special social support to survive the impact of
disasters. The rehabilitation plan must have components that do not lose sight of the fact that the victims have to
undergo the entire process of re-socialization and adjustments in a completely unfamiliar social milieu. Thus, this
type of rehabilitation would include various activities such as:
1. Revival of Educational Activities: Educational facilities may suffer greatly in a major disaster placing considerable
stress on children. Therefore, the following steps will be helpful in helping children to recover and cope with the
situation:
• Give regular counselling to teachers and children.
• Encourage children to attend the schools regularly.
• Provide writing material, and work books to children.
• Make children participate in all activities pertaining to resurrection of normalcy in the school.
• Try to inculcate conducive attitudes to enable the students to play a positive role in self-development.
• Establish village level education committees.
• Identify local groups that could conduct smooth functioning of education activities
2. Rehabilitation of the Elderly, Women and Children: The elderly, women, and children are more vulnerable after a
major disaster. Hence the following measures will help in their rehabilitation:
• Identify familiar environs to rehabilitate elderly, women and children.
• Make efforts to attach destitute, widows and orphans with their extended family, if that is not possible then
identify foster families.
• Organize regular counselling to strengthen the mental health of women and children.
• Initiate various training programmes to make the women economically self-sufficient.
• Give due attention to health, nutrition and hygiene in the long-term rehabilitation package for women and
children.
• Activate/reactivate the anganwadis (day-care centres), and old-age homes within the shortest possible time.
• Set up at least one multi-purpose community centre per village.
• Make efforts to build residential female children homes at the block level.
• Set up vocational training camps to improve the skills of orphans and children
• Promote self-help groups.
Economic Rehabilitation
The major components of economic rehabilitation are livelihood restoration and ensuring the continuity of trade and
commerce. Livelihood opportunities are severely disrupted by the destruction or loss of essential assets; with the
result that people are unable to engage in normal income generating activities; become demoralized and dependent
on humanitarian aid. Economic recovery should be based on:
• Analysis of existing livelihood strategies and sustainability of businesses.
• A comprehensive analysis of existing and future risks.
• The vulnerabilities of the affected families.
• The accessibility of linkages to external influences and institutions including skills and knowledge.
• Access to functioning markets.

Psychological Rehabilitation
Another crucial dimension of disaster rehabilitation is psychological rehabilitation. Dealing with victim’s psychology
is a very sensitive issue and must be dealt with caution and concern. The psychological trauma of losing relatives and
friends, and the scars of the shock of disaster event can take much longer to heal than the stakeholders in disaster
management often realize. Thus, counselling for stress management should form a continuous part of a disaster
rehabilitation plan. Efforts should be made to focus more on:
• Psycho-therapeutic health programmes
• Occupational therapy
• Debriefing and trauma care
• Tradition, values, norms, beliefs, and practices of disaster-affected people
2.5.5. Capacity Development
Capacity development covers strengthening of institutions, mechanisms, and capacities at all levels of all
stakeholders. In the domain of disaster risk management, the Sendai Framework emphasizes the need for enhancing
the technical, financial, and administrative capabilities of institutions, governments, and communities to deal with
the identified risks at different levels.
Institutions involved in CD
The National Institute for Disaster Management, in partnership with other research institutions has capacity
development as one of its major responsibilities. There are a number of renowned institutes in various States, which
are imparting training in DM. Also, the Disaster Management cells in all Administrative Training Institutes, Police
Academies, State Institutes of Rural Development, Training centres of five CAPFs from where NDRF is drawn up
(BSF, CRPF, CISF, ITBP, and SSB) and the NDRF Academy, Nagpur will contribute most significantly in developing DM
related skills. The capacity of existing institutes needs to be upgraded in accordance with regional and local
requirements and greater financial assistance is required.
National Disaster Response Force Academy, Nagpur
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) Academy at Nagpur is a premier institute to impart high class training to
NDRF and SDRF Battalions, Civil Defence Volunteers and disaster response personnel of SAARC countries in
disaster management. The existing National Civil Defence College, Nagpur will be merged into the NDRF Academy.
The Academy will conduct courses for Training of Trainers (ToT) and Master Trainers (MoT) in the areas of
Collapsed Structure Search & Rescue (CSSR), Medical First Responder (MFR), Flood Rescue, Deep Diving, Landslide,
Mountain Rescue and Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) Emergencies to the personnel of
NDRF, State Disaster Response Force (SDRF) and other stakeholders
Capacity Development of Local Bodies
The local leadership can play a big role in disaster management in all stages. The elected leaders and officials of
Panchayats and ULBs should be trained to handle different types of crises, contribute to disaster preparedness, make
proper use of available warnings, organize operations such as search, rescue, relief, medical assistance, and carry out
damage assessment. They should also have sound understanding of the needs of proper post-disaster rehabilitation.
The capabilities of the local bodies have to be developed in financial, technical, and managerial spheres. The state
level training institutes (ATI, SIDM, and others) will develop need-based training programs for the capacity
development of rural and urban local bodies.

Training Communities
Enhancing the capacity of communities, as they are the first responders to disasters, is a significant part of the
capacity development process. The Sendai Framework notes the need to build the knowledge of civil society,
communities, and volunteers on disaster risk reduction. Capacity building has to include awareness, sensitisation,
orientation, and developing skills of communities and community leaders.
[UPSC Question: How important are vulnerability and risk assessment for pre-disaster management? As an
administrator, what are key areas that you would focus on in a Disaster Management System? (2013)]

CHAPTER–3
3. Natural Hazards in India
3.1. India: Vulnerability Profile
India is one of the ten worst disaster prone countries of the world. It is vulnerable to a large number of natural, as
well as, human-made disasters on account of its unique geo-climatic and socio-economic conditions. Out of 35
states and union territories in the country, 27 of them are disaster prone.
The five distinctive
regions of the country
i.e. Himalayan region,
the alluvial plains, the
hilly part of the
peninsula, and the
coastal zone have
their own specific
problems. While on
one hand the
Himalayan region is
prone to disasters like
earthquakes and
landslides, the plain is
affected by floods
almost every year.
The desert part of the
country is affected by
droughts and famine
while the coastal zone
susceptible to
cyclones and storms.
▪ 58.6 per cent of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of moderate to very high intensity
▪ Over 40 million hectares (12%) of its land is prone to floods and river erosion
▪ Close to 5,700 kms, out of the 7,516 kms long coastline is prone to cyclones and tsunamis
▪ 68% of its cultivable area is
vulnerable to droughts
▪ Its hilly areas are at risk from
landslides and avalanches.
▪ Vulnerability to disasters/emergencies
of Chemical, Biological, Radiological
and Nuclear (CBRN) origin also exists.
Within the vulnerable groups, elderly
persons, women, children— especially
women rendered destitute, children
orphaned on account of disasters and
differently-abled persons are exposed to
higher risks.
Besides the natural factors, various human-induced activities like increasing demographic pressure, deteriorating
environmental conditions, deforestation, unscientific development, faulty agricultural practices and grazing,

unplanned urbanisation, construction of large dams on river channels etc. are also responsible for accelerated
impact and increase in frequency of disasters in the country. Building Material and Technology Promotion Council
(BMTPC) has come out with Vulnerability Atlas of India.
Economic loss due to disasters
As per World Bank, economic loss accounted for 2% of the GDP due to disasters.
3.2. Natural Disasters
3.2.1. Earthquake
What is an Earthquake?
An earthquake is the sudden shaking of the earth crust. The impact of an earthquake is sudden and there is hardly
any warning, making it impossible to predict.
Cause of Earthquake
It happens due to movements along the plates’ boundaries when the
plates ride up over the mobile mantle. When these plates contact
each other, stress arises in the crust. These stresses are classified
according to the type of movement along the plate’s boundaries:
▪ Pulling away from each other (Divergent),
▪ Pushing against one another (Convergent)and
▪ Sliding sideways relative to each other (Transform)
The areas of stress at plate boundaries which release
accumulated energy by slipping or rupturing are known as
'faults'. A rupture then occurs along the fault and the rock
rebounds under its own elastic stresses until the strain is
relieved. The fault rupture generates vibration called seismic
waves.
Earthquakes can be measures by the use of two distinctively
different scales of measurement demonstrating magnitude (by
Richter scale) and intensity (by Mercalli Scale). Although
some scientists claim ability to predict earthquakes, accurate
and exact predictions of such sudden incidents are still not
possible.
Earthquake Risk in India
Six major earthquakes have struck different parts of India over
a span of the last 15 years.
The increase in earthquake risk is due to a spurt in
developmental activities driven by urbanization, economic
development and the globalization of India’s economy. India
has highly populous cities and the constructions in these cities
are not earthquake resistant. Regulatory mechanisms are
weak, thus any earthquake striking in one of these cities would
turn into a major disaster.
Distribution Pattern of Earthquakes in India
India falls prominently on the 'Alpine - Himalayan Belt'. This belt is the line along which the Indian plate meets the
Eurasian plate. Being a convergent plate, the Indian plate is thrusting underneath the Eurasian plate at a speed of 5

cm per year. The movement gives rise to tremendous stress which keeps accumulating in the rocks and is released
from time to time in the form of earthquakes.
India has been divided into four seismic
zones according to the maximum intensity
of earthquake expected. Of these, zone V
is the most active which comprises of
whole of Northeast India, the northern
portion of Bihar, Uttarakhand, Himachal
Pradesh, J&K, Gujarat and Andaman &
Nicobar Islands. The entire Himalayan
Region is considered to be vulnerable to high intensity earthquakes of a magnitude exceeding 8.0 on the Richter
scale. Much of India lies in zone III and zone II.
Consequences of an Earthquake
Primary damage: Damage occurs to human settlement, buildings, structures and infrastructure, especially bridges,
elevated roads, railways, water towers, pipelines, electrical generating facilities. Aftershocks of an earthquake can
cause much greater damage to already weakened structures.
Secondary effects include fires, dam failure and landslides which may block water ways and also cause flooding,
landslides, Tsunami, chemical spills, breakdown of communication facilities, human loss. There is also a huge loss to
the public health system, transport and water supply in the affected areas.
Tertiary impact of earthquake includes Post Trauma Stress Disorder (PTSD), long term psychological issues, loss of
livelihood, disruption of social capital due to relocation related issues, etc.
Earthquake Hazard Mitigation
Since earthquake also destroys most of the transport and communication links, providing timely relief to the victims
becomes difficult. It is not possible to prevent the occurrence of an earthquake; hence, the next best option is to lay
emphasis on disaster preparedness and mitigation rather than curative measures.
• Earthquake monitoring centres (seismological centres) for regular monitoring and fast dissemination of
information among the people in the vulnerable areas should be established. Currently, Centre for Seismology
(CS) is the nodal agency of Government of India responsible for monitoring seismic activity in and around the
country.
• A vulnerability map of the country along with dissemination of vulnerability risk information among the people
can be done to minimize the adverse impacts.
• Planning: The Bureau of Indian Standards has published building codes and guidelines for safe construction of
buildings against earthquakes. Before the buildings are constructed the building plans have to be checked by
the Municipality, according to the laid down by-laws.
• Important buildings such as hospitals, schools and fire stations need to be upgraded by retrofitting
techniques.
• Community preparedness and public education on causes and characteristics of an earthquake and
preparedness measures is important. It can be created through sensitization and training programme for
community, by preparation of disaster management plans by schools, malls, hospitals etc. and carrying out mock
drills, by preparing documentation on lessons from previous earthquakes and widely disseminating it.
• Engineered structures: The soil type should be analysed before construction. Building structures on soft
soil should be avoided. Similar pr oblem s persist in the building s constructed on the river banks which
have alluvial soil.

• Encouraging use of Indigenous methods – Indigenous earthquake-resistant houses like the bhongas in the Kutch
Region of Gujarat, dhajji diwari buildings in Jammu & Kashmir, brick-nogged wood frame constructions in
Himachal Pradesh and ekra constructions made of bamboo in Assam are increasingly being replaced with
modern Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) buildings, often without incorporating earthquake resistant features
and without compliance to building codes and bye-laws. It is thus necessary to make use of indigenous technical
knowledge and locally available materials in the construction of earthquake-resistant buildings in suburban and
rural areas.
• Quick and effective response – Experience has shown that over 80% search and rescue is carried out by
communities itself before the intervention of specialized rescue and relief forces. Thus there is a need to give
basic training to the community members as it is always the first responder after any disaster.
• Early Earthquake Warning and Security System -Chennai-based Structural Engineering Research Centre (CSIR-
SERC), a pioneer advanced seismic testing and research laboratory under the Council of Scientific & Industrial
Research (CSIR), has completed the testing of the German-developed “Early Earthquake Warning and Security
System”, which was launched for the first time in India recently.
• A pilot project on Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) system is under implementation for northern India
(Uttarakhand) by Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee which is funded by the Ministry of Earth Sciences
(MoES).
• Insurance & Risk transfer instruments – These should be developed in collaboration with the insurance
companies and financial institutions.
National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project
A National Earthquake Risk Mitigation (Preparatory phase) was approved as a Centrally Sponsored Plan Scheme in
2013. The project is to be implemented by NDMA in coordination with the State Governments/UT that lie in seismic
zones IV & V in the country. It aims to increase awareness of the key stakeholders on the need for adoption of model
building bye-laws and earthquake resistant construction and planning standards.
National Building Code
The National Building Code of India (NBC) provides guidelines for regulating the building construction activities on
different materials, planning, design and construction practices of buildings. It lays down provisions designed to
protect the safety of the public with regard to structural sufficiency, fire hazards and health aspect of buildings.
A building collapsed in Lalita Park, Laxmi Nagar, East Delhi in November 2010 in which 71 people lost their
lives. It was reported that builders in the area were violating building laws by adding extra floors for additional
rental incomes and encroaching road space. An inquiry commission, headed by retired justice Lokeshwar
Prasad reported that most of the buildings in East Delhi were unsafe due to the inferior construction material

used. Recently, again in July 2017 another four-storey building collapsed in the same Lakshmi Nagar area hinting
at poor enforcement of the National Building Code.
Critical Existing Challenges for Earthquake Mitigation in India
• Inadequate enforcement of earthquake-resistant building codes and town planning bye-laws;
• Absence of earthquake-resistant features in constructions in urban and rural areas.
• Lack of formal training among professionals in earthquake-resistant construction practices.
• Lack of adequate preparedness and poor response capacity of various stakeholder groups.
• Lack of awareness among various stakeholders about the seismic risk;
• Absence of systems of licensing of engineers and masons.
[UPSC Question: The frequency of earthquakes appears to have increased in the Indian subcontinent. However,
India’s preparedness for mitigating their impact has significant gaps. Discuss various aspects. (2015)]
NDMA Guidelines on Earthquake Management
Guidelines issued by NDMA rest on six pillars of seismic safety for improving the effectiveness of earthquake
management in India:
1. Earthquake Resistant Construction of New Structures: All central ministries and departments and state
governments will facilitate the implementation of relevant standards for seismically safe design and construction
of buildings and other lifeline and commercially important structures falling within their administrative control
such as bridges, flyovers, ports, harbours etc.
2. Selective Seismic strengthening & Retrofitting of existing Priority structures and Lifeline Structures: All central
ministries and state governments are required to draw up programs for seismic strengthening of priority
structures through ULBs and PRIs. Buildings of national importance such as Raj Bhavans, Legislatures, Courts,
critical buildings like academic institutions, public utility structures like reservoirs, dams and multi-storeyed
buildings with five or more floors. The responsibility to identify these structures rests with the State
Governments.
3. Regulation and Enforcement: State Governments are responsible for establishing mechanisms to implement
Building Codes and other safety codes to ensure that all stakeholders like builders, architects, engineers,
government departments adhere to seismic safety in all design and construction activities. The Home Ministry
had constituted a national level expert group which recommended modifications to the town and country
planning Acts, land use and zoning regulations, DCRs and building bye-laws which are technically rigorous and
conform to globally accepted norms.
4. Awareness & Preparedness: NDMA acknowledges that sensitization of all stakeholders is one of the most
challenging tasks in earthquake preparedness and mitigation. It recommends preparation of handbooks on
earthquake safety, homeowner's seismic safety manuals, a manual on structural safety audit and video films
for the general public. It also highlights the need to create vulnerability maps of land areas and streamlining of
NGOs and Volunteer Groups.
5. Capacity Development (Education, Training, R&D, Capacity Building and Documentation): The target groups for
capcity development include elected representatives and government, officials, professionals in visual and print
media, urban planners, engineers, architects and builders, NGOs, Community Based Organisations (CBOs), social
activists, social scientists, schoolteachers, and schoolchildren
6. Emergency Response: All response activities are undertaken through Incident Command System coordinated by
the local administration. It includes involvement of community, corporate sector and specialized teams.
3.2.2. Tsunami
What is a Tsunami?
Tsunami (soo-NAH-mee) is a Japanese word meaning 'harbour' wave. A tsunami is a series of large waves of
extremely long wavelength and period usually generated by an undersea disturbance or activity near the coast or in
the ocean.

How Tsunami is generated?

Tsunamis are generated by a large, impulsive displacement of the sea bed level. Earthquakes generate tsunamis by
vertical movement of the sea floor. Tsunamis can also be triggered by landslides into or under the water surface,
volcanic activity and meteorite impacts. Landslide triggered tsunamis can be a possible scenario in the Bay of Bengal
and the Arabian Sea due to the huge sediment deposition by the Ganges and Indus Rivers.
Tsunami Risks in India

In the past, a few devastating tsunamis have occurred in the Indian Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. The most
significant tsunami in the region of the Indian Ocean was the one associated with the violent explosion of the
volcanic island of Krakatoa in August 1883. Even though tsunamis occur very rarely in the Indian Ocean region, in the
last 300 years, this region recorded 13 tsunamis and 3 of them occurred in the Andaman and Nicobar region. The
Indian Ocean Tsunami of 26th December 2004 is one of the most destructive Tsunamis known to have hit India.
Distribution Pattern of Tsunami in India
Both East and West Indian shorelines are vulnerable to tsunami wave action. It has more than 2200 km shoreline
which is heavily populated. For a tsunami to hit Indian coastline, it is necessary that a tsunamigenic earthquake of
magnitude greater than 6.5 should occur. Actual tsunami hazard of a coastline depends on its bathymetry and
coastal topography.
Consequences of Tsunami Disaster
The effects of the tsunami can range from destruction and damage, death, diseases, injury, millions of dollars in
financial loss, and long lasting psychological problems for the inhabitants of the region.
The effects of a tsunami depend on the following factors:

• Characteristics of the seismic event that generated the tsunami.
• Distance from its point of origin, its size (magnitude)
• Configuration of the bathymetry (that is the depth of water in oceans).
Indian Ocean tsunami of December 2004 along the Indian coast highlighted that the maximum damage had occurred
in low-lying areas near the coast and high casualties were found in thickly populated areas. Mangroves, forests, sand
dunes and coastal cliffs provided the best natural barriers to reduce the impact of the tsunami and heavy damage
was reported in areas where sand dunes were heavily mined.

Tsunami Predictability
Since scientists cannot exactly predict earthquakes, they also cannot exactly predict when a tsunami will be
generated. There are two distinct types of tsunami warning:
a) International tsunami warning systems and
b) Regional warning systems.
Present status of Tsunami Warnings in India:
The Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC), which is based at and operated by Indian National Centre for
Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad has all necessary infrastructure and capabilities to give tsunami
advisories to India as well as to Indian Ocean countries. Towards early warning of tsunamis, real-time continuous
seismic waveform data of three IMD stations, viz., Portblair, Minicoy and Shillong, is also shared with global
community by the Centre for Seismology (CS), IMD.
ITEWC has been designated as one of the Regional Tsunami Service Providers for the entire Indian Ocean Region by
the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO). It is providing tsunami warnings and related services to all countries in the Indian Ocean Rim
(24 Countries) beyond fully serving the India’s coastline / Islands.
The centre is capable of detecting tsunami-genic earthquakes occurring in the Indian Ocean as well as in the Global
Oceans within 10 minutes of their occurrence and disseminates the advisories to the concerned authorities within
20 minutes through email, fax, SMS, Global Telecommunication System (GTS) and website.

The ITEWC consists of

national and international
observational network of
seismic stations, sea level
gauge stations and tsunami
buoys around the Indian
and Pacific Oceans. Data
from approximately 400
seismometers is being
received in real-time and
processed automatically to
detect an earthquake of
magnitude 4.0 and above
anywhere on the globe. As
soon as the earthquake is
detected, warning centre
transmits the first bulletin
based on seismic data describing the location of earthquake, its magnitude, depth and other characters of the event.
After issuing the first bulletin, seismic data are further analysed to improve the accuracy of earthquake parameters
(magnitude, depth and location). The processing of seismic data is optimized to detect and characterize large
earthquakes within earliest possible time.
NDMA Guidelines on management of Tsunamis
1. Tsunami Risk Assessment and Vulnerability Analysis: NDMA recommends assessment of vulnerability and risk
mapping in the tsunami hazard based on coastal land use maps and coastal bathymetry. It suggests development
of models to estimate the arrival and wave run up height of tsunami waves. In India, the Indian Naval
Hydrographic Department (INHD) functions under the Chief Hydrographer to the Government of India. It
regularly provides bathymetry information to authorized agencies for drawing the inundation maps.
2. Tsunami Preparedness: A 17-station Real Time Seismic Monitoring Network (RTSMN) is envisaged to be
established by IMD and Bottom Pressure Recorders (BPRs) are used to detect the propagation of Tsunami waves
in the Open Ocean. A major concern is that the unattended ocean observation platforms in sea are being
vandalized either accidentally. The National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) has implemented the
National Data Buoy Programme for the protection of surface buoys. Tsunami Bulletins and warning systems are
an important part of preparedness. "Tsunami Escape" direction sign boards must be set up in coastal areas.
Visual and radio media also play an important role in alert and warning and Public awareness campaigns must be
held more frequently.
3. Structural Mitigation Measures: Following are the various structural measures recommended:
• Construction of cyclone shelters, submerged sand barriers/dykes, sand dunes with sea weeds and
plantation of mangroves and coastal forests along the coast line.
• Development of a network of local knowledge centres (rural/urban) along the coast lines to provide
necessary training and emergency communication during crisis time (e.g. centres developed by M.S.
Swaminathan Foundation in Pondicherry).
• Construction of location specific sea walls and coral reefs in consultation with experts.
• Development of break waters along the coast to provide necessary cushion,
• Development of a “Bio-Shield” - a narrow strip of land along coastline. It can be developed as coastal zone
disaster management sanctuary, which must have thick plantation and public spaces for public awareness,
dissemination and demonstration.
• Identification of vulnerable structures and appropriate retrofitting for tsunami/cyclone resistance of all such
buildings along with identification of Tsunami shelters.
4. Regulation and Enforcement of Techno-Legal Regime: Following measures can be taken:

• Strict implementation of the coastal zone regulations (within 500 m of the high tide line with elevation of
less than 10 m above mean sea level)
• Adoption the model techno-legal framework, developed by MHA, for ensuring compliance of tsunami-safe
zoning, planning, design and construction practices and encourage optimum land use.
5. Emergency Tsunami Response: As community is the first responder, launching a series of public awareness
campaign throughout the coastal area by various means can be undertaken. SHGs, NGOs, CBOs can be involved
in search and rescue operations. Inflatable motorized boats, helicopters and search & rescue equipment are
required immediately after a tsunami to carry out search and rescue of people trapped in inundated areas, on
tree tops and hanging on to structures.
The Indian Naval Hydrographic Department plays a crucial role in disasters affecting coastal areas. During the
Indian Ocean Tsunami of 26th December 2004, seven survey ships were deployed to open the sea lines of
communication apart from providing the medical aid. They were engaged to urgently re-chart the area and bring
out the latest bathymetry information.
6. Ensuring Implementation: Aggressive capacity building requirements for the local people and the administration
for facing the disasters in wake of tsunami and cyclone, ‘based on cutting edge level’.
• Awareness generation and training among the fishermen, coast guards, officials from fisheries department
and port authorities and local district officials etc., in connection with evacuation and post tsunami storm
surge management activities. Regular drills should be conducted to test the efficacy of the DM plans.
Existing Challenges
The critical areas of concern, with respect to Tsunami Risk management in India are:
• Lack of easily accessible tsunami documentation and paleo-tsunami studies for better understanding of past
tsunami events for improved risk assessment;
• Lack of high resolution near-shore bathymetric and topographic data will prove to be a limiting factor for
inundation models;
• Inadequate community awareness on tsunami risk and vulnerability.
• Lack of people's participation in strengthening disaster preparedness, mitigation and emergency response in the
coastal areas.
• Lack of documentation of traditional knowledge for tsunami risk management .
Tree plantation is a cost-effective long- lasting means of tsunami mitigation in comparison to the artificial
barriers. Some locations of Indian Ocean where Tsunami struck in 2004 remained almost intact because the
existing coconut palms and mangroves trees absorbed the tsunami’s energy. Similarly, the village of
Naluvedapathy in Tamil Nadu region faced minimal damage and
few deaths because of the forest of 80, 244 trees planted along
the shoreline in 2002.
3.2.3. Volcano
What is a Volcano?
A volcano is a vent in the earth crust that lets out hot lava,
gasses, rocks, volcanic ash and steam from a magma chamber
underneath the earth’s surface. They are called active if they
erupt regularly. Dormant or inactive volcanoes are those that
have erupted in the past times but are now quiet while the
volcanoes that have not erupted since ages are termed extinct.
Causes of Volcano
Volcanic eruptions predominantly occur in areas with vibration

activities or weak zones, for example, where the continental

plates of the earth pull apart or collide. It also occurs where the
earth crust constantly melts.
Volcano Risks in India
India's only live volcano is the Barren Island volcano in the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which had started showing
activity in the year 1991 after being dormant for over 150 years.
It has once again started spewing ash in January 2017. The
volcanic island is uninhabited and the northern part of the
island is barren and devoid of vegetation.
3.2.4. Floods
What is Flood?
Flood is a state of high water level along a river channel or on the coast that leads to inundation of land. India is
highly vulnerable to floods. Out of the total geographical area of 329 million hectares, Rashtriya Barh Ayog (RBA) has
assessed that more than 40 million hectare area is flood prone.
Causes of Floods
What are Flash Floods?
Inadequate capacity of the rivers to contain within their • Flash floods are characterized by very fast rise and
banks the high flows brought down from the upper recession of flow of small volume and high
catchment areas following heavy rainfall, leads to flooding. discharge, which causes high damages because of
suddenness.
Indiscriminate deforestation, unscientific agricultural • This occurs in hilly and sloping lands where heavy
practices, disturbances along the natural drainage channels rainfall and thunderstorms or cloudbursts are
and colonisation of flood-plains and river-beds are some of common.
the human activities that play an important role in increasing • Depression and cyclonic storms in the eastern
the intensity, magnitude and gravity of floods. Some of the coastal areas may also cause flash floods.
causes of flood are as follows: • Sudden release of waters from upstream
reservoirs, breaches in dams and embankments
Natural causes on the banks of the rivers also leads to floods.
• Heavy rainfall: Heavy rain in the catchment area of a • Flash floods warning systems and forecasting is
river causes water to over flow its banks, which results in done using Doppler radars.
the flooding of nearby areas.
• Sediment deposition: River beds become shallow due to sedimentation. The water carrying capacity of such
river is reduced. As a result the heavy rainwater over flow the river banks.
• Cyclone: Cyclone generated sea waves of abnormal height spreads the water in the adjoining coastal areas. In
October 1994 Orissa cyclone generated severe floods and Snowmelt and glacial melt are gradual processes
caused unprecedented loss of life and property. and usually does not cause major floods. But
• Change in the course of the river: Meanders, erosion of sometimes glaciers hold large quantity of bounded
river beds and banka, and obstruction of flow due to water, which may be suddenly released with
landslides also lead to changes in river courses. melting of ice block resulting into Glacial Lake
• Tsunami: Large coastal areas are flooded by rising sea Outburst Floods (GLOFs).
water, when a tsunami strikes the coast.
• Lack of Lakes - Lakes can store the excess water and regulate the flow of water. When lakes become smaller,
their ability to regulate the flow become less and hence flooding.
Anthropogenic causes
• Deforestation: Vegetation facilitates percolation of water in the ground. As a result of deforestation, the land
becomes obstruction free and water flows with greater speed into the rivers and causes flood.

• Interference in drainage system: Drainage congestion caused by badly planned construction of bridges, roads,
railway tracks, canals etc. hampers the flow of water and results in floods.
• International dimension - The rivers originating in China, Nepal and Bhutan cause severe floods in the states of
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam. For flood management (FM), cooperation with
the neighbouring countries viz. China, Nepal and Bhutan is essential.
• Population pressure - Because of large amount of people, more materials are needed, like wood, land, food, etc.
This aggravates overgrazing, land encroachment, over cultivation and soil erosion which increases the risk of
flooding.
• Poor Water and Sewerage Management - Old drainage and sewerage systems in urban areas have not been
overhauled. During the rainy seasons every year, the drainage and sewer system collapse resulting in urban
flooding.
Flood Hazard Vulnerability of India
Floods occur in almost all the river basins of the country. Around 12 per cent (40 million hectare) of land in India is
prone to floods. Our country receives an annual
rainfall of 1200 mm, 85% of which is
concentrated in 3-4 months i.e. June to
September. Due to the intense and periodic
rain, most of the rivers of the country are fed
with huge quantity of water, much beyond their
carrying capacity leading to mild to severe flood
situations in the region.
Distribution Pattern of Flood Areas in India
The Brahmaputra River Region
This region consists of the rivers Brahmaputra
and Barak and their tributaries, and covers the
states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura,
Nagaland, Sikkim and the northern parts of
West Bengal.
• The catchments of these rivers receive
heavy rainfall during monsoons.
• There rivers originate in fragile hills
susceptible to erosion leading to high silt
discharge.
• The region is subject to severe and frequent
earthquakes, which cause numerous
landslides and upset river regime.
• Cloud bursts followed by flash floods and
heavy soil erosion are also prevalent.
The Ganga River Region
The river Ganga has many tributaries, the
important ones being Yamuna, Sone, Ghaghra,
Raphti, Gandak, Burhi Gandak, Bagmati, Kamla Balan, Adhwara group of rivers, Kosi and the Mahananda. It covers
the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkand, Bihar, south and central parts of West Bengal, Punjab, parts of
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Delhi.
• The flood problem is mostly confined to the areas on the northern bank of the river Ganga as most of the
damage is caused by the northern tributaries of the Ganga.

• In general, the flood problem increases from the west to the east and from south to north.
• In recent years, the states of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh have also experienced some incidents of heavy
floods.
• Large-scale encroachment of flood plains of the rivers for habitation and various developmental activities is one
of the main causes in this region.
The North-West River Region
The main rivers in this region are the Indus, Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum. This region covers the states of
Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and parts of Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan. Compared to the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra river regions, the flood problem is relatively less in this region.
• The major problem is that of inadequate surface drainage which causes inundation and water-logging over vast
areas.
• Indiscriminate use of water for irrigation and development of low-lying areas and depressions has created
problem of drainage congestion and water logging.
• These rivers change their courses frequently and leave behind vast tracts of sandy waste.
The Central and Deccan India
Important rivers in this region are the Narmada, Tapi, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery. These rivers have
mostly well-defined and stable courses. They have adequate capacities within the natural banks to carry the flood
discharge except in the delta area. The region does not have serious flood problem except that some of the rivers in
Orissa State namely Mahanadi, Brahmini, Baitarni, and Subarnarekha are prone to floods every year. The delta and
coastal areas of the states on the east coast periodically face flood and drainage problems in the wake of monsoon
depression and cyclonic storms.
Consequences of Floods
• Frequent inundation of agricultural land and human settlement has serious consequences on the national
economy and society.
• Floods destroy valuable crops and also damage physical infrastructure such as roads, rails, bridges and human
settlements.
• Millions of people are rendered homeless and are also washed down along with their cattle in the floods.
• Spread of diseases like cholera, gastro-enteritis, hepatitis and other water-borne diseases spread in the flood-
affected areas.
• Floods also make a few positive contributions. Every year, flood deposit fertile silt over agricultural fields which
restores fertility of the soil.
NDMA Guidelines on Flood Management
The main thrust of the flood protection programme undertaken in India so far has been on structural measures.
Flood Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation
Structural Measures
• Reservoirs, Dams, Other Water Storages: By constructing reservoirs in the courses of rivers could stores extra
water at the time of flood. Such measures adopted till now however, have not been successful. Dams built to
control floods of Damodar could not control the flood.
• Embankments/Flood Levees/Flood Walls: By building flood protection embankments, floods water can be
controlled from overflowing the banks and spreading in nearby areas. Building of embankments on Yamuna,
near Delhi, has been successful in controlling the flood.
• Drainage improvement: Drainage system is generally choked by the construction of roads, canals railway tracks
etc. Floods could be checked if the original form of drainage system is restored.
• Channel Improvement/Desilting/Dredging of Rivers: A channel can be made to carry flood discharge at levels
lower than its prevailing high flood level by improving its discharge carrying capacity. It aims at increasing the

area of flow or the velocity of flow (or both) to increase its carrying capacity. Selective desilting/dredging at
outfalls/confluences or local reaches can, however, be adopted as a measure to tackle the problem locally.
• Diversion of Flood Water: Diverting all or a part of the discharge into a natural or artificially constructed
channel, lying within or in some cases outside the flood plains is a useful means of lowering water levels in the
river.
The flood spill channel skirting Srinagar city and the supplementary drain in Delhi are examples of
diverting excess water to prevent flooding of the urbanised areas.
• Catchment Area Treatment/Afforestation: Watershed management measures such as developing the vegetative
cover i.e. afforestation and conservation of soil cover in conjunction with structural works like check dams,
detention basins etc. serve as an effective measure in reducing flood peaks and controlling the suddenness of
the runoff.
Non-Structural Measures
• Flood Plain Zoning: It is to regulate land use in the flood plains
in order to restrict the damage due to floods, while deriving
maximum benefits from the same.
• Flood Proofing: It helps in the mitigation of distress and
provides immediate relief to the population in flood prone
areas. It is a combination of structural change and emergency
action, not involving any evacuation. It includes providing
raised platforms for flood shelter for men and cattle, raising the public utility installation especially the platforms
for drinking water hand pumps and bore wells above flood level, promoting construction of double-storey
buildings wherein the first floor can be used for taking shelter during floods.
• Flood Management Plans: All government departments and agencies must prepare their own FMPs.
• Integrated Water Resources Management aiming at integrating management of water resources at the basin or
watershed scale.
Flood Forecasting and Warning in India: Real time discharge and rainfall data is the basic requirements for the
formulation of a flood forecast. Most of the hydro-meteorological data are observed and collected by the field
formations of Central Water Commission; IMD supplies the daily rainfall data.
Aapada Mitra Scheme

The NDMA has approved a Centrally Sponsored Scheme focusing on training community volunteers in disaster
response in the 30 most flood-prone districts of 25 states in India. It aims to train community volunteers with the
skills that they would need to respond to their community’s immediate needs and to undertake basic relief and
rescue tasks from emergency situations such as floods, flash floods, and urban flooding, when emergency services
are not readily available.
[Why are floods such a recurrent feature in India? Discuss the measures taken by the Government for flood
control. (85/II6c/20)]
3.2.5. Urban Floods
What is Urban Flood?
Area under urban settlements (7933 towns) in India has increased from 77,000 sq. km in 2001 to 1,00,000 sq. km in
2011 showing 25,000 sq.km of additional land area being brought under urban uses. Unplanned development and
encroachments of sprawling habitations alongside rivers and watercourses have meddled with the natural flow of
streams. As a result of this, the runoff has increased in proportion to urbanization of the watersheds causing urban
floods.

Causes of Urban Floods

Flooding in the cities and the towns is a recent phenomenon caused by
increasing incidence of heavy rainfall in a short period of time,
indiscriminate encroachment of waterways, inadequate capacity of
drains and lack of maintenance of the drainage infrastructure. There is
wide variation of rainfall amongst the cities and, even within the city,
rainfall shows large spatial and temporal variation; for example, in
Mumbai, on 26th July 2005, Colaba recorded only 72 mm of rainfall
while Santa Cruz, which is 22 km away, recorded 944 mm in 24 hours.
Urban Flood Risks in India
Urban flooding is significantly different from rural flooding as
urbanization leads to developed catchments, which increases the flood
peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times. These
areas are densely populated centers of economic activities with vital
infrastructure which needs to be protected 24x7. Floods of Chennai
(December 2015), the Kashmir Floods (2014), the Surat Floods (2006)
and the Mumbai Floods (2005 & 2017) reflect the vulnerability of our Cities.
Impact and Mitigation Strategies for Urban Flood
Urban Flooding has localized impacts on commercial, industrial, business, residential and institutional locations.
Disruption of water supply, sewerage, power supply and communications is common. Shutdown of commercial,
industrial and business activity and loss to property and assets is often observed. Disruption of traffic – road, rail and
air is frequent. New slums come up in areas which are not approved.
In order to check the threat of urban flooding, each city should have their Flood mitigation plans (floodplain, river
basin, surface water, etc.) strongly integrated with the overall land use policy and master plan of a city. The following
three phases of disaster management for effective and efficient response to urban flooding include:
Pre-Monsoon Phase (Preparedness): It involves an estimation of emergency needs, familiarization of the
stakeholders, particularly the communities through training and simulation exercises, identification of Teams for
maintaining the drains and roads and conducting exercises for prevention of water logging/ inundation.
During Monsoon Phase (Early Warning & Effective Response): It includes timely, qualitative and quantitative
warnings based on the intensity of rainfall to various agencies to take preventive measures. The Response phase
focuses primarily on emergency relief: saving lives, providing first aid, minimizing and restoring damaged systems
(communications and transportation), meeting the basic life requirements of those impacted by disaster (food,
water, and shelter), and providing mental health and spiritual support and comfort care.
Post-Monsoon Phase: Restoration and Re-habilitation phase includes establishment of a programme to restore both
the disaster site and the damaged materials to a
stable and usable condition.
Urbanization leads to an increase in rainfall: As early
as 1921, scientists noted thunderstorm formation over
large cities while there were none over rural areas.
This can be very well explained by the Urban Heat
Island Effect – the rising heat induces cloud formation
while the winds interact with urban induced
convection to produce downwind rainfall.

Brief points on NDMA Guidelines on Urban Flood

• Early Warning System and Communication: National Hydro-meteorological Network and Doppler Weather
Radars can provide and a lead time of 3 to 6 hours. Once flood warning is generated, it must be communicated
to public in an effective manner.
• Design and Management of Urban Drainage: Rapid urbanisation has resulted in increased impermeable
surfaces in the form of pavements, roads and built-up areas, thereby reducing the infiltration and natural
storage.
o Drainage System: A proper inventory of water supply system with details of all pumping, storage etc. must
be maintained, particularly of the minor drainage systems.
o Catchment as a basis of design: As run off processes are independent of states and city administrative
boundaries outlines of drainage divides must be depend on watershed delineation.
o Contour Data: Accurate contours are necessary for determining the boundaries of a watershed/ catchment
and for computing directions of flow.
o Design Flow: Estimation of peak flow rates for adequate sizing and quantity control facilities.
o Removal of Solid Waste: Most towns and cities have open surface drains besides the road, into which there
is unauthorized public disposal of waste. Solid waste increases hydraulic roughness, causes blockage and
generally reduces flow capacity.
o Drain Inlet Connectivity: It is seen that the inlets to drain the water from the roads into the roadside drains
are either not properly aligned or non-existent leading to severe waterlogging on the roads.
o Rain Gardens: Rain gardens consist of a porous soil covered with a thin layer of mulch. Stormwater runoff is
directed into the facility, allowed to pond and infiltrates through the plant/mulch/soil environment.
• Vulnerability Analysis and Risk Assessment: Identification of areas at risk, classification of structures according
to function and estimation of risk for each structure and function using Hazard Risk Zoning.
• Urban Flooding Cells: A separate Urban Flooding Cell (UFC) will be constituted within MoUD which will
coordinate all UFDM activities at the national level. ULBs will be responsible for the management of urban
flooding at the local level.
• Response: Emergency Operation Centres, Incident Response System, flood shelters, search and rescue
operations, emergency logistics are some key action areas of flood response mechanism.
• Sanitation: Diseases like malaria, dengue and cholera can spread if adequate sanitation and disinfection are not
carried out.
• Capacity Development, Awareness Generation and Documentation: Participatory urban flood planning and
management involving both local government and the community.
Existing Challenges
• Less importance to comprehensive risk assessment of urban flooding. It includes understanding, analysis and
assessment of urban flood risks, before flood mitigation measures are planned and implemented.
• Ignorance of mapping of different factors and risks in different cities and non-inclusion of the same in
development planning
• Unsatisfactory coordination among different institutions for experience sharing for the purpose of public
awareness and imparting professional training of disaster managers.
• Lack of information sharing,
• Disintegrated investment decisions, and
• Lack of consultation with stakeholders.
[UPSC Question: The frequency of urban floods due to high intensity rainfall is increasing over the years.
Discussing the reasons for urban floods, highlight the mechanisms for preparedness to reduce the risk during such
events. (2016)]

3.2.6. Landslides
What is a Landslide?
A landslide is defined as the movement of a
mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope.
Landslides are a type of "mass wasting,"
which denotes any down-slope movement
of soil and rock under the direct influence of
gravity.
Landslides are one of the natural hazards
that affect at least 15 per cent of the land
area of our country. The Himalayas are
formed due to collision of Indian and
Eurasian plate. The northward movement of
the Indian plate (@5cm/year) towards
Eurasian plate causes continuous stress on
the rocks rendering them friable, weak and
prone to landslides and earthquakes.
Landslide Vulnerability Zones of India
On the basis of frequency and other
controlling factors like geology, geomorphic
agents, slope, land-use, vegetation cover and human activities, India has been divided into a number of
vulnerability zones as shown in table below:
Very High Vulnerability Zone • Highly unstable, relatively young mountainous areas in the Himalayas and Andaman
and Nicobar,
• High rainfall regions with steep slopes in the Western Ghats and Nilgiris, the north-
eastern regions,
• Areas that experience frequent ground-shaking due to earthquakes, etc. and
• Areas of intense human activities, particularly those related to construction of roads,
dams, etc.
High Vulnerability Zone • Very high vulnerability zone are included in this category. (except the plains of Assam)
• The only difference between these two is the combination, intensity and frequency
of the controlling factors.
Moderate to Low Vulnerability • Areas that receive less precipitation such as-
Zone - TransHimalayan areas of Ladakh and Spiti (Himachal Pradesh),
- undulated yet stable relief and low precipitation areas in the Aravali,
- rain shadow areas in the Western and Eastern Ghats and
- Deccan plateau
• Landslides due to mining and subsidence are most common in states like Jharkhand,
Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, Goa and Kerala.
Other Areas The remaining parts of India, particularly states like Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, West Bengal (except district Darjiling), Assam (except district KarbiAnglong) and
Coastal regions of the southern States are safe as far as landslides are concerned.
Causes of Landslides
• Heavy rain: Heavy rain is the main cause of landslides.
• Deforestation: Deforestation is another major cause of landslides. Tree, brushes and grasses keep the soil
particles compact. Mountain slope looses their protective cover by felling of trees. The rain water flows on such
slopes with unimpeded speed.

• Earthquakes and volcanic explosions: Earthquake is a common feature in the Himalaya. Tremors destabilize the
mountains and the rocks tumble downwards. Volcanic explosions also trigger landslides in the mountainous
areas.
• Building of roads: Roads are built in mountainous areas for
development. During the process of the construction of
road, a large amount of rocks and debris has to be removed.
This process dislodges the rock structure and changes the
angle of slopes. Consequently landslides are triggered.
• Shifting agriculture: In the North Eastern part of India, the
number and frequency of landslides has increased due to the
practice of shifting agriculture.
• Construction of houses and other buildings: For giving
shelter to the ever-increasing population and promotion of
tourism more and more house and hotels are being built. In
building processes large amount of debris created. This
causes the landslides.
Consequences of Landslide Hazard
Landslide disasters have both short-term and long-term impact on society causing an imbalance in economic and
social life and the environment.
• Short term impacts:
✓ Loss of natural beauty
✓ Roadblocks, destruction of railway
lines
✓ channel blocking due to rock-falls
✓ diversion of river courses due to
landslides causing flood and
✓ Loss of life and property
• Long term impacts:
✓ Changes in the landscape that can be
permanent,
✓ the loss of cultivable land
✓ the environmental impact in terms of
erosion and soil loss,
✓ population shift and relocation of
populations and establishments
✓ drying up of sources of water
Landslide Hazard Mitigation
• Hazard zones have to be identified and specific slides to be stabilized and managed in addition to monitoring and
early warning systems to be placed at selected sites.
• It is always advisable to adopt area-specific measures to deal with landslides.
• Hazard mapping should be done to locate areas commonly prone to landslides.
• Restriction on the construction and other developmental activities such as roads and dams, limiting agriculture
to valleys and areas with moderate slopes, and control on the development of large settlements in the high
vulnerability zones, should be enforced.
• Promote large-scale afforestation programmes and construction of bunds to reduce the flow of water.
• Terrace farming should be encouraged in the north-eastern hill states replacing Jhumming or shifting cultivation.
• Retaining walls can be built of mountain slopes to stop land from slipping.
• Treating vulnerable slopes and existing hazardous landslides.

• Restricting development in landslide-prone areas.

• Preparing codes for excavation, construction and grading.
• Protecting existing developments.
• Putting in place arrangements for landslide insurance and compensation for losses.
Existing Challenges
• Integrating landslide concerns in the development of disaster management plans at different levels i.e., national,
state, district, municipal/panchayat.
• Switch-over from piecemeal remediation of landslides to simultaneous and holistic implementation of control
measures.
• Techno-legal regime for introduction of sound slope protection, planned urbanisation, regulated land use and
environment friendly land management practices.
• Zero tolerance against deliberate environmental violence and unhealthy construction practices.
• Laws governing new constructions and alteration of existing land use on problematic slopes and in landslide
prone areas.
• Innovation in the management of multi-institutional and multi-disciplinary teams.
• Establishment of a disaster knowledge network and a mechanism for dissemination of information at the
national level, mechanism for international linkages, cooperation and joint initiatives.

3.2.7. Cloudburst
What is a Cloudburst?
A cloudburst is a sudden downpour within a radius of few kilometres. It usually lasts no longer than few minutes but
is capable of flooding the area. Rainfall from a cloudburst is usually over 100 mm per hour.
How are cloudbursts formed?
1. Monsoon clouds filled with water droplets move across
the plains. Warm air currents keep pushing the clouds
up not allowing them to shed rain.
2. More and more water droplets get collected and the
clouds get bigger as they move up a mountain or hill.
The clouds soon stop moving since there is barely any
wind up in the mountains.
3. The warm air holding up the water drops in the clouds
cools. The cloud bursts like a soggy paper bag and the
rain comes gushing down.
Cloudburst risks in India
As per the specific definition of Cloudburst, if rainfall of
about 10 cm or above per hour is recorded over a place
that is roughly 10 km x 10 km in area, it is classified as a
cloudburst event. This means, 5 cm of rainfall in half an
hour would also be classified as a cloudburst. India, in a
normal year, gets about 116 cm of rain in the entire
year i.e. every area in the country, on an average,
should expect to get only this amount during the
course of the year.
The events of extreme precipitation have been on the rise in the last few decades due to global warming; it is
expected that cloudburst events might be on the increase as well.
Distribution Pattern of Cloudbursts
Cloudbursts do happen in plains as well, but there is a greater probability of them occurring in mountainous zones;
as it has to do with the terrain of the region. For example- like steep hills favour the formation of these clouds.
Cloudbursts get counted only when they result in large scale destruction
Consequences of Cloudburst
of life and property, which happens mainly in mountainous regions.
✓ flash floods/ landslides
Predictability about Cloudbursts ✓ house collapse, property loss
✓ dislocation of traffic
There is no satisfactory technique for anticipating the occurrence of ✓ human casualties on large scale
cloud bursts because of their small scale. A very fine network of radars
is required to be able to detect the likelihood of a cloud burst about six hours in advance, sometimes even 12-14
hours in advance. This would be prohibitively expensive. Only the areas likely to receive heavy rainfall can be
identified on a short range scale. Much of the damage can be avoided by way of identifying the areas and the
meteorological situations that favour the occurrence of cloud bursts.
Note: Cloudburst Hazard Mitigation, Challenges, Do’s and Dont’s before-during-after disaster go hand in hand with
Flash/Urban floods and landslides.
[UPSC Question: With reference to National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) guidelines, discuss the
measures to be adopted to mitigate the impact of recent incidents of cloudbursts in many places of Uttarakhand.
(2016)]

3.2.8. Cyclone
What is Cyclone?
Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric pressure
surrounded by high atmospheric pressure
resulting in swirling atmospheric disturbance
accompanied by powerful winds. They occur
mainly in the tropical and temperate regions of
the world.
Formation of Tropical Cyclone
Favourable Conditions: Cyclones are atmospheric and oceanic phenomena. Listed below are some of the favourable
identified conditions:
• A warm sea surface (temperature in excess of 26 o–27oC) and associated
warming extending up to a depth of 60m with abundant water vapour in
the overlying air (by evaporation),
• High relative humidity in the atmosphere up to a height of about 5,000
metres,
• Atmospheric instability that encourages the formation of massive vertical
cumulus clouds due to condensation of rising moist air,
• Low vertical wind shear between the lower and higher levels of the
atmosphere that do not allow the heat generated and released by the
clouds to get transported from the area (vertical wind shear is the rate of
change of wind between the higher and lower levels of the atmosphere),
• The presence of cyclonic vorticity (rate of rotation of air) that initiates and
favours rotation of the air cyclonically, and
• Location over the ocean, at least 4–5o latitude away from the equator.
Within the cyclone field, strong winds blow around the low pressure centre in an anticlock-wise direction in the
Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in Southern Hemisphere, though the wind at the centre (known as eye of the
cyclone) is very little and generally free from cloud and rain. Winds increase rapidly to its peak (often exceeding 150
km/h) at about 20 to 30 km from the centre and thereafter decrease gradually to become normal around 300 to 500
km away. Cyclones vary in diameter from 100 to 1,000 km but their effect dominates over thousands of square
kilometres over the ocean as well as along the coast. The powerhouse is located within a 100 km radius of the eye of
the cyclone where very strong winds, sometimes more than 250 km per hour, can be generated in a narrow zone
beyond the eye diameter.
Cyclone Risks in India
India has a coastline of about 7,516 km, 5,400 km along the mainland, 132 km in Lakshadweep and 1,900 km in the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Although the North Indian Ocean (NIO) Basin (including the Indian coast) generates
only about 7% of the world’s cyclones, their impact is comparatively high and devastating, especially when they
strike the coasts bordering the North Bay of Bengal. On an average, five to six tropical cyclones form every year, of
which two or three could be severe. More cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal than the Arabian Sea and the ratio is
approximately 4:1.
Tropical cyclones occur in the months of May-June and October-November. Cyclones of severe intensity and
frequency in the North Indian Ocean are bi-modal in character, with their primary peak in November and secondary
peak in May. The disaster potential is particularly high during landfall in the North Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal and
the Arabian Sea) due to the accompanying destructive wind, storm surges and torrential rainfall.

Cyclone Prone Areas in India

There are 13 coastal states and union
territories (UTs) in the country,
encompassing 84 coastal districts
which are affected by tropical
cyclones. Four states (Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West
Bengal) and one UT (Puducherry) on
the east coast and one state (Gujarat)
on the west coast are highly
vulnerable to cyclone disasters.
Cyclone Warning System in India
Low pressure and the development
can be detected hours or days before
it causes damage. The satellites track
the movement of these cyclones
based on which the people are
evacuated from areas lively to be
affected. It is difficult to predict the
accuracy. Accurate landfall
predictions can give only a few hours’
notice to threatened population.
India has one of the best cyclone
warning systems in the world. The
India Meteorological Department
(IMD) is the nodal department for
wind detection, tracking and
forecasting cyclones. Cyclone
tracking is done through INSAT
satellite. Cyclone warning is
disseminated by several means such
as satellite based disaster warning
systems, radio, television, telephone, fax, high Consequences of Cyclone Hazard
priority telegram, public announcements and ✓ Inundation of sea water in low lying areas of coastal regions,
bulletins in press. These warnings are ✓ Heavy floods, landslides
disseminated to the general public, the fishing ✓ Erodes beaches and embankments,
community especially those in the sea, port ✓ Destruction of vegetation, infrastructure and loss of life
authorities, commercial aviation and the ✓ Loss of crops and food supplies along with loss of soil fertility
government machinery. ✓ Contamination of ground and pipe water supply
✓ Severe disruption in the communication links
Cyclone Hazard Mitigation
Cyclone Shelters
An effective cyclone disaster prevention
One of the most successful ways of reducing loss of human lives during
and mitigation plan requires:
cyclones is the provision of cyclone shelters. In densely populated coastal
• Efficient cyclone forecast - and areas, where large scale evacuations are not always feasible, public buildings
warning services; can be used as cyclone shelters. These buildings can be so designed, so as to
• Rapid dissemination of warnings to provide a blank façade with a minimum number of apertures in the direction
of the prevailing winds. The shorter side of the building should face the storm,
the government agencies,
so as to impart least wind resistance. Earth berms and green belts can be used
particularly marine interests like in front of these buildings to reduce the impact of the storm.

ports, fisheries and shipping and to the general public and

• Construction of cyclone shelters in vulnerable areas, a ready machinery for evacuation of people to safer areas
and community preparedness at all levels to meet the exigencies.
Considering above points possible risk mitigation measures can be:
• Coastal belt plantation - Providing a cover through green belt sustains less damage as forests act as a wide
buffer zone against strong winds and flash floods. Without the forest the cyclone travel freely inland.
• Hazard mapping – Meteorological records of the wind speed and the directions give the pattern of occurrence of
cyclone for particular wind speeds. A hazard map will illustrate the areas vulnerable to cyclone in any given year
and estimate the severity of the cyclone and various damage intensities in the region.
• Land use control- can be designed so that least critical activities are placed in vulnerable areas. Location of
settlements in the flood plains is at utmost risk. Citing of key facilities must be marked in the land use. Policies
should be in place to regulate land use and building codes should be enforced.
• Engineered structures – need to be built to withstand wind forces. Good site selection is also important.
Majority of the buildings in coastal areas are built with locally available materials and have no engineering
inputs. Good construction practices should be adopted
such as:
✓ Cyclonic wind storms inundate the coastal areas. It
is advised to construct on stilts or on earth mound.
✓ Houses can be strengthened to resist wind and
flood damage. All elements holding the structures
need to be properly anchored to resist the uplift or
flying off of the objects. For example, avoid large
overhangs of roofs, and the projections should be
tied down.
✓ A row of planted trees will act as a shield. It reduces
the energy.
✓ Buildings should be wind and water resistant.
✓ Buildings storing food supplies must be protected against the winds and water.
✓ Protect river embankments.
✓ Communication lines should be installed underground.
✓ Provide strong halls for community shelter in vulnerable locations.
Flood management – Torrential rains, strong wind and storm range leads to flooding in the cyclone affected areas.
There are possibilities of landslides too. Flood mitigation measures can be incorporated.
Improving vegetation cover – The roots of the plants and trees keep the soil intact and prevent erosion and slow
runoff to prevent or lessen flooding. The use of tree planted in rows will act as a windbreak.
Coastal shelterbelt plantations can be developed to break severe wind speeds. It minimizes devastating effects.
National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP)
The project has four principal components namely:
The Government of India approved NCRMP Phase-I
✓ Component A- Last Mile Connectivity.
for Andhra Pradesh & Odisha in January 2011 to
✓ Component B- Structural and Non-Structural Measures.
address the vulnerability of the coastal community ✓ Component C- Technical Assistance for Cyclone Hazard Risk
to cyclones, who are generally poor and are from the Mitigation, Capacity Building and Knowledge Creation.
weaker section of the society. The NCRMP Phase-II ✓ Component D- Project Management and Implementation
was approved as Centrally Sponsored Scheme for Support.
implementation in the States of Goa, Gujarat,
Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and West Bengal by Union Cabinet in July 2015.
The project aims at minimizing the vulnerability to the cyclone and making people and infrastructure disaster
resilient.

The broad outcome of the project is a provision of cyclone forecasting, cyclone risk mitigation and capacity building
in multi-hazard risk management. The major infrastructure, which is being constructed under the project includes
multipurpose cyclone shelters (including shelter-cum-go-down) and approach roads/bridges to habitations and
saline embankments.
Existing Challenges
• The failure to adequately respond to warnings stemming from lack of planning and coordination at the national
and local levels, as well as a lack of understanding by people of their risks.
• Bare minimum the terminal-end equipment and communication back-up equipment support.
• Lack of grass root level participation in disaster management to build up effective resilience to disasters.
• Lack of a fully automated and state-of-the-art OC at NDMA and MHA with all terminal-end facilities and
communication connectivity both for routine activities and also during disasters.
• The need for integration of networks set up by various agencies to establish various types of networks in the
country for disaster management.
• Failure of even well-engineered structures such as communication and transmission towers past cyclones.
3.2.9. Drought
What is Drought?
Droughts refer to a serious shortfall in availability of water, mainly, but not exclusively, due to deficiency of rains,
affecting agriculture, drinking water supply and industry. It is a slow onset disaster which evolves over months or
even years and affects a large spatial extent.
Drought is a complex phenomenon as it involves elements like
• precipitation, evaporation, evapotranspiration
• ground water, soil moisture, storage and surface run-off
• agricultural practices, particularly the types of crops grown
• Socio-economic practices and ecological conditions.

Causes of Drought
The causes for droughts are increasingly attributable to the mismatch between supply and demand, particularly the
demand for non-agricultural purposes. While adequate availability of water is crucial to agriculture, it continues to
be affected by other variables such as temperature, humidity, solar radiation and wind patterns.
Types of Droughts
Meteorological Drought • When there is a prolonged period of inadequate rainfall marked with mal-distribution of the
same over time and space.
• Rainfall less than 90 per cent of average is categorized as meteorological drought.
Agricultural Drought • It is characterised by low soil moisture that is necessary to support the crops, thereby
resulting in crop failures
• If an area has more than 30 per cent of its gross cropped area under irrigation, the area is
excluded from the drought-prone category.
• An extreme agricultural drought can lead to a famine, which is a prolonged shortage of food
in a restricted region causing widespread disease and death from starvation. This is why some
times in Hindi language famine Akal and Anavrishty are also used for drought.
• The government also declares on area affected by drought, if more than 50 percent crop loss
happens in an area due to meteorological condition.
Hydrological Drought • When the availability of water in different storages and reservoirs like aquifers, lakes,
reservoirs, etc. falls below what the precipitation can replenish.
Ecological Drought • When the productivity of a natural ecosystem fails due to shortage of water and as a
consequence of ecological distress, damages are induced in the ecosystem.
The IMD recognizes five drought situations:
• ‘Drought Week’ when the weekly rainfall is less than half of the normal.
• ‘Agricultural Drought’ when four drought weeks occur consecutively during mid-June to September.
• ‘Seasonal Drought’ when seasonal rainfall is deficient by more than the standard deviation from the normal.
• ‘Drought Year’ when annual rainfall is deficient by 20 per cent of normal or more.
• ‘Severe Drought Year’ when annual rainfall is deficient by 25 to 40 per cent of normal or more.
Drought Risks in India
Droughts in India have their own peculiarities requiring appreciation of some basic facts. These are:
• India has an average annual rainfall of
around 1150 mm; no other country has
such a high annual average, however,
there is considerable annual variation.
• More than 80% of rainfall is received in
less than 100 days during the South-
west monsoon and the geographic
spread is uneven.
• 21% area receives less than 700 mm
rains annually making such areas the
hot spots of drought.
• Inadequacy of rains coupled with
adverse land-man ratio compels the
farmers to practice rain-fed agriculture
in large parts of the country.
• Irrigation, using groundwater aggravates
the situation in the long run as ground-
water withdrawal exceeds

replenishment; in the peninsular region availability of surface water itself becomes scarce in years of rainfall
insufficiency.
• Per capita water availability in the country is steadily declining.
• As against total annual availability 1953 km3, approximately 690 km3 of surface water and 396 km3 of from
ground water resources can be put to use. So far, a quantum of about 600 km 3 has been put to use.
• The traditional water harvesting systems have been largely abandoned.
Distribution of Drought Prone Areas in India
Droughts and floods are the two accompanying features of Indian climate. According to some estimates, nearly 19
per cent of the total geographical area of the country and 12 per cent of its total population suffer due to drought
every year. About 30 per cent of the country’s total area is identified as drought prone. It is common to see flood and
drought at same time in different region. It is also common that same region faces drought in one season and flood
in another season. This is attributed to spatial and temporal unpredictability in the monsoon behaviour.
Recently IMD has decided to drop the word ‘drought’ and replace it with ‘deficient’ to describe the bad monsoon. It
said that it was never the mandate of IMD to declare drought and it is on the state government to decide as
droughts are of various types – hydrological, agricultural etc. On the basis of severity of droughts, India can be
divided into the 3 regions:

Extreme Drought • Most parts of Rajasthan, particularly areas to the west of the Aravali hills, i.e. Marusthali and
Affected Areas Kachchh regions of Gujarat fall in this category.
• The districts like Jaisalmer and Barmer from the Indian desert that receive less that 90 mm
average annual rainfall.
Severe Drought • Parts of eastern Rajasthan, most parts of Madhya Pradesh, eastern parts of Maharashtra, interior
Affected Areas parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Plateau, northern parts of interior Tamil Nadu and
southern parts of Jharkhand and interior Odisha.
Moderate Drought • Northern parts of Rajasthan, Haryana, southern districts of Uttar Pradesh, the remaining parts of
Affected Areas Gujarat, Maharashtra except Konkan, Jharkhand and Coimbatore plateau of Tamil Nadu and
interior Karnataka.
Early Indicators of Drought

Since the nature of drought as a disaster is slow on set, it is very necessary to know about the early warning
indicators of drought. These are:
• Delay in onset / Deficiency in closing figures for South-West Monsoon
• Long 'break' during the of South-West Monsoon season.
• Insufficient rains and skewed spatial distribution, particularly during the months of June and July.
• Rise in price of fodder.
• Absence of rising trend in reservoir levels and / or reduction in stream flows and depletion rate of groundwater.
• Drying up of sources of rural drinking water supply.
• Declining trend in the progress of sowing as compared to total normal sown areas.
• Out migration of rural population
• Serious depletion in level of Ground Water compared to figures for “normal years”
• Indication of marked soil moisture stress.
• Increased deployment of water through tankers
Impact of Drought as a Hazard
The impact of droughts on societies varies depending on coping capabilities and the general health of the national
economies concerned. Few inevitable impacts of drought are:
• Economical:
✓ production losses in agriculture and related sectors, especially animal husbandry, dairy, poultry, horticulture
and fisheries
✓ affects livelihoods and quality of life of the population in that is dependent on agriculture a dampening
impact by constricting employment avenues
✓ All industries dependent upon the primary sector for raw materials suffer on account of reduced supplies
and hardening prices.

• Environmental:
✓ low water levels in ground water and surface reservoirs, lakes and ponds, reduced flows in springs, streams
and rivers, loss of forest cover,
✓ migration of wildlife, sharpening man-animal conflicts and general stress on biodiversity
✓ Reduced stream flow and loss of wetlands may affect levels of salinity
✓ Increased groundwater depletion rates, and reduced recharge may damage aquifers and adversely affect the
quality of water (e.g., salt concentration, acidity, dissolved oxygen, turbidity) which in turn may lead to a
permanent loss of biological productivity of soils
✓ Crops failure leading to scarcity of food grains, inadequate rainfall, resulting in shortage of water, and often
shortage in all the three is most devastating.
• Social:
✓ Out-migration of the population from drought affected areas, rise in school dropout rates and indebtedness,
✓ alienation of land and livestock assets, malnutrition, starvation and loss of social status among the most
vulnerable sections
✓ Scarcity of water compels people to consume contaminated water resulting in spread of many waterborne
diseases like gastro-enteritis, cholera, hepatitis, etc.
✓ The situation of scarcity in some cases may exacerbate social tensions and lead to erosion of social capital.
How drought as a disaster is different from other disasters?
Unlike floods, earthquakes, and cyclones, droughts have certain distinct features –
• the onset is slow giving adequate warning,
• it affects livelihoods of people over a large area,
• the duration of the disaster is much longer and so the relief efforts have to be sustained over this stretched time
period,
• it remains basically a rural phenomenon except that very severe drought may also impact on urban water supply
by drying up sources and drastically reducing water table in regions with aquifers, and
• There is a possibility that drought management efforts could reduce vulnerability by improving moisture
conservation and vegetal cover etc.
This does not hold true of other natural disasters. In other words, droughts lend themselves to being managed in a
manner not possible in most other disasters. All these factors necessitate ‘independent consideration’ drought
management.
Drought Hazard Mitigation
The objectives of mitigation measures are to reduce soil
erosion, augment soil moisture, restrict surface run-off of
rainwater and improve the efficiency of water use. It
involves a wide range of soil and water conservation
measures and farm practices.
• Water Harvesting and Conservation: processes and
structures of rainfall and runoff collection from large
catchments area and channelling them for human
consumption by using traditional methods or artificial
recharge of groundwater. It helps to rejuvenate
depleted high-capacity aquifers by adopting
integrated groundwater recharge techniques, such as
dams, tanks, anicuts, and percolation tanks, could
improve water availability and create a water buffer
for dealing with successive droughts.
• Drought Monitoring: It is continuous observation of

the rainfall situation, availability of water in the reservoirs, lakes, rivers etc. and comparing with the existing
water needs in various sectors of the society.
• Sowing drought resistant crops: By sowing drought resistant crops of cotton, Moong, pearl millet, wheat etc.,
the impact of drought could be mitigated to a certain extent.
• Livelihood planning identifies those livelihoods which are least affected by the drought. Some of such
livelihoods include increased off-farm employment opportunities, collection of non-timber forest produce from
the community forests, raising goats, carpentry etc.
• Suitable farming methods for arid areas: By adopting the following methods it is possible to mitigate the
intensity of drought. The methods are: Production of coarse and hardy cereals; conservation of soil moisture by
deep ploughing, storing water behind small dams, collecting water in ponds and tanks and use of sprinklers for
irrigation.
• Drought planning: the basic goal of drought planning is to improve the effectiveness of preparedness and
response efforts by enhancing monitoring, mitigation and response measures.
• Small quantity of water can irrigate comparatively larger area by using drip irrigation and sprinkler methods.
• Identification of ground water potential in the form of aquifers, transfer of river water from the surplus to the
deficit areas, and particularly planning for inter-linking of rivers and construction of reservoirs and dams.
• Cloud Seeding to assess the aerosol characteristics, suitability of nuclides for cloud seeding and alternative types
of cloud seeding – (ground based or aerial, warm or cold cloud seeding etc.). A cloud seeding policy needs to be
formulated at National level and State level for creating required environment to regulate these measures.
Drought Crisis Management Plan, 2015
The NDMA manual sets out four important measures that a State government should take at the time of a drought,
with the Union government’s help.
• MGNREGA to provide immediate employment to drought-affected people.
• The public distribution mechanism should be strengthened to provide food and fodder
• initiate actions to recharge the groundwater table by building check dams and providing pipeline water and
other irrigation facilities
• The government should either waive off or defer farmer loans and arrange for crop loss compensation.
Existing Challenges in Drought Management
• Drought management encompasses three vital components namely,
✓ drought intensity assessment and monitoring;
✓ drought declaration and prioritization of areas for drought management and
✓ development and implementation of drought management strategies
Each step in drought management lacks holistic approach to ensure effective end result.
• Development of standard procedures for drought vulnerability assessment and generation of vulnerability maps
in each state needs to be done.
• Absence of Crisis Management Authority
for drought to manage the various phases
of drought.
• Ineffective dissemination of credible and
verified information on relevant aspects of
drought to the people and media.
• Ineffective monitoring and early warning
system to provide accurate and timely
information on rainfall, crop sown area,
data on soil moisture, stream flow,
groundwater, lake and reservoir storage.
• Half hearted attempts to detect drought
conditions as early as possible in order to

implement District Agriculture Contingency Plans and the Crisis Management Plan.
• Lack of community participation.
Slow onset Disasters
Disasters can also be classified as ‘slow onset’ disasters and ‘rapid onset’ disasters. Earthquakes, cyclones, floods, tsunamis
would fall under the category of rapid onset disasters; climate change (global warming), desertification, soil degradation, and
droughts, would fall under the category of slow onset disasters.
Slow onset disasters are also termed as ‘Creeping Emergencies’. It may be added that with ‘prevention’ forming an integral part
of the ‘management cycle’, slow onset disasters like global warming, and desertification must find adequate reflection in
disaster preparedness - these phenomena gradually erode the ‘health’ of ecosystems and expose societies to the vagaries of
nature. Unlike the rapid onset disasters, their impact is not felt immediately; however societies lose their ability to derive
sustenance from their surroundings, over a period of time. Development policies and the manner in which they are
implemented are some of the main reasons for the slow onset disasters.
[UPSC Question: Which parts of India were mainly affected by the severe drought of 1987-88? What were its main
consequences? (88/II/6b/20)]
[UPSC Question: Write note on Causes of droughts in India. (2005)]
[UPSC Question: Drought has been recognized as a disaster in view of its spatial expanse, temporal duration, slow
onset and lasting effects on vulnerable sections. With a focus on the September 2010 guidelines from the National
Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), discuss the mechanisms for preparedness to deal with likely EI Nino and
La Nina fallouts in India. (2014)]
3.2.10. Heat Wave
What is a Heat Wave?
A Heat Wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal maximum temperature that occurs
during the summer season in the North-Western parts of India. Heat Waves typically occur between March and June,
and in some rare cases even extend till July.
How do heat waves occur?
Causes of Heat Waves Heat waves occur when a ridge of high
• Hot winds blowing from deserts with the dry winds on surface pressure sits over a region for an extended
• Anticyclone formations leading to no cloud formation and period of time, bringing down dry, hot air to
the ground. As the air sinks, it warms and
thunderstorm activity which fails to balance the temperature
compresses and it becomes very hot by the
• Rising global temperatures due to climate change and global time it reaches the surface.
warming
This hot air quickly heats up the ground,
• Shifts in air currents and weather patterns due to shifting of
which raises the air temperature. Since the
pressure belts centre of high pressure areas are usually cloud
• Depletion of Ozone layer free, the direct sunlight further raises the day
• Jet streams time temperature creating a heat wave.
Signs of Heat Waves
• Unreasonable Warmth- at least 9 degrees Celsius higher temperature than the average temperature of the
region.
• Humidity- presence of high moisture in the air at higher temperatures can be extremely uncomfortable.
• Duration of heat in the region for a minimum time interval of five days.
• Lack of moisture in soil
Heat Wave Risks in India
Higher daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becomingly increasingly frequent globally
due to climate change. India too is feeling the impact of climate change in terms of increased instances of heat
waves which are more intense in nature with each passing year and have a devastating impact on human health
thereby increasing the number of heat wave casualties.

In India, April to June is a typical heat wave season. June is the onset month of Southwest Monsoon when summer-
like conditions leave Peninsular and Central India but remains in North India . Cities are hotter than rural areas due to
population density, pollution from industrial activities and presence of buildings.
The combination of exceptional heat stress and a predominantly rural population makes India vulnerable to heat
waves. Heat wave per say is more prominent in the interiors of the country. Hilly regions, Northeast India and coastal
stations generally do not witness heatwave conditions. Heat waves prevail in pockets of Haryana, Delhi,
Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Karnataka.
Consequences of Heat Waves
• Effects on Human Health
✓ High moisture at high temperature doesn’t let body sweat to evaporate easily to cool itself and body
temperature raises eventually causing sickness.
✓ Heat stroke, Heat exhaustion, Heat cramps
✓ Dehydration, nausea, dizziness, headaches
✓ Diseases transmitted by chemical air
✓ Heat waves is one of the biggest killers amongst all natural calamities
• Effects on Nature
✓ Heat waves can lead to droughts with decrease in moisture in the air and soil. Moisture in soil helps in
cooling down the temperature by evaporation
✓ Some species may disappear. Few new species may appear which are heat resistant.
✓ Adaptations in lifestyle and behaviour of few organisms
✓ Wildfires in open areas or forests become frequent due to heat waves.
✓ Coral bleaching in oceans can rise
✓ Huge damage to crops leading to food shortage
• Effects on Infrastructure and Economy
✓ Heat tests the ability of infrastructure to withstand the pressure created by increased energy demand.
Electricity transmission line expands due to heat
✓ Transport services gets impacted
✓ Loss of labour efficiency
Criteria for Heat Wave in India
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has given the following criteria for Heat Waves:
Heat wave need not be considered till maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40ºC for Plains and at
least 30ºC for Hilly regions.
• When normal maximum temperature of a station is less than or equal to 40ºC
✓ Heat Wave Departure from normal is 5º C to 6º C
✓ Severe Heat Wave Departure from normal is 7º C or more
• When normal maximum temperature of a station is more than 40º C

✓ Heat Wave Departure from normal is 4º C to 5º C

✓ Severe Heat Wave Departure from normal is 6º C or more
• When actual maximum temperature remains 45ºC or more irrespective of normal maximum temperature, heat
wave should be declared.
Heat Wave Hazard Mitigation
• Four criteria are important for prevention and mitigation of heat waves:
✓ forecasting heat waves and enabling an early warning system;
✓ building capacity of healthcare professionals to deal with heat wave-related emergencies;
✓ community outreach through various media; and
✓ inter-agency cooperation as well as engagement with other civil society organizations in the region
• Create a list of the high-risk areas of the city vulnerable to heat waves for more focused activities on heat
prevention. For example- Adoption of a ‘Heat Action Plan’ (HAP)
• Build on the “Green Cover” activity to establish tree-plantation campaign in hotspot areas such as roadsides and
during plantation festival in June.
• Discuss establishing cooling centre facilities in high-risk areas around city.
• Public awareness- Conduct training workshops and outreach sessions with community groups and mobilizers
such as Mahila Arogya Samiti, Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA), ASHA workers, aanganwadis, and
municipal councils to help inform and get vulnerable communities more actively involved, including women.
Incorporate other sectors such as higher education, non-profits, and community leaders to increase reach to
communities.
• Protect environment. Adopt sustainable environment practices.
Existing Challenges in Heat Wave Management
▪ Lack of research using sub-district level data to provide separate indices for urban and rural areas to enable more
targeted geographical interventions.
▪ Narrow analysis of urban ward-level data to provide intra-city vulnerability patterns.
▪ Less active usage of available provisions of public messaging (radio, TV), mobile phone-based text messages,
automated phone calls and alerts.
▪ Lack of Public awareness like promotion of traditional adaptation practices, such as staying indoors and wearing
comfortable clothes.
▪ Half-hearted attempts for popularization of simple design features such as shaded windows, underground water
storage tanks and insulating housing materials.
▪ Unavailability of provision of drinking water within housing premises and indoor toilets.
3.2.11. Cold Waves
What is a Cold Wave?
A cold wave is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by marked cooling of air, or the invasion of very cold air,
over a large area. It can also be a prolonged period of the excessively cold weather, which may be accompanied by
high winds that cause excessive wind chills. Cold waves can be preceded or accompanied by significant winter
weather events, such as blizzards or ice storms.
Causes of Cold Waves
Cold waves over India are primarily due to transport of cold air from higher latitudes. It is usually associated with El-
Nino, cyclonic activities and Jet streams (western disturbances).
Western disturbances manifest as eastward moving well marked troughs in the upper tropospheric westerlies north
of 20° N and often extend to the lower troposphere. It transports cold air from northern latitudes into India. There
are also few instances of occurrence of cold waves due to a low pressure system over the North Arabian Sea. In these
cases, the easterlies to the north of the low pressure system transport cold air from higher latitudes.

Cold waves Risks in India

Cold waves that occur during winter months from
November to February exert considerable stress to the
people of northern India. During cold wave episodes, a
drop of more than 4°C is observed in minimum
temperatures, and these episodes generally persist for 3–
5 days and their occurrence peaks in the month of
January.
Distribution pattern for Cold waves in India
Northern India:
December and January are the coldest months in the
northern plain. The night temperature may go below
freezing point in Punjab and Rajasthan. Reasons for the
excessive cold in north India can be:
▪ States like Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan being far
away from the moderating influence of sea
experience continental climate.
▪ The snowfall in the nearby Himalayan ranges creates
cold wave situation; and
▪ Around February, the cold winds coming from the
Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan bring cold wave along with frost and fog over the north western parts of India.
The peninsular region:
The Peninsular region of India does not have any well-defined cold weather season. There is hardly any seasonal
change in the distribution pattern of the temperature in coastal areas because of moderating influence of the sea,
and proximity to the equator.
Impacts of Cold waves
▪ Along with frost it can cause damage to agriculture, infrastructure, property
▪ heavy snowfall and extreme cold can immobilize an entire region
▪ snowstorm resulting into flooding, storm surge, closed highways, blocked roads, downed power lines and
hypothermia
▪ economic and human losses

Cold Wave Hazard Mitigation

• In case of cold wave/frost situation, States needs to initiate location specific measures as outlined in District Crop
Contingency Plans and in consultation with respective State Agricultural Universities to minimise its impact.
• Farmers are to provide light irrigation as per need, immediately prune damaged tips of branches or shoot, burn
leave/waste material in the orchard to create smoke and manage rejuvenation of damaged crops through
pruning of dead material, application of extra doses of fertilizer through foliar sprays.
• Plan for the potential to convert schools and other
public buildings into shelters to keep vulnerable
citizens out of the cold.
• Remain aware of the effects that exposure to
extreme cold has on children, the elderly, as well as
those already ill, and promote outreach and
preparedness efforts.
• Insulate any water lines running along exterior walls
so your water supply will be less likely to freeze.
• Adequate preparedness of the community and local
governments can prevent deaths due to cold waves.
Existing Challenges in Cold Wave Hazard Management
• As Cold Wave/Frost is a localised disaster event,
location specific mitigation plans should be drawn
up by the concerned State Governments instead of
a National level plan.
• Lack of participation at community level like SHGs,
PRIs.
• Lack of preparedness in advance.
3.2.12. Wild Fires
What is Wild fire?
A wildfire is simply an uncontrolled fire that is wiping out large fields and areas of land. These fires sometimes burn
for days and weeks. They can wipe out an entire forest and destroy almost every organic matter in it.
Causes of Wild fires
Wild land fire spread is influenced by three primary factors – weather, topography, and fuel. Wild fires are caused by
Natural causes as well as Manmade causes.

• Natural causes- such as lightning which set trees on fire. However, rain extinguishes such fires without causing
much damage. High atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low humidity) offer favourable circumstance for a
fire to start.
• Man made causes- for example- when a source of fire like naked flame, cigarette or bidi, electric spark or any
source of ignition comes into contact with inflammable material. More than 95% forest fires in India are
manmade.
Types of Forest Fire
There are two types of forest fire:
• Surface Fire- A forest fire may burn primarily as a surface fire, spreading along the ground as the surface litter
(senescent leaves and twigs and dry grasses etc.) on the forest floor and is engulfed by the spreading flames.
• Crown Fire- The other type of forest fire is a crown fire in which the crown of trees and shrubs burn, often
sustained by a surface fire. A crown fire is particularly very dangerous in a coniferous forest because resinous
material given off burning logs burn furiously. On hill slopes, if the fire starts downhill, it spreads up fast as
heated air adjacent to a slope tends to flow up the slope spreading flames along with it. If the fire starts uphill,
there is less likelihood of it spreading downwards.
Indicators of Wild Fires
• Visible flames and smoke column
• Reduced visibility due to the smoke obscuring the sun
• The sound of burning and the increased movement of air
• The smell of burning vegetation
Wild fires Risks in India
India, with a forest cover of 76.4 million
hectares, contains a variety of climate zones,
including the tropical south, north western
deserts, Himalayan mountains, and the wet
north-east. Forests are widely distributed in
the country. The forest vegetation in the
country varies from tropical evergreen
forests in the West Coast and in the
Northeast to alpine forests in the Himalayas
in the North. In between the two extremes,
there are semi-evergreen forests, deciduous
forests, sub-tropical broad-leaved hill forests,
sub-tropical pine forests, and sub-tropical
montane temperate forests.
With increasing population pressure, the forest cover of the country is deteriorating at an alarming rate. Along with
various factors, forest fires are a major cause of degradation of Indian forests. According to a Forest Survey of India
Report, about 50 percent of forest areas in the country are fire prone (ranging from 50 percent in some states to 90
percent in the others). About 6 percent of the forests are prone to severe fire damage.
Distribution pattern for Wild fires in India
Various regions of the country have different normal and peak fire seasons, which normally vary from January to
June. In the plains of northern and central India, most of the forest fires occur between February and June. In the
hills of northern India fire season starts later and most of the fires are reported between April and June. In the
southern part of the country, fire season extends from January to May. In the Himalayan region, fires are common in
May and June.

The vulnerability of the Indian forests to fire varies from place to place depending upon the type of vegetation and
the climate. The coniferous forest in the Himalayan region is very prone to fire. Every year there are one or two
major incidences of forest fire in this region. The other parts of the country dominated by deciduous forests are also
damaged by fire.
Impacts of Wild fires

• Huge investment by the government to suppress wildfires.
• Increase the potential for flooding, debris flows, and landslides.
• Smoke and other emissions contain pollutants that can cause significant health problems.
• Losses in productivity of the land, impacts on regeneration of species, and deleterious impacts on water shed
• Global warming, soil erosion, loss of fuel, wood and fodder, damage to water
• Short-term effects: destruction of timber, forage, wildlife habitats, scenic vistas, and watersheds
• Long-term effects: reduced access to recreational areas; destruction of community infrastructure and cultural
and economic resources

Benefits of forest fires

• Wild fires are sometimes a natural process, and help forests by promoting flowering, branching and seedling
establishment. Fires that are limited to the surface may help in the natural regeneration of forests. The heating
of the soil may result in helpful microbial activity, and hasten decaying processes that are useful for the
vegetation.
• Recent research on the ecology and bio-geographical origin of these forests indicates that fire occurrence and
light availability are important factors that maintain the ecosystem.
• Also, frequent, low-intensity forest fires possibly prevent the proliferation of many invasive species which act as
fuel for the spread of forest fires.
Wild fires Hazard Mitigation
During the British period, fire was prevented in the summer through removal of forest litter all along the
forest boundary. This was called Forest Fire Line, and was used to prevent fire breaking into the forest from one
compartment to another.
• A full spectrum of strategies that can be used to reduce wildland fire risks in the unincorporated area are as
follows:
✓ Vegetation Management – Investigate methods of vegetation management including fuel breaks, prescribed
burning, mechanical clearing, biological brush control, and chemical brush control.
✓ Codes and Ordinances – Review the existing codes relating to wildfires including building codes and
vegetation clearance requirements around structures located in wild land-urban interface areas.
✓ Bark Beetle Management – Investigate methods for bark beetle eradication or control.
✓ Public Education – Expand strategies to educate the public on the essential steps for and the benefits of
reducing fire risks.
• Initiate research in the fields of fire detection, suppression, and fire ecology for better management of forest
fires.
• The fire spreads only if there is continuous supply of fuel (Dry vegetation) along its path. The best way to control
a forest fire is therefore, to prevent it from spreading, which can be done by creating firebreaks in the shape of
small clearings of ditches in the forests.
• Participation of the volunteers not only for fire fighting but also to keep watch on the start of forest and sound
an alert.
• Arrange fire fighting drills frequently.
• Proper utilisation of media and available technologies for dissemination of exact information to the people and
the government.
Existing Challenges in Wild fires Hazard Management
The incidence of forest fires in the country is on the increase and more area is burned each year. The major cause of
this failure is the piecemeal approach to the problem. Both the national focus and the technical resources required
for sustaining a systematic forest fire management programme are lacking in the country.
• Inadequate research on previous wildfires, including ignition sources, burn severity patterns, season of burning,
and fire size
• Half hearted attempts to study the effects of post fire runoff and erosion on aquatic ecosystems and species
• Narrow spatial reach to monitor and provide early warnings using new technology, sensor webs, and satellite
technology
• Need to develop tools and methods to minimize impacts on human life and property, especially in the wild land
urban interface
• We never ask village communities to participate in managing forest resources, but expect their support at times
of crisis. Such attitude and approach should be changed by making them aware of the situation and teach them
what to do in case of such emergencies.

• There is a need to establish a National Institute of Forest Fire Management with satellite centres in different
parts of the country.
• Important forest fire management elements like strategic fire centres, coordination among Ministries, funding,
human resource development, fire research, fire management, and extension programmes are missing.
Way ahead
Instead of viewing forest fires as being purely destructive in nature, forest managers should perhaps expand their
worldview and be more inclusive to information from ecological and local knowledge systems that view fires as
being both rejuvenating and revitalising.
3.3. Man Made Disasters
3.3.1. Biological Disaster
What is Biological Disaster?
Biological disasters might be caused by epidemics, accidental release of virulent microorganism(s) or Bioterrorism
(BT) with the use of biological agents such as anthrax, smallpox, etc. In recent times travelling has become easier.
More and more people are travelling all over the world which exposes the whole world to epidemics.
Types of Biological Disasters
Biological disasters may be in the form of:
• Epidemic affecting a disproportionately large number of individuals within a population, community, or region at
the same time, examples being Cholera, Plague, Japanese Encephalitis (JE)/Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES);
or,
• Pandemic is an epidemic that spreads across a large region, that is, a continent, or even worldwide of existing,
emerging or re-emerging diseases and pestilences, example being Influenza H1N1 (Swine Flu).
Causes of Epidemics
• Poor sanitary conditions leading to contamination of food and water or
• due to inadequate disposal of human or animal carcasses in post disaster situations

• They become real dangers during floods and earthquakes.

• Poor solid waste management may create epidemics like plague.
Incidence of plague is quite uncommon now but it can still occur claiming many human lives and disrupting normal
life as it did in Surat in 1994.
Methods of Dissemination Used by Bio-terrorists
• Aerosols- biological agents are dispersed into the air forming a fine mist that may drift for miles.
• Animals- fleas, mice, flies, mosquitoes and livestock
• Food and Water contamination- some pathogenic organisms and toxins may persist in food and water supplies.
• Person to person- small pox, plague and the Lassa viruses.
Major sources of Epidemics in India
In India, the major sources of epidemics can be broadly categorized as follows:
• Water-borne diseases like cholera (and forms of gastroenteritis), typhoid, Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B etc. - major
epidemics of such diseases have been recorded in the past and continue to occur;
• Vector-borne (often mosquito-borne) epidemics like dengue fever, chikungunya fever, Japanese encephalitis,
malaria, kala-azar etc., which usually occur in certain regions of the country;
• Person to person transmission of diseases e.g. AIDS and other venereal diseases; and
• Air-borne diseases like influenza and measles that can also be transmitted through fomites (used clothes etc.).
In addition to the above, there are certain types of emerging infectious diseases such as epidemic of Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), which had occurred in China or the recent outbreak of avian flu in poultry in certain
parts of the country and which has the potential of being transmitted to human beings. Epidemics due to the
Dengue virus have occurred in many metropolitan cities of India and outbreak of various other types of viral diseases
is also a recurring phenomena.
Trends Favouring Biological Disaster
• Low cost and wide spread availability
• More efficient in terms of coverage per kilogram of payload
• Advances in biotechnology has made production easy
• Used agents are largely natural pathogens to simulate existing diseases
• Have unmatched destructive potential
• Lethal biological agents can be produced easily and cheaply
• The lag time between infection and appearance of symptoms are longer than with chemical exposure.
Consequences of Biological Disaster
• It can result into heavy mortalities in the short term leading to a depletion of population with a corresponding
drop in economic activity
• It leads to diversion of substantial resources of an economy to contain the disaster.
• Bio weapons of mass destruction
Prevention and Mitigation Measures
• The general population should be educated and made aware of the threats and risks associated with it.
• Only cooked food and boiled/chlorinated/filtered water should be consumed.
• Insects and rodent control measures must be initiated immediately.
• Clinical isolation of suspected and confirmed cases is essential.
• A network of laboratories should be established for proper laboratory diagnosis.
• Existing diseases surveillance system as well as vector control measures have to be pursued more rigorously.
• Mass immunisation programs in suspected areas have to be followed more rigorously.
• More focus should be given on the research of the vaccines which are not available.

Existing Challenges
The essential challenges posed by natural and artificial outbreaks of disease (bioterrorism) include:
• The development of mechanisms for prompt detection of incipient outbreaks
• Mobilisation of investigational and therapeutic countermeasures
• International collaboration as epidemics do not respect national borders
• No plan for prevention of post-disaster epidemics
• Yet to be devised an integrated disease surveillance system
• Absence of standard risk and vulnerability assessment plans.
• Lack of indicators and field-tested variables for various locations vulnerable to acts of biological terrorism.
• Non-availability of risk-zonation maps, especially for computing the trans-frontier spread.
• No comprehensive studies have been performed to assess the linkages between various global attacks and
enhanced risk potential in the Indian context.
• A multi-dimensional information network and flow of information on various biological agents amongst
stakeholders is lacking.
• Detailing the role of the emergency functionaries, vis-à-vis the intelligence gathering agencies is also grossly
inadequate.
• Lack of capability for collection of samples and proper dispatch to laboratories.
• Inadequate facilities for early detection and characterisation of biological agents at an incident site.
Steps Required for Biological Disaster Management
• Legal framework - The Epidemic Diseases Act was enacted in 1897 and needs to be repealed. This Act does not
provide any power to the centre to intervene in biological emergencies. It has to be substituted by an Act which
takes care of the prevailing and foreseeable public health needs including emergencies such as BT attacks and
use of biological weapons by an adversary, cross-border issues, and international spread of diseases
• Operational framework - At the national level, there is no policy on biological disasters. The existing
contingency plan of MoH&FW is about 10 years old and needs extensive revision. All components related to
public health, namely apex institutions, field epidemiology, surveillance, teaching, training, research, etc., need
to be strengthened.
• Command, control and coordination - One of the lessons learned during the plague outbreak in Surat in 1994
and avian influenza in 2006 is the need to strengthen coordination with other sectors like animal health, home
department, communication, media, etc., on a continuous basis for the management of outbreaks of this nature
• Augmentation in human resource - There is a shortage of medical and paramedical staff at the district and sub-
district levels. There is also an acute shortage of public health specialists, epidemiologists, clinical
microbiologists and virologists. There have been limited efforts in the past to establish teaching/training
institutions for these purposes.
• Basic infrastructural setup – Biosafety laboratories for prompt diagnosis, network of sub centres, PHCs and
CHCs, dispensaries with stockpile of essential vaccines and medicines need to be expanded to handle epidemic.
3.3.2. Industrial Disasters
What are Industrial Disasters?
Industrial hazards are threats to people and life-support systems that arise from
the mass production of goods and services. When these threats exceed human
coping capabilities or the absorptive capacities of environmental systems they give
rise to industrial disasters. Industrial hazards can occur at any stage in the
production process, including extraction, processing, manufacture, transportation,
storage, use, and disposal.

Forms of Industrial Disasters

• Accident release- Occurring during the production, transportation or handling of hazardous chemical
substances. (e.g. chemicals, radioactivity, genetic materials)
• Explosions- Disasters will only be classified as
explosions when the explosions are the actual disaster.
If the explosion is the cause of another disaster, the
event will be classified as the resulting disaster.
• Chemical explosion- Violent destruction caused by
explosion of combustible material, nearly always of
chemical origin.
• Nuclear explosion/Radiation- Accidental release of
radiation occurring in civil facilities, exceeding the
internationally established safety levels.
• Mine explosion- Accidents which occur when natural gas or coal dust reacts with the air.
• Pollution- Degradation of one or more aspects in the environment by noxious industrial, chemical or biological
wastes, from debris or man-made products and from mismanagement of natural and environmental resources.
• Acid rain- A washout of an excessive concentration of acidic compounds in the atmosphere, resulting from
chemical pollutants such as sulphur and nitrogen compounds. When deposited these increase the acidity of the
soil and water causing agricultural and ecological damage.
• Chemical pollution- A sudden
pollution of water or air near
industrial areas, leading to
internal body disorders with
permanent damage of the skin.
• Atmosphere pollution-
Contamination of the
atmosphere by large quantities
of gases, solids and radiation
produced by the burning of
natural and artificial fuels,
chemicals and other industrial
processes and nuclear
explosions.
Consequences of Industrial Disaster
include- the loss of lives or injury,
pain, suffering, property damage,
social and economic disruption and
environmental degradation.
Industrial Disaster Risk in India
India has witnessed the world’s worst chemical (industrial) disaster “Bhopal Gas Tragedy” in the year 1984. It was
most devastating chemical accident in history, where over thousands of people died due to accidental release of
toxic gas Methyl Iso Cyanate (MIC).
India continued to witness a series of chemical accidents even after Bhopal had demonstrated the vulnerability of
the country. Only in last decade, 130 significant chemical accidents reported in India, which resulted into 259 deaths
and 563 number of major injured.
There are about 1861 Major Accident Hazard (MAH) units, spread across 301 districts and 25 states & 3 Union
Territories, in all zones of country. Besides, there are thousands of registered and hazardous factories (below MAH

criteria) and un-organized sectors dealing with numerous range of hazardous material posing serious and complex
levels of disaster risks. With rapid industrialization, the threat of industrial disasters has increased.
Industrial Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Strategies
• Design and Pre-modification review: this involves proper layout, facilities and material selection. Research
should be done try to substitute extremely toxic chemicals with safer ones. Less chemicals should be stored; a
reduction in inventory will automatically mean less damage if an accident is to occur.
• Chemical Risk Assessment: Chemicals are assessed based on compatibility, flammability, toxicity, explosion
hazards and storage.
• Process Safety Management: reliability assessment of process equipment, incorporating safety trips and
interlocks, scrubbing system, etc. should be done before effecting major process changes. Management should
try to develop a culture of safety in industrial organizations
• Safety Audits: Periodical assessment of safety procedures and practices, performance of safety systems and
gadgets along with follow up measures should be carried out.
• Emergency Planning: A comprehensive risk analysis indicating the impact of consequences and specific written
down and practiced emergency procedures along with suitable facilities should be done. This can be done by
communities as well as national or regional corporation authorities
• Training: Proper training of employees and protective services should be done.
• Special times and escorts for dangerous vehicles
• Public Cooperation on the road: the public should cooperate with the police and any tankers and heavy duty
vehicles to avoid accidents and allow for the shortest possible on road time for dangerous vehicles.
• Public awareness: Everyone should be aware of potential disasters and informed of protective and safety
measures. Cautions must be placed to standout on dangerous household and car care products.
• Proper storage of hazardous Materials: All chemicals and hazardous materials should be kept at proper storage
temperature and in locked cupboards away from children and animals. Also, if reactive substances are stored, it
should be stored is a watertight container.
• Proper and safe disposal of hazardous waste to be ensured as per existing regulations.
• Transition towards the use of safer alternatives and adoption of safer, affordable and sustainable technologies
and processes
• Strict implementation of land use policy should be there. A legislation on the buffer zone (or to be referred as
‘no man’s’ zone) should be introduced so that residential/ slum colonies are not established in proximity to
industries. The already settled residential colonies need to be relocated.
• A scheme for giving good performance awards to industries for achieving exemplary safety standards and
statutory compliance shall be developed and implemented.
Existing Challenges
• In spite of the existence of a large number of laws, their enforcement has left much to be desired.
• Lack of understanding and research towards devising a sustainable solution to the issue of industrial disasters
• No adequate separation of parameters, awareness and preparedness for such disasters.
• Absence of national regulations on occupational safety and health and medical emergency management.
• Harmonisation of classification and definitions in existing regulations including petroleum and petroleum
products.
• Absence of regulations on storage and transportation of cryogenics.
• Lack of legislation on risk assessment requirements and classification, labeling and packaging for industrial
chemicals.
• Non-availability of statutes for grant of compensation to chemical accident victims.
• Harmonisation and incorporation of international laws in chemical management.

Steps Required to be Taken

• Need to identify technical competent authorities and standardisation of reporting mechanisms for the status of
implementation of various chemical disaster-related activities.
• Greater focus on need to understand industrial disaster. These are not simply safety problems that need to be
resolved. They also have wider significance because they offer important opportunities to learn about the
"goodness of fit" between society, technology, and environment and about how that fit can be strengthened or
weakened by unexpected events. This is the kind of information that will be invaluable to humanity during an
era of deep and far-reaching societal and environmental change.
• It is time to make a clear distinction between two types of industrial disasters - "routine" disasters and
"surprises". Routine disasters are well understood by experts and susceptible to management using long
established principles and practices. Surprises are quite different and much less understood. They include
disasters like Bhopal and Chernobyl and Minamata events or their consequences or both - that lie outside the
realm of previous experience. It will help in better preparation of mitigation strategies and policies.
3.3.3. Nuclear Hazards
What is a Nuclear Hazard?
It is a risk or danger to human health or the environment posed by radiation emanating from atomic nuclei of a given
substance, or the possibility of an uncontrolled explosion originating from a fusion or fission reaction of atomic
nuclei. The phenomenon is known as Radioactivity and the emission of energy released from the radioactive
substance is called as “Radioactive Pollution”.
Sources of Nuclear Hazard
• Natural Resources: Cosmic rays from the outer space, emissions from the radioactive materials from the earth’s
crust.
• Man-Made Sources: Nuclear power plants, X-Rays, nuclear bombs, nuclear accidents, nuclear weapons, mining
and processing of radioactive ores.
Nuclear emergencies can also arise due to factors beyond the control of the operating agencies; e.g., human error,
system failure, sabotage, earthquake, cyclone, flood, etc. Such failures, even though of very low probability, may lead
to an on-site or off-site emergency. It can also take place while using radiation sources, either at Hospitals,
Industries, Agriculture or Research Institutions due to loss or misplacement or due to faulty handling.
Nuclear Hazard risk in India
India has traditionally been vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its unique geo climatic conditions and it
has, of late, like all other countries in the world, become equally vulnerable to various man-made disasters.
Nuclear power is one of the biggest sources of electricity in India. India has a flourishing and largely indigenous
nuclear power programme and expects to have 14.6 GWe nuclear capacity on line by 2024 and 63 GWe by 2032. It
aims to supply 25% of electricity from nuclear power by 2050. Nuclear and Radiological Emergency can arise in a
nuclear facility at plant level leading to plant/ site or offsite emergency depending upon the extent of its impact on
the surroundings.

Impacts of Nuclear Hazard

• Death, acute or chronic debilitation, or increased
risk of cancer, cataract in eyes, hair loss
• Radiation Sickness: A person's risk of getting sick
depends on how much radiation the body
absorbs. Radiation sickness is often fatal and can
produce such symptoms as bleeding and shedding
of the lining on the gastrointestinal tract.
• Damage or destruction of agricultural products –
animals and crops
• Degradation of environmental resources
• Devaluation or loss of use of public and private
property
• Genetic changes in the generations to come by
mutation
Nuclear Hazard Mitigation Strategies
• There are four ways in which people are protected from identified radiation sources:
✓ Limiting time. In occupational situations, dose is reduced by limiting exposure time.
✓ Distance. The intensity of radiation decreases with distance from its source.
✓ Shielding. Barriers of lead, concrete or water give good protection from high levels of penetrating radiation
such as gamma rays. Intensely radioactive materials are therefore often stored or handled under water, or by
remote control in rooms constructed of thick concrete or lined with lead.

✓ Containment. Highly radioactive materials are confined and kept out of the workplace and environment.
Nuclear reactors operate within closed systems with multiple barriers which keep the radioactive materials
contained.
• Promoting flexibility in management of emergencies, for efficient use of resources.
• Maintenance of full-time capability for immediate response
• Ensuring the responders, plans, facilities, and any necessary inter-organizational coordination are sufficient to
provide the desired protection.
• Appropriate steps and measures to be taken against occupational exposure and safety measures for nuclear
accidents.
Steps Taken by GoI
• With increased emphasis on power generation through nuclear technology, the threat of nuclear hazards has
also increased. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) has been identified as the nodal agency in the country in
respect of manmade radiological emergencies in the public domain.
• Nuclear facilities in India have adopted internationally accepted guidelines for ensuring safety to the public and
environment.
• A crisis management system is also in place to take care of any nuclear hazard.
• Other types of emergency response plans in place within the facility to handle local emergencies, response plans
have also been drawn up for handling such emergencies in the public domain, which are called as “offsite
Emergencies”.
• These plans, drawn up separately in detail for each site - which are under the jurisdiction of the local district
administration, cover an area of about 16 km radius around the plant or the offsite Emergency Planning Zone.
Mobile Radiation Detection System (MRDS)
NDMA, as part of a pilot project on national level preparedness to cope with Radiological Emergencies, has taken an
initiative to equip police and NDRF personnel for management of radiological emergencies in public domain.
3.3.4. Crowd Management
What do you mean by Crowd
Management?
It encompasses law enforcement,
management, intervention, and
control strategies while responding
to all forms of public assemblies
and gatherings. It also refers
specifically to strategies and tactics
employed before, during, and after
a gathering for the purpose of
maintaining the event’s lawful
activities where as, crowd control
is restriction or limitation of group behaviour.
Need for Managing Crowd
Large crowds create annoyances and difficulties to a section of society leading to severe traffic delays, pollution,
stampede, fights among people, riots, alteration in landscape and ultimately become source of medical emergencies
and disasters. In recent years India has witnessed many such events which resulted into great causalities.
Causes and Triggers for Crowd Disasters
• Structural Collapse
✓ of the barriers or temporary structures
✓ Barriers on the way

✓ Poor guard railings

✓ Poorly lit stairway, narrow staircase
✓ Absence of emergency exits
• Fire/Electricity
✓ Wooden structure catching fire
✓ Electricity supply failures
✓ Short circuits
• Crowd Control
✓ Lack of sectoral partition to segregate
crowd
✓ Lack of proper public address systems
✓ Uncontrolled parking and movement of
vehicles
✓ Reliance on one major exit route
• Crowd Behaviour
✓ A wild rush towards entrance or exits
✓ Rush during distribution of something
✓ Sudden mass evacuation
✓ Last minute change in platforms of trains
✓ Crowd in anger due to delay in start of a program
• Security
✓ Lack of CCTV surveillance of the crowd
✓ Absence of walky-talkies with security staff
✓ Lack of metal detector door frames
✓ Under development of security personnel to regulate crowd control
• Lack of Coordination between stakeholders
✓ coordination gap between agencies
✓ communication delays
✓ poor infrastructure
✓ Plans on paper and no implementation due to lack of funds
Prevention and Mitigation Strategies for Crowd Disaster
Crowd management, intervention, and control
strategies and tactical considerations may include:
• Establishing contact with the crowd,
understand crowd behaviour
• Gaining verbal compliance
• Capacity Planning
• Supporting and facilitating First Amendment
activities
• Developing a traffic management and/or
control plan
• Using crowd control strategy and dispersal
methods
• Protecting critical facilities
• Providing a high-visibility law enforcement
presence
• Proper transmission of information

NDMA Guidelines
Recently in 2017 NDMA has released crowd management guidelines to ‘Reduce risks this festive season’.
• Free movement: The first step is to regulate traffic in areas surrounding the pandals and Dussehra grounds.
✓ For pedestrians, route maps for reaching the venue and emergency exit route should be put up at strategic
points.
✓ Barricading to ensure the movement of people in a
queue is key to control a burgeoning crowd.
✓ Unauthorised parking and makeshift stalls eating
into pedestrian space also need to be taken care
of.
• Monitoring: CCTV cameras to monitor movement and
police presence to reduce the risk of snatching and
other petty crimes should also be on the organisers'
agenda.
• Medical emergencies can occur in claustrophobic
spaces. An ambulance and health care professionals on
stand-by can save lives in exigencies.
• For participants:
✓ Familiarizing with exit routes, staying calm and
following instructions will help prevent stampede-
like situations.
✓ In case a stampede breaks out, protect chest by
placing your hands like a boxer and keep moving in
the direction of the crowd.
✓ Stay alert to open spaces and move sideways wherever the crowd gets thinner. Stay away from walls,
barricades or bottlenecks such as doorways.
✓ Stay on your feet and get up quickly if you fall. If you can't get up, use your arms to cover your head and curl
up like a foetus so that your exposure area is reduced.
• Fire related: Unplanned and unauthorised electrical wiring at pandals, LPG cylinders at food stalls and crackers
hidden in the Ravana effigies pose the danger of a fire breaking out.
✓ Organisers should ensure authorised use of electricity, fire safety extinguishers and other arrangements
meeting safety guidelines. A list of neighbourhood hospitals would come in handy.


CHAPTER-4
4. International Cooperation and Current Developments
4.1. Global Frameworks for Disaster Risk Reduction
4.1.1. Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA): Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities
2005-2015
Five Priority Actions under the Hyogo Framework
India is a signatory of the Hyogo Framework for Action, which 1. Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national
was adopted globally to work towards the reduction of disaster and a local priority with a strong institutional
losses in lives and economic and environmental assets of basis for implementation.
communities and countries. The framework has set three 2. Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and
strategic goals and five priority action areas regarding the enhance early warning.
3. Use knowledge, innovation and education to
integration of disaster risk reduction (DRR) into sustainable
build a culture of safety and resilience at all
development policies, capacity building and preparedness and
levels.
vulnerability reduction. 4. Reduce the underlying risk factors.
The three strategic goals of the Hyogo Framework for Action 5. Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective
along with steps taken by India towards its implementation: response at all levels.
(a) Goal 1: "The more effective integration of disaster risk considerations into sustainable development policies,
planning and programming at all levels, with a special emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness
and vulnerability reduction;"
• With the enactment of the DM Act, 2005, and preparation of the disaster management plan, 2016, the
present focus of the government is to implement the various provisions under them.
• All the government programs are being designed following the principle of "do no harm".
(b) Goal 2: "The development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms and capacities at all levels, in
particular at the community level, that can systematically contribute to building resilience to hazards;"
• Strategies have been adopted to strengthen SDMAs and DDMAs.
• Comprehensive Human Resource Development Program is being prepared for the entire country.
• Partnerships with Civil Society are being strengthened.
(c) Goal 3: "The systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the design and implementation of
emergency preparedness, response and recovery programmes in the reconstruction of affected communities."
• "Build Back Better" is the underlining principle adopted by the Government for all post reconstruction and
recovery activities.
4.1.2. Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR)
The Sendai Framework is a 15-year, voluntary, non-binding agreement which recognizes that the State has the
primary role to reduce disaster risk but that responsibility should be shared with other stakeholders including local
government, the private sector and other stakeholders.
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 was adopted at the Third United Nations World
Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction, held in March 2015 in Sendai (Miyagi, Japan). It is the successor instrument
to the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to
Disasters.
India is committed to achieving the 7 goals set under the framework through systematic and sustainable efforts.

The Four Priorities for Action under the Sendai Sendai Framework’s Seven Global Targets
Framework 1. Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030,
aiming to lower average per 100,000 global mortalities
1. Understanding disaster risk: Disaster risk between 2020-2030 compared to 2005-2015;
management should be based on an 2. Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally
understanding of disaster risk in all its by 2030, aiming to lower the average global figure per
dimensions of vulnerability, capacity, exposure 100,000 between 2020-2030 compared to 2005-2015;
of persons and assets, hazard characteristics 3. Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to global
gross domestic product by 2030;
and the environment.
4. Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical
2. Strengthening disaster risk governance to infrastructure and disruption of basic services, among them
manage disaster risk: Disaster risk governance health and educational facilities, including through
at the national, regional and global levels is developing their resilience by 2030;
very important for prevention, mitigation, 5. Substantially increase the number of countries with national
preparedness, response, recovery, and and local disaster risk reduction strategies by 2020;
rehabilitation. It fosters collaboration and 6. Substantially enhance international cooperation to
partnership. developing countries through adequate and sustainable
3. Investing in disaster risk reduction for support to complement their national actions for
resilience: Public and private investment in implementation of the framework by 2030;
7. Substantially increase the availability of and access to multi-
disaster risk prevention and reduction through
hazard early warning systems and disaster risk information
structural and non-structural measures are and assessments to the people by 2030.
essential to enhance the economic, social,
health and cultural resilience of persons, communities, countries and their assets, as well as the environment.
4. Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response, and to "Build Back Better" in recovery, rehabilitation
and reconstruction: The recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction phase is a critical opportunity to build back
better, including through integrating disaster risk reduction into development measures.
India has been designated as the champion for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) for its efforts to facilitate regional
support towards enabling community resilience in the Asia-Pacific region. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk
Reduction (UNISDR) has declared India first regional champion after the Sendai Agreement.
The Sendai Framework Readiness Review, UNISDR 2017
Critical data gaps exist in specific areas of disaster loss, in all areas of international cooperation, and for many
aspects of early warning, risk information and disaster risk reduction strategies. The Review confirms that unless
gaps in data availability, quality and accessibility are addressed, countries’ ability to assure accurate, timely and high
quality monitoring and reporting of implementation across all Targets and Priorities of the Sendai Framework will be
severely impaired.
A Global Partnership for Disaster-related Data for Sustainable Development would facilitate a collaborative, multi-
stakeholder effort (bringing together governments, international organizations, the private sector, civil society
groups, and the statistics and data communities), to optimize and operationalize existing and future disaster-related
data in support of national and sub-national disaster risk reduction efforts.
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
In the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, ten of the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have
targets related to disaster risk, firmly establishing the role of disaster risk reduction in realizing the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development.
Paris Agreement at CoP 21
In the Paris Agreement, adopted at the 21st Conference of Parties to United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change in 2015, Member States committed to holding the global average temperature increase to well
below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the increase to 1.5°C, with the aim to
“significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change”

4.2. Partnerships with International Agencies

4.2.1. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction
The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) serves as the focal point for coordination among all
stakeholders involved in disaster reduction activities. The Government of India has contributed US$ 1 million in
November, 2016 in 7th Asian Ministerial Conference for Disaster Risk Reduction and signed a Statement of
Cooperation to promote regional capacity buildings for the Asia Pacific Region in the field of Disaster Risk Reduction
(DRR). UNISDR has established following mechanism/ vehicles to achieve its objectives:
The World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR)
It is a series of United Nations conferences focusing on disaster risk reduction and climate risk management in the
context of sustainable development. The conferences bring together government officials and other stakeholders to
discuss how to strengthen the sustainability of development by managing disaster and climate risks. The
conferences have been hosted by Japan: in Yokohama in 1994, in Kobe in 2005 and in Sendai in 2015.
Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (GPDRR)
It acts as the main global forum for emphasis on disaster risk reduction. It assesses the progress made in the
implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR). It meets biannually and Indian
delegation participated in it in Cancun, Mexico in 2017 where NDMA Guidelines on Museums was also launched
during the summit.
Asian Ministerial Conference for Disaster Risk Reduction (AMCDRR)
To monitor and share the country’s progress at a regional platform for Asian-Pacific region, AMCDRR was
conceptualized. It provides a platform for engagement of Ministers of about 61 countries, dealing with Disaster
Management for plan and policy making at regional level in line with the global framework on disaster risk
reduction. It meets biannually. The 2nd and 7th AMCDRR were hosted by Government of India in 2007 and 2016
respectively.
4.2.2. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA)
The United Nations office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) was formed in December 1991 by
the General Assembly to strengthen the response of United Nations Organizations to complex emergencies and
natural disasters. UNOCHA has established following mechanism/ vehicles to achieve its objectives:
United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC): It is a stand by team of disaster management
professionals which are nominated and funded by member governments, UNOCHA, UNDP and operational
humanitarian UN Agencies such as WFP, UNICEF and WHO. The Government of India joined the membership of
UNDAC in 2001.
International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG): It is a global network of more than 80 countries and
disaster response organizations under the United Nations umbrella. It deals with urban search and rescue (USAR)
related issues. Members of INSARAG are both earthquake-prone and responding countries and organisations.
Instructors from India participate in the mock exercises organized by the INSARAG. India was the Chairman of
INSARAG Asia Pacific Regional Group in 2005-06.
4.2.3. Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR)
The Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) is a global partnership program administered by the
World Bank Group. It helps developing countries - particularly those identified as the most vulnerable natural
disaster “hotspots” - enhance their capacity for disaster prevention, emergency preparedness, response, and
recovery. It also supports developing countries to:
• mainstream disaster risk management and climate change adaptation in development strategies and investment
programs, and
• Improve the quality and timeliness of resilient recovery and reconstruction following a disaster.

It was launched in September 2006 to support implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015 (HFA).
India became a member in 2013.
4.2.4. SAARC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC)
The 13th SAARC Summit at Dhaka in November 2005 considered the issues of regional cooperation for preparedness
and mitigation of national disasters and approved the offer of India to set up a SAARC Disaster Management Centre
(SDMC) in New Delhi.
South Asia Disaster Knowledge Network (SADKN)
SADKN web portal is a platform for networking and knowledge sharing for the region. It brings together various
agencies and creates an extensive knowledge network on disasters for the region to share information, data and
research in the field of DRR. It is a network of networks with one regional and eight national portals.
4.2.5. Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC)
A resolution was adopted at the United Nations General Assembly in 1997 to reduce damage from natural disasters
substantially by designating the 1990s as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. Following a series
of national conferences held during the period of 1994-1997 to discuss the cooperation for disaster reduction, a
ministerial level conference was held in Kobe, Japan in 1995 in which 28 countries from Asia and other regions
participated. It adopted the Kobe declaration which includes an agreement to consider the creation of a system,
which has the functions of a disaster reduction centre for the Asia region. The Asia Disaster Reduction Centre (ADRC)
was thus established in Kobe in 1998 following an agreement from the participating countries with the Japanese
government.
4.2.6. Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC)
Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC) is established in 1986 at Bangkok, Thailand. It is a non-profit, non-
political, autonomous, regional organization serving as a regional centre in Asia-Pacific for promoting disaster
preparedness, disaster mitigation, awareness generation, exchange of information, community participation etc. In
2004, the ADPC became an international body (inter-governmental organization).
4.2.7. ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF)
The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) was established in 1994. The ARF membership including India, which joined in
1996, is 25 countries. It is the Principle Forum for Security Dialogue in Asia and complements the various bilateral
alliances and dialogues, which underpin the region’s security architecture. The ARF is premised on the idea drawn
from the ASEAN experience that a process of dialogue can produce qualitative improvements in political
relationships. It provides a platform for members to discuss current regional security issues and develop cooperative
measures to enhance peace and security in the region.
As all ASEAN members are automatically ARF members, India is actively participating in the ARF meetings and
disaster relief exercises.
4.3. India's Leadership Initiatives

4.3.1. First International Workshop on Disaster Resilient Infrastructure, 2018
In pursuance with 1st point of Hon’ble Prime Minister’s 10 point agenda on Disaster Risk Reduction, National
Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) in collaboration with United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction
(UNISDR), organized first of its kind International Workshop on Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (IWDRI) on 15-16
January, 2018 in New Delhi.
The Workshop emphasized the role of risk resilient infrastructure. It identified best global practices prevailing in the
resilient infrastructure, as well as key challenges and gaps in existing practices and ways to address them. Potential
areas for collaboration among the stakeholders on disaster resilient infrastructure were also identified.

4.3.2. First Joint Disaster Management Exercise for BIMSTEC Countries, 2017 (BIMSTEC DMEx-
2017)
The Government of India hosted the first Annual Disaster Management Exercise for ‘Bay of Bengal Initiative for
Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation’ (BIMSTEC) countries (BIMSTEC DMEx-2017) in October, 2017 in
the National Capital Region (NCR). About 200 disaster professionals from all seven BIMSTEC countries participated
for the first time in table top and field exercises.
4.3.3. Asian Ministerial Conference for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2016
AMCDRR was established in 2005. It is a biennial conference jointly organized by different Asian countries and the
United Nations Office for Disaster. The November 2016, Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction
(AMCDRR) came up with the adoption of the ‘New Delhi Declaration’ and the ‘Asian Regional Plan for
Implementation of the Sendai Framework’. It was the first Asian Ministerial Conference for Disaster Risk Reduction
(AMCDRR) after the advent of the Sendai Framework for DRR. The Conference also commemorated the first World
Tsunami Awareness Day to spread awareness on Tsunami.
The theme of AMCDRR 2016 was “Risk Sensitive Development for Community Resilience”. The Conference concluded
with:
(i) A New Delhi Declaration, reaffirming the government and stakeholders’ commitment to Disaster Risk Reduction
and strengthening the resilience of communities, nations and the Asian region. It commits to a people-centred
and whole-of-society approach towards DRR.
(ii) Adoption of Asia Regional Plan for implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. It
arrived at a longer term road map of cooperation spanning the 15-year horizon of the Sendai Framework, as
well as a two-year action plan to further disaster risk reduction with specific, actionable activities.
4.3.4. Cooperation with UNIDSR, 2016
The Government of India and United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) signed a Statement of
Cooperation in November 2016 underlining the guiding principles and areas of cooperation between India and
UNISDR towards the effective implementation and monitoring of the Sendai Framework on Disaster Risk Reduction
(SFDRR).
India has partnered with UNISDR to strengthen the capacity of Asian countries in ensuring risk resilient
development. It will also share knowledge and experiences towards addressing critical regional challenges. The
cooperation aims to ensure effective implementation and monitoring of the Sendai Framework through training and
capacity building for Asian countries.
4.3.5. Meeting of BRICS Ministers for Disaster Management, 2016
The Meeting of BRICS Ministers for Disaster Management was held in August, 2016 in Udaipur, Rajasthan. The
Udaipur Declaration agreed for setting up a Joint Task Force on Disaster Risk Management (DRM) for regular
dialogue and collaboration among BRICS countries. The joint Task Force is expected to initiate the actions as agreed
in the Roadmap for implementation of the Joint Action Plan signed by the BRICS countries at the Udaipur Meet.
4.3.6. First Disaster Management Exercise with SAARC Countries in 2015
The Government of India organized the first South Asian Annual Disaster Management Exercise (SAADMex) in 2015.
All the SAARC member countries participated in first ever joint exercise conducted by the National Disaster Response
Force (NDRF) of India. The focus was to test the inter-governmental coordination and create synergy to synchronize
efforts to institutionalize regional cooperation on disaster response among the member countries of the SAARC
region. It was followed by the SAARC Regional Workshop on sharing best practices.
4.3.7. India-Pacific Sustainable Development Conference
India organised an India Pacific Islands Sustainable Development Conference in Suva, Fiji on 25-26 May, 2017 to
strengthen the resilience of Pacific nations by collaborating with them on DRR activities.

4.3.8. Other Planned Initiatives

Japan-Indo Workshop on Disaster Risk Reduction, 2018
As a part of agreement of Japan and India on Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR), a workshop on DRR would be organised
on 19-20 March 2018.
Joint Urban Earthquake Search and Rescue exercise of SCO member states in 2019
India became a member of Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) in 2017. Apart from India, SCO has seven other
member States (China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) and 4 observer States
(Afghanistan, Belarus, Iran and Mongolia).
During the 9th Meeting of Heads of Government authorities of Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) in
Kyrghyzthan in August, 2017, the Government of India announced that it will organise a Joint Urban Earthquake
Search and Rescue exercise of SCO member states to improve collective preparedness and also host the next
meeting of SCO head of departments dealing with disaster prevention in 2019.
4.4. Bilateral Agreements with Countries
4.4.1. Japan
A Memorandum of Cooperation (MoC) was signed between India and Japan in 2017 on Cooperation in the field of
Disaster Management. Both sides will exchange information and collaborate on disaster risk reduction and policies in
the areas of prevention, response and recover and reconstruction for "build back better". They will also collaborate
to share information, lessons and policies for tsunami risk reduction, including tsunami awareness, early warning
and preparedness. Recently, first India-Japan Workshop on Disaster Risk Reduction was inaugurated in March 2018
for cooperation in disaster risk reduction with particular emphasis on earthquake safety.
4.4.2. Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Countries
SCO Member States, inter-alia, have agreement on Disaster Relief Mutual Assistance, which calls for mutual
assistance among the SCO counties in disaster response.
4.4.3. Germany
A Joint Declaration of Intent on Cooperation in the field of Disaster Management between India and Germany on
cooperation in the field of disaster management was signed in October 2015. It seeks to exchange information and
other Scientific/Technological expertise in the field of Disaster Management. It also aims to provide training and
capacity building of First Responders in Civil Defence, urban search and rescue, Fire services and medical field.
4.4.4. Indonesia
A MoU was signed in 2013 between the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), of India and the National
Agency for Disaster Management of Indonesia with an aim to develop cooperation in the field of disaster
management. The areas of cooperation between the countries include exchange of information in the field of
disaster management, training and capacity building; exchange of experts and human resources on disaster
management etc.
4.4.5. SAARC Countries
SAARC Agreement on Rapid Response to Natural Disasters was signed at the Ministerial level at the 17th SAARC
Summit held at Addu city, Maldives in November, 2011.
The objective of the agreement is “to provide effective regional mechanisms for rapid response to disasters to
achieve a substantial reduction of disaster losses in lives and in the social, economic and environmental assets of the
Parties, and to jointly respond to disaster emergencies through concerted national efforts and intensified regional
cooperation..”

4.4.6. Russia
The Government of India and the Government of Russian Federation had signed the Agreement for cooperation in
the field of Emergency Management during the 11th Indo-Russian Annual Summit held in December 2010 in New
Delhi. The main areas and forms of co-operation are: exchange of information, early warning, assessment of risks,
joint conferences, seminars, workshops, training of specialists, mutual assistance in providing technical facilities and
equipment etc.
The first meeting of the Indo-Russian Joint Commission for cooperation in Prevention and Elimination of
Consequences of Emergencies was held on 22nd March, 2016 in New Delhi. During this meeting the Joint
Implementation Plan on cooperation in the field of prevention and elimination of emergencies for 2016-2017 was
signed.
4.4.7. Switzerland
India and Switzerland signed an agreement for extending cooperation in the prevention preparedness for handling
natural disasters and assistance in the event of disasters or major emergencies.

CHAPTER–5
5. Miscellaneous Topics
5.1. Disaster Insurance
Excessive dependence on relief and rehabilitation packages creates a regime where there are no incentives for
adoption of risk reduction. Insurance is a potentially important mitigation measure in disaster-prone areas as it
brings quality in the infrastructure & consciousness and a culture of safety and culture of prevention. Disaster
insurance mostly works under the premise of ‘higher the risk higher the premium', thus creating awareness towards
vulnerable areas and motivating people to settle in relatively safe areas.
Following the success of micro-credit for rural development, micro-insurance has started emerging as a tool for ex
ante risk management. In fact, micro-credit and micro-insurance support each other. The tool of insurance should be
made attractive through a set of policy measures and fiscal incentives. Catastrophic Insurance: Examples from Japan
- Seismic Hazard Maps have been put to use and have been found appropriate for modelling financial risk, including
time-dependent and time-independent rates of earthquake recurrence.
5.2. Community Based Disaster Management
Disaster management can be effective only if the communities participate in it. As a community is the repository of
knowledge and skills which have evolved traditionally, these needs to be integrated in the management strategy.
Community is the first line of responders, thus, it is necessary to educate the community and impart skills and assign
specific roles regarding disaster management to ensure a coordinated response while disaster. This can be achieved
by:
• Undertaking location specific training programmes for the community: Cascading approach should be used to
impart training as the number of people to be imparted skills is very large. Thus this responsibility can be
entrusted at the local level, say, to the village panchayats.
• Disaster management education needs to be integrated within the formal and informal systems of education.
• The leaders and personnel in critical sectors should be given disaster management training as well.
• A proper safety plan including all pre-disaster planning to reduce risk should be made to enhance community
preparedness.
• The entire process of damage assessment and distribution of the relief packages can be conducted very
smoothly with the active involvement of local community leaders and SHGs.
Community also plays an important role in recovery process including the socio-psychological rehabilitation of the
victims of the disaster. During the recent past, it has been experienced that the capacity building of the community
has been very helpful even in situations when isolated instances of drowning, burns etc. take place. With the
creation of awareness generation on disaster mitigation and carrying out mock drills from time to time under the
close supervision of Disaster Management Committees the community will be able to function as a well-knit unit in
case of any emergency.
In recent floods in Chennai, local people were able to help army and other forces in locating the routes as
roads were all filled and army was not acquainted with the area as much as locals.
5.3. Role of the Media in Disaster Management
The role of the media is very important. They are often not provided with the correct information, resulting in the
spread of incorrect information which adds to the panic.

Pre-disaster
• The media can influence the government to prioritize Disaster Risk Issues. For example, it may expose excessive
and inefficient expenditure on disaster preparedness in a particular region.
• It can help disaster mitigation experts create early warning systems. Emergency alerts using TV, radio, cable
services across the country can be very effective.
• To educate the community in recognising symptoms and reporting them early if found.
• Ensuring cooperation of the community in risk reduction by forewarning the people about the consequences of
their dangerous actions and operations.
During disaster
During the onslaught of the disaster, what is of utmost importance is to keep the morale of the people high, to
create self-confidence in them and to prevent panic. The media can help, in many ways in ensuring these conditions.
• Continuous and factual coverage, particularly by local media, can assist the authorities, voluntary organizations
and volunteers in reaching the affected with assistance and relief.
• Cautioning the affected or to be affected people about the Dos and Don’ts, of scotching rumours and preventing
panic and confusion.
• Identifying the needy spots and focusing attention on them, giving details on impassable roadways and downed
utility lines.
• Communicating the information to the people and the concerned authorities sufficiently in advance to enable
them to take the necessary steps to minimize the losses of lives and property.
• It provides the outside world with a glimpse of what that affected community is dealing with.
Post-disaster
• Collection of material resources and the enlisting of man-power by appealing to the people to come forward to
render help.
• Helping the affected in establishing contacts with their closed ones
• Keeping a watch and report on some anti-social elements who try to take advantage of such situations
• Contributing by countering the damaging, exaggerated and negative reporting and propaganda in the foreign
media on the occurrence of the disasters.
Negative Effects of Media
• The media may exaggerate some elements of the disaster and create unnecessary panic.
• Inaccurate portrayal of human behaviour during and after a disaster may create a very dramatic and exciting
picture but it is only partially truthful.
• Influential politicians may manipulate the media for personal and political gains.
• Biased coverage for the purposes of sensationalism by choosing to capture only small incidents of horrific
devastations leads to misreporting.
• Convergence of media representatives on a high-profile event can create tremendous "congestion" in the
affected area.
• Live coverage of critical operations can disrupt the counter-terrorism strategy of the forces, as was observed in
Mumbai 26/11 attacks.
A prompt presentation of the real state of affairs by our media, and the correction of the misrepresentations by
them will go a long way in dispelling the wrong impressions created abroad which may otherwise have adverse
effect on the administration, the economy and the polity of the country.

5.4. Role of Social Media in Disaster Management

Social media is different from conventional media in that it allows for one-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-many
communications. It enables communication to take place in real time or asynchronously over time. It is also device
indifferent and can take place via a computer, tablets and smartphones which are relatively mobile and easy to carry
around. It also allows participants to create or comment or on social media networks.
During disasters all the conventional communications generally stop functioning at the time while social media or
networking services stay active. Its role as a news source is invaluable with instantaneous information available with
power outages shutting down TV stations and landlines. Emergency service agencies are utilising the power of social
media and SMS to instantly broadcast and amplify emergency warnings to the public. Critical tasks that can be
implemented by social media are:
• Prepare citizens in areas likely to be affected by a disaster;
• Broadcast real-time information both for affected areas and interested people;
• Receive real-time data from affected areas;
• Mobilize and coordinating immediate relief efforts; and
• Optimize recovery activities.
During the devastating Hudhud cyclone that struck Visakhapatnam, PWD officials created a WhatsApp group
that acted as the main tool of communication for sharing information. No meetings and discussions were
organised at the district level as the WhatsApp group helped identify and access required resources.
Online social networking services and social media like Facebook, Twitter, Google+, Etc. try to solve many problems
during natural disasters by establishing link with closed ones. Concerns such as the threat of technology failure,
hackers, stalkers, viruses will have to be addressed in the development of emergency online networks. Also, the
spread of rumours can be quick leading to spread of panic. Therefore, social media cannot and should not supersede
current approaches to disaster management communication or replace existing infrastructure, but if managed
strategically, they can be used to bolster current systems.
5.5. Retrofitting of Buildings- The Key is to Let it Swing
Parameters for earthquake-resistant construction have been laid down in Indian Standards Code, 2002. It entails
studying a building’s design and assessing its construction material by non-destructive radiological tests. The key
idea of making a building earthquake-resistant is to make it ductile, i.e. to give it a certain flexibility to shake
horizontally. It helps soften the impact of the earthquake and lets the building absorb its energy.
To make a building earthquake resistant, its base is strengthened in a way that during an earthquake, the building’s
load is borne by the base alone, and upper stories do not experience much quaking. The part of the base that is
above the ground is cut and rested on bearings, exactly like how a jack is used to lift a car to change wheels. The
bearings act as shock absorbers, similar to those in cars. Adding rubber material such as used tyres to the foundation
of a building under construction can also be done. For a building under construction, the cost is estimated to
increase by about 10% and for retrofitting, it is estimated to be around 15-20% of the total cost of the
structure.
Only two schools were left standing in Grenada after the passage of Hurricane Ivan (September 2004). Both
had been subject to retrofitting through a World Bank initiative. One of the schools was used to house
displaced persons after the event.
In India, the Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC) has undertaken projects for retrofitting of
life-line structures. The Council has initiated retrofitting of MCD school buildings in Delhi and other structures in
Jammu and Kashmir.

5.6. Climate Change and Disasters

There is considerable evidence that economic damage caused by extreme weather events has increased
substantially over the last few decades. For a country like India, with over 70 percent of its population relying
directly or indirectly on agriculture for their livelihoods, the impact of extreme weather events is critical.
People often live in areas of high ecological vulnerability and relatively low levels of resource productivity and have
limited and insecure rights over productive natural resources.
Changes in the precipitation patterns and any intensification of the monsoons will contribute to flood disasters and
land degradation. India’s water supply depends not only on monsoon rains but also on glacial melt water from the
Hindu Kush and the Himalayas. Rising temperatures will cause snowlines to retreat further, increasing the risk of
floods during the summer monsoon season.
The state of Odisha has experienced floods in 49 of the last 100 years, droughts in 30 and cyclones in 11 years.
The occurrence of droughts, floods and cyclones in a single year is not unusual
Disaster Risk Reduction and climate change mitigation and adaptation share common goals, Both aim to reduce the
vulnerability of communities and achieve sustainable development. While emphasis of DRR is on prevention,
mitigation, preparedness and recovery from geological hazards such as earthquakes, landslides etc. as well as hydro-
meteorological disasters such as floods, cyclones, Climate Change Adaptation is mainly linked with hydro-
meteorological disasters and aims at reducing vulnerability due to climate change/variability risk through adaptation
to gradual changes in climate over a long period.
5.7. Poverty and Disasters
Poverty and vulnerability to natural hazards are closely linked and mutually reinforcing. Disasters are a source of
hardship and distress, potentially temporarily forcing certain groups below the poverty threshold and also
contributing to more persistent, chronic poverty.
Poverty and risk to disasters are inextricably linked and mutually reinforcing. The poor section of the society is worst
affected in case of disaster. Due to the compulsion of the poor to exploit environmental resources for their survival,
the risk and exposure of the society to disasters increases. Poverty also compels the poor to migrate and live at
physically more vulnerable locations, often on unsafe land and in unsafe shelters.
Disasters can also disrupt ongoing poverty reduction activities and force a diversion of related financial resources
into relief and rehabilitation efforts. Poverty can be further reinforced by deliberate risk-averting, ex-ante livelihood
choices that poorer households may make. For example, poorer households may choose to forego the potential
benefits of higher yielding or more profitable crops in favour of more hazard-tolerant ones.
The substandard quality and often, dangerous location of housing (e.g., on flood plains, riverbanks or steep slopes);
lower levels of access to basic services, particularly for the rural poor and illegal squatters; uncertain ownership
rights, reducing incentives to manage resources sustainably or invest in structural mitigation measures; often more
vulnerable livelihoods; and limited access to financial resources, constraining their ability to diversify livelihoods and
recover post disaster.
The poor can also exacerbate their own risk where limited livelihood opportunities force over-exploitation of the
local environment. Meanwhile, the covariate nature of natural hazards implies that there is limited scope for formal
and informal community-based support systems in the aftermath of a disaster.
5.8. Miscellaneous NDMA Guidelines
5.8.1. Museums
Indian museums show a great range and diversity of collections and themes. Loss of collections and building
structures also leads to loss of income and cultural values associated with the objects. Some specific challenges of
disaster risk management in museums are listed below.

• Museums contain a diversity of individual objects, ranging from archaeological to organic materials which are
vulnerable.
• In the aftermath of a disaster, aspects of cultural heritage take a backseat as priority is given to infrastructure
and rehabilitation of communities.
• Collections in a museum require specialized planning approaches.
• Museums are often housed in historic buildings which are structurally more vulnerable and located in hard-to-
access regions.
• In general, museum staff is not well equipped and unaware of basic measures for disaster risk reduction.
• Lack of assigned areas for temporary storage further adds to post-disaster losses.
• Post-disaster recovery plans often do not include museums and they are not assigned funds for reconstruction.
The museums should be divided into public, semi-public, private and service areas. Value assessment,
documentation and prioritization of objects and collections must be done. Authenticity and uniqueness of objects
should be taken into account. Hazards and risk identification both inside and outside the building must be done and
steps for disaster risk reduction taken accordingly.
5.8.2. Cultural Heritage Sites and Precincts
Cultural heritage has only recently been recognized as a key aspect within overall frameworks of disaster risk
reduction. A general lack of awareness and a lack of prioritization of heritage is one of the key challenges in this area.
Some critical aspects of disaster risk management for built cultural heritage are:
• Due to the diversity in age, scale and physical conditions of built heritage it is difficult to apply standardised
approaches for disaster risk reduction
• Disasters pose a risk not just to the lives of people living, visiting or managing cultural heritage sites and
precincts but also to heritage values embodied in the physical fabric.
• Poor management, neglect, lack of awareness further complicate disaster risk reduction for built heritage as
often the structural integrity of such buildings gets compromised over time.
• Interventions that would reduce risk to such sites may sometimes pose a threat to the heritage value and
aesthetics.
• Built heritage may also offer the opportunity to act as refuge space or as examples of structural resilience using
traditional technologies and this aspect may be useful while developing larger scale risk reduction strategies.
The Bhuj City Palace, the commemorative chatris(cenotaphs), suffered extensive damage due to the
earthquake. Similarly, in 2011, the Sikkim Earthquake destroyed many Buddhist monasteries and temples. Flash-
floods in the lower Himalayas in 2013 and the Kashmir Floods in 2014 caused wide-spread damage to temples,
palaces, historic gardens and museums.
5.8.3 Psycho-Social Support and Mental Health Services in Disasters
Psycho-social support in the context of disasters refers to comprehensive interventions aimed at addressing a wide
range of psychosocial and mental health problems arising in the aftermath of disasters. These interventions help
individuals, families and groups to build human capacities, restore social cohesion and infrastructure along with
maintaining their independence, dignity and cultural integrity. Psycho-social support helps in reducing the level of
actual and perceived stress and in preventing adverse psychological and social consequences amongst disaster-
affected community. Emotional reactions such as guilt, fear, shock, grief, Hyper-vigilance, numbness, intrusive
memories, and despair are universal responses in people experiencing unforeseen disastrous events beyond their
coping capacity. Emotional reactions reported by the people are normal responses to an abnormal event. It is
estimated that nearly 90% of survivors undergo these emotional reactions immediately after the disaster. However, it
reduces to 30% over a period of time with psychological reactions to stress, leading to a change in behaviour,
relationships and physical or psycho-social situations.

Indian experience in Orissa super cyclone, Gujarat earthquake, riots and tsunami has demonstrated that appropriate
psycho-social intervention during the rescue, relief, rehabilitation and rebuilding period significantly decreases the
distress and disability among survivors, leading to an overall improvement in the quality of life.
5.9 National Disaster Plan for Animals

Disaster Management Plan for Animals aims at protecting animals and preventing and mitigating loss of livestock
resources during various disasters. It is divided into a) Pre-disaster preparedness, b) Disaster response and c) Post-
Disaster Plan.
Pre-disaster preparedness includes detailed action plan relating to dissemination of early warning, identification of
vulnerability amongst livestock, animal vaccination, feed and fodder supply and capacity building of different stake-
holders in disaster management etc. Disaster response component includes strategy/action plan relating to effective
and prompt response, rescue of livestock, feed & fodder supply, measures against epidemics and diseases and
maintenance of Sanitation etc. Post disaster component includes strategy for treatment of sick animals, disease
surveillance, disposal of carcass, restoration and restocking of livestock population.

6. VISION IAS PREVIOUS YEARS TEST SERIES

QUESTIONS
1. Explain National Disaster Communication Network and India Disaster Resource Network. Do you think that
both the terms are merely proverbs in India’s approach towards disaster management?
Approach:
Briefly explain the need and concept of NDCN and IDRN. Then point out the deficiency in their working and
conclude that indeed they are not upto the mark. There is no need to give suggestions for improvements
regarding these systems as it is NOT the concern of question.
Answer: [Student Note: Answer is kept long to provide a full analysis of the issue. Use a summary for your answer]
National Disaster Communication Network (NDCN)
During a disaster, the existing terrestrial communication networks are prone to failure. To address this risk,
NDMA decided to set up the National Disaster Communication Network (NDCN). NDCN was planned as a
network of networks by providing appropriate connectivity to the existing communication networks viz.
NICNET, State Wide Area Networks (SWANs) and POLNET, etc., to various Emergency Operation Centres. For
this an additional overlay network segment utilizing satellite communication will be established as VSAT
network of NDMA. This VSAT Network will consists of a HUB and VSATs distributed all over the country. In
Addition to the Emergency operation centres at National, State and District Levels, NDCN will be equipped
with mobile/transportable communication systems to establish graded communication capability at the
disaster sites.
Issues-
The concept paper for the project was sent by NDMA to MHA in October 2007. However there were delays at
various stages involved in the preparatory work of the project, since the submission of the concept note. As a
result, the ambitious project of NDMA to provide networking for integration of various disaster management
tools in the country was still at the preparation stage even after a lapse of more than four years.MHA stated
(December 2012) that NDCN Project was very comprehensive and important, detailed consultations with
various stake holders had to be held and accordingly the project was formulated to bring about effective
coordination among various communication networks presently working in the field of Disaster
Management. So it seems it will still take a long time before actually materializing. CAG report on disaster
preparedness has also recommended that NDMA should ensure the implementation of NDCN at the earliest.
India Disaster Resource Network (IDRN)
MHA developed India Disaster Resource Network (IDRN) portal with the support of UNDP and launched it in
2004 through National Informatics Centre (NIC). IDRN is a web portal designed to systematically build up an
organised information system of specialist equipment and expertise for disaster response. This is to enable
disaster managers to identify the location of the resources and access it for disaster response with the
minimum loss of time. The nodal authorities (District Collector or DDMA) are responsible for updating the
inventory data.
Issues -
MHA entrusted (June 2008) NIDM with the responsibility of updating and maintaining the portal. CAG in its
report on disaster preparedness noted that the portal was being managed without any dedicated staff. Data
is monitored and maintained at the central level by National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM).
Besides NIDM is responsible for the overall administration of the portal. At the same time; NIDM is not
responsible for collection, updation & validation of data. Only district level authority is responsible for
updating the data. Thus there are issues of coordination.

There is also no regular monitoring and emphasis of the data updation. It was mandatory to carry out a
security audit of the portal periodically by a specialised external agency. But there is no such audit had taken
place after 2004, despite repeated warnings by NIC. The inventory of resources is thus vulnerable and its
reliability in a disaster situation is uncertain.
There are also challenges of poor connectivity between and within knowledge generating communities and
user communities at various levels and there is a lack of a systemic institutional mechanism for collating,
synthesizing and delivering knowledge products for decision making.
Therefore, owing to the issues related to the respective networks, it seems that presently these are merely
symbolic platforms for disaster management and a lot needs to be done before we can take full advantage of
these.
2. Discuss the weaknesses of Civil Defence in the context of Disaster Management and suggest measures for
its improvement.
Approach:
First we have to define the core concept and then straight forward can tell problems and their solution.
Answer:
‘Civil Defence’ means the performance of humanitarian tasks intended to protect the civilian population
against hostilities or disasters and also to provide the conditions necessary for its survival. These tasks are:
warning; evacuation; management of shelters; management of blackout measures; rescue; medical services,
including first-aid, and fire fighting etc.
Problems in India
• The lacuna inherent in the definition of legislation related to the civil defence, that it cannot be made
applicable to natural disasters, thereby depriving it of a wider role in the administrative set-up for crisis
management.
• Excessive centralization is there in Civil Defence mechanism as union has entire control.
• The number of volunteers is grossly inadequate for a vast country like India.
• The financial allocation for civil defense activities is very inadequate.
Solutions:
• The term ‘disasters’ should be inserted in the Civil Defense Act to give a wider meaning to the definition
of ‘civil defence’.
• The whole structure of ‘civil defence’ may be left at the disposal of the State Governments.
• India should pursue people to enroll as volunteers to 1% of the population in time bound manner.
• The financial allocation should be increased and donations from corporate sector should be permitted for
civil defence activities.

3. The national policy should reflect a paradigm shift in disaster management from a short term to long term
perspective. Discuss.
Approach:
Presently, India’s policy framework does not encompass the necessary requirements of disaster
management. The desired direction, in which the national policy should shift – short term to long term
perspective- has be mentioned.
Answer:
The recent Uttarakhand disaster and its management has exposed the weaknesses in the disaster
management capabilities of India. Given such a situation, India needs to move from a short term towards
long perspective. The desired National policy, giving effect to this, should reflect the following characteristics:
• Disaster management needs to be professionalized.
• Risk management should be brought to the center stage in all disaster mitigation plans.
• All efforts for disaster management to be based on hazard and vulnerability analysis.
• Communities and local governments to be made aware of the possible hazards and vulnerabilities.
• Communities and local governments to be involved in formulating disaster management plans.
• The primary responsibility for disaster management to be that of the State Governments, with the Union
Government playing a supportive role.
• Effective implementation of land use laws, building byelaws, safety laws and environmental laws.
• Setting up a framework to coordinate the responses from different sections like donors, voluntary
organizations, corporate bodies etc.
• Special needs of women, children, elderly and physically challenged persons to be addressed.
4. Analyze the difference in approach to Disaster Management of the 1999 Orissa supercyclone and the 2013
Phailin cyclone.
Approach:
By taking the examples of both the disasters mentioned in the question, try to highlight how the approach to
manage disasters has changed over the years. This also involves outlining the traditional as well as current
approach to Disaster Management briefly.
Answer:
• India is vulnerable to many natural hazards like cyclones, droughts, earthquakes and floods. Such natural
disasters have caused heavy loss to life and property. However, Disaster Management has historically
been ignored, with the focus being only on post-facto relief operations. This approach changed with the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction in the 1990s.
• The 1999 super-cyclone that struck the coast of Odisha caused havoc, with tens of thousands of people
displaced and a loss of around $4.5 billion. Such widespread destruction was the result of not only
severity of the storm but also the unpreparedness of the authorities to tackle such a hazard.
• The coming decade saw a change in perspective with Disaster Management being seen as a constituent
of strategy of sustainable development. The Yokahama Declaration laid emphasis on preparedness for a
disaster, its mitigation, prevention and an efficient response with adequate relief and rehabilitation.
• Therefore the approach to Disaster Management is now much more holistic involving forethought to its
prevention and capacity building of the community for being prepared for the disaster. After a disaster
strikes, reconstruction and rehabilitation plans would include measures for prevention of future
disasters. A National Disaster Management Authority has been institutionalized, which would lay down
policy guidelines to effectively handle any future disasters.

• The difference can be seen from the successful handling of Phailin cyclone that struck the Odisha coast in
2013. Early Warning Systems informed abound the impending storm. Unlike in 1999,people were
prepared this time and cooperated with the authorities in evacuation plans. This was possible because
sufficient trust and capacity had been built in the community to realize the coming danger. The result
was that less than 100 lives were lost.
• Much can still be done to reduce the impact of disasters. Use of native knowledge to tackle disasters and
knowledge dissemination are necessary for an effective approach to disaster management.
5. Illustrate the role of ‘Crisis Mapping’ in Disaster Management.

Approach:
Following needs to be brought about:
• Defining crisis mapping
• At what specific stage of Disaster Management does it becomes relevant
• It’s functioning and few examples
Answer:
Crisis mapping is the real-time gathering, display and analysis of data during a crisis, usually a natural disaster
or social/political conflict (violence, elections, etc.).
Crisis mapping projects usually allows large numbers of people, including the public and crisis responders, to
contribute information either remotely or from the site of the crisis. One benefit of the crisis mapping
method over others is that it can increase situational awareness, since the public can report information and
improve data management.
Role of Crisis Mapping
The role of crisis mapping is to bridge the gap that existed between information-seekers and providers,
particularly when it came to providing insights into the situation on the ground and the action that needed to
be taken.
Crisis Mapping is an apt tool to cater to ‘Emergency Response’, the second stage of Crisis Management or the
second of 3R’s (Reduction, Response and Recovery).
Methodology
Crisis mapping leverage the following tools and methods to power effective early warning for rapid response
to complex humanitarian emergencies:
• Mobile and web-based applications,
• Participatory maps and crowd-sourced event data,
• Aerial and satellite imagery,
• Geospatial platforms,
• Advanced visualization,
• Live simulation, and
• Computational and statistical models
Example: It was used to great effect during Haiti Earthquake, 2011 and closer home, during Uttarakhand
Floods, 2013.

6. Environmental degradation has acted as a catalyst in increasing the severity of disaster events. Illustrate.
Also suggest measures for their mitigation.
Approach:
Briefly define environmental degradation and its causes. Discuss with examples, environmental degradation
increasing the severity of disaster events and suggest measures to mitigate the causes of Environmental
degradation.
Answer:
Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as
air, water, soil and forest; the destruction of eco-systems and the extinction of wildlife.
IMPLICATIONS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
About 50 percent of geographical area of India suffers from varying degrees of degradation caused by
deforestation, overgrazing, agricultural mismanagement, shifting cultivation, soil erosion, soil salination,
water logging, alkalinity, and acid rains.
Over 5.3 billion tonnes of top soil is lost every year due to soil erosion. The average soil loss is estimated to
be over 16 tonnes per hectares per year which translates into approximately 1 millimetre (mm) each year or
1 centimetre (cm) every decade.
The terrible floods in Uttarakhand killed more than 1,000 people, left 70,000 stranded for days and destroyed
livelihoods. The true causes of the epic tragedy lie in the grievous damage recently wrought on the region's
ecology by the runaway growth of tourism, unchecked proliferation of roads, hotels, shops and multistory
housing in ecologically fragile areas, and above all mushrooming hydroelectricity dams that disrupt water
balances. Underlying the disaster are multiple governance failures, too.
A landslide in Pune that has killed more than 100 people and left scores missing may have been a man-made
disaster caused by deforestation to make way for farming. The Relentless rain naturally was the trigger. But
the use of heavy machinery to flatten land for agriculture may have aggravated the crumbling of the hill top.
Recent Jammu and Kashmir Floods, while the level of rainfall was unprecedented, Ecological degradation
caused by unplanned development and urbanisation, and failure to preserve wetlands, had severely added to
havoc.
Solutions to Environmental Degradation
• Massive information campaign should be carried out using mass media and multi-media both.
Individuals, community of concerned citizens, legislators, government leaders, school authorities and all,
should make efforts to teach people about environmental concerns toward sustainable development.
• Protest excessive development. Show to the people that too much urbanization extremely causes harm
to the flora, chases away wildlife and increasingly pollutes rivers and sources of water.
• Environmental concerns should be a mandatory part of urbanization and development planning. There
should be no obstruction to the flow of rivers, no huge constructions on their banks and techniques like
flood plain zoning should be adopted.
• Prohibit contamination of rivers, lakes and seas. Leaders and well-to-do families should take the most
initiative and lead by example.
• Tourism must be culturally and environmentally friendly and sustainable. Tourists should be encouraged
to live in the homes of local people where they can experience their unique culture and life styles. In this
way, building of new structures can be lessened
• Encourage recycling activities and maintain proper waste disposal by teaching people how to do it and by
giving them awareness of the benefits it could give them, both financially, healthfully, and spiritually;

• Start planting trees now and do backyard gardening. Even with less space, one can grow plants in small
recyclable containers. They could even hang it in small spaces so the breath of oxygen is present all
around to fight greenhouse effects.
7. Community based disaster management, which seeks to empower community directly to enhance their
indigenous coping mechanisms, is a must. Elaborate.
Approach:
• Explain CBDM and importance of CBDM
• Ways to achieve CBDM – mock drills, capacity building etc.
• Benefits of CBDM – use of traditional knowledge etc.
• Government steps – legal, budgetary allocation etc.
• Give examples where communities succeeded or failed
Answer:
Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM) is a process, which leads to a locally appropriate and locall
y "owned" strategy for disaster preparedness and risk reduction. The first responder to any disaster is invari
ably the disaster-hit community itself which is also a repository of traditional knowledge. This approach sho
uld work in harmony with the top-down approach.
It is necessary to educate the community about the entire disaster risk reduction and even to impart skills an
d assign specific roles to the members of the community, so that the first response from the community is a
well coordinated one. This could be achieved by:
• Undertaking location specific training programmes for the community – Village panchayats, should be en
trusted this responsibility.
• Mainstreaming crisis management in education – through textbooks, training exercises, conducting work
shops and mock drills.
CBDM empowers community to actively engage in supporting each other by giving them the knowledge and
resources they need. It helps the community to
1. Become effective first responders
2. To evaluate their own situation based on local experiences
3. Community becomes part of planning and implementation
• Integration of traditional knowledge and skills
Community can also be empowered to run Public address system (PAS) which is crucial for raising alarm. For
example, in the coastal villages of Puducherry, a PAS installed saved thousands of life during Tsunami, 2004.
The government also recognizes that CBDM is a key to effective disaster risk reduction. DMA2005 and Nation
al Policy on disaster management (2009) mandate strong association of the communities through awareness
, capacity building and training. Odisha government had conducted several mock drill exercises and its benefi
t was evident during the recent cyclone Phailin. Government ran a programme in multi-hazard districts to tra
in volunteers. States like Odisha and Assam have undertaken significant community capacity building interve
ntions. Other states must implement CBDM effectively.
In conclusion, different regions of India suffer from different types of disasters. Community participation is
the key to handle it as seen in various disasters. Role of community must be integral to all the phases of
disaster management from risk reduction to recovery.

8. What are Tsunamigenic zones? Give examples of such zones in the vicinity of Indian Coastal regions.
Examine the preparedness level of India to minimize the impact of Tsunamis.
Approach:
There are three parts of the question as follows:
• Tsunamigenic zones – earthquake zones commonly along major subduction zone plate boundaries that
can generate Tsunamis
• Mention zones along with their approximate distances from mainland and islands of India.
• Assess the Preparedness level in today’s time. Focus on the steps taken after 2004 Tsunami. Talk about
the issues in the present system.
• Conclusion – final statement on preparedness and then can suggest some measures in a line or two.
Answer:
Tsunamigenic zones are the regions in the sea where vertical shifting of water mass can cause Tsunami
waves. Tsunami can be created by earthquakes and volcanoes etc. Region of convergent tectonic plate
boundaries are the most likely sources for Tsunami. Therefore, these zones are not randomly distributed as
shown in the map below.
Tsunamigenic zones along the converging plate boundaries in the sea regions
Two main Indian Ocean Tsunamigenic zones are Makran subduction zone (MSZ) in the Northern Arabian Sea
and Indonesian subduction zone (ISZ) in the Bay of Bengal near Indonesian Islands. These zones are result of
the active tectonic collision process that is taking place along the southern boundary of the Eurasian plate as
it collides with the India plate and adjacent micro-plates. MSZ is not far from India’s coast and a major
earthquake can be disastrous for India. 2004 Tsunami was generated in the ISZ, which is very near to the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands and about 1300km from the mainland India.

Makran subduction zone and Indonesian subduction zone

India had some lessons to learn from the Tsunami of 2004. Government installed “Indian Tsunami early
warning system” was developed which is integrated with the system of other Asian countries. It has a
network of seismometers, tidal gauges and ocean buoys.
Other measures include mapping of vulnerable coastal areas, awareness and community preparedness
activities. Yet critical gaps remain. While the system can send out warnings quickly, dissemination of the
alerts to people on the ground takes time. Coastal infrastructure is still poor.
Tribes of A&N Islands moved to higher places in the interiors in advance with the help of tradition knowledge
during the Tsunami of 2004. There is a need to integrate such knowledge in the system. Mangroves require
special attention from government. Only a very handful of scientists are working on Tsunami research today.
9. Technology is an indispensable tool in disaster management. Explain the role of GIS in context of the above
statement giving recent examples from India.
Approach:
In the introduction, discuss about increasing usage of technology in disaster management. Then, discuss how
GIS can assist in different types of disaster and in different stages of disaster management. Include examples
from India only. Example: cyclone management in Odisha.
Answer:
Technology has considerably enhanced the potential of mankind to manage the disasters. For instance, exact
prediction of Phailin cyclone considerably reduced the loss of life and property. Similarly technologies are
today extensively used in prediction and protection from other disasters like tsunami, earthquakes. In this
regard Geographic Information System (GIS) is turning out to be an excellent tool for disaster management.
GIS is an effective, economic and efficient tool for storing, manipulating, and presenting spatial and
geographic data in an integrated manner.

It can assist in Disaster Management in following ways:

PRE DISASTER PHASE
• It can assist the disaster managers in vulnerability mapping. For example it can be used to map the areas
vulnerable to earthquakes and classify them under various zones. For example it is used to Indian ocean
region to identify the areas vulnerable to earthquake and tsunami.
• It can also assist in developing alternate routes to shelters, camps, and important locations in the event
of disruption of normal surface communication
• In case of disasters like floods and tsunamis, GIS can help in identifying locations likely to remain
unaffected or remain comparatively safe. Then routes and signboards can be placed guiding the public to
such safe locations in the event of hazards. . For Example: GIS has been used in Odisha against cyclones.
For example: it has been used in the identification of location for construction of multipurpose cyclone
shelters.
• Locations suitable for construction of shelters, godowns, housing colonies, etc. can be scientifically
identified by using information regarding landforms, nature of disasters, etc.
• Areas where no construction should be taken up or existing habitations require relocation, could be
identified by using vulnerability data which can be created using GIS.
DURING DISASTER
• It can be used for planning of rescue and evacuation operations. In Sikkim GIS was useful in search and
rescue operations in areas affected by landslides.
• GIS can also be used to identify the areas where the disaster is likely to spread. It can act as a warning
system and thus it can help in controlling the further spread of disaster.
POST DISASTER
• Accessibility of data through GIS can assist in rehabilitation by identifying the most damaged area. For
example, it was used in earthquake region of Gujarat.
• It is also useful in post-disaster reconstruction works. New houses can be constructed in the less
vulnerable areas.
10. The first ever SAARC disaster management exercise, named SAADMEx, was recently hosted by India whose
theme was "one SAARC, one response". Discuss the need for cooperation among SAARC countries for
'Disaster Risk Reduction'. How can India contribute to the same?
Approach:
• Briefly describe SAADMEx.
• Mention the vulnerability of SAARC countries to disasters and discuss the benefits of a coordinated response.
• Explain centrality of India’s role in coordinating and in providing information and resources.
Answer:
India hosted the first-ever joint disaster management exercise with SAARC nations in November 2015, to
learn best practices and skills in urban search and rescue operations called the South Asian Annual Disaster
Management Exercise ( SAADMEx).
Regional collaboration for DRR is essential because of cross-boundary nature of causes as well as effects of
the disasters. Cooperation helps identify a common security agenda since the security of one state is
contingent on others’. It may also work as an ice-breaker in difficult relations.

Need for collaboration among SAARC countries for DRR

• Geographical unity of SAARC countries makes it imperative for them to act and plan together for
disasters.
• In a poor region, it is best that a collective system of DRR be developed rather than each one spending in
silos. The best way the smaller countries (with less resources) could overcome gaps in capacities and
capabilities is through concerted coordination with each other.
• “One SAARC, one response”, the underlying theme of the exercise also facilitates sharing of best practices
among the member countries to deal with climate related disasters. It also brings best regional practices
on the table.
• EQs affect the entire Himalayan belt as these countries lie on active fault zones.
• International nature of almost all Himalayan rivers makes downstream countries vulnerable to actions of
upstream countries. Collective understanding of threats such as flash floods, dam breach, etc. can
prepare the countries to act swiftly in case of exigencies.
• Cyclones in both the BoB and in Arabian Sea.
• Proximity to active faults in Indian Ocean makes need for collaboration in Tsunami response imperative.
The collective damage by disasters such as Indian Ocean Tsunami (2004), Kashmir EQ (2005), string of
cyclones, floods (such as in Kosi) and landslides could have been contained to minimum levels had the
rescue, relief and rehabilitation (DRR) been undertaken in a collaborative manner.
Role of India
India’s central location ensures that any disaster that affects any country will probably have impact on India
too. Besides coordinating the effort, it can play the following role:
• Since it is better resourced in terms of technology and manpower, it can provide access to these to the
SAARC countries to deal with disasters. E.g. during Nepal EQ, Indian forces not only provided rescue and
relief, but also helped re-establishing communication systems.
• We can help improve their entire disaster response cycle (Prevention, Mitigation, Preparedness, Rescue,
Relief, and Rehabilitation) through our own experiences, and also improve up on our own.
• SAARC disaster bonds can be floated in Indian Stock Markets. Insurance companies can collaborate to
provide disaster insurance, as is being done in Sri Lanka.
• SAARC satellite, as is being developed, can provide basis for cross-country Geographical information
Systems.
11. "Rising accidents involving merchant ships leading to oil spills in Indian waters is a growing concern that
needs to be addressed." Discuss the impact of oil spills on marine environment. Also, suggest measures to
prevent such disasters.
Approach:
• Briefly explain the given statement citing recent examples and other facts.
• Discuss its impact on marine environment
• Suggest measures to prevent oil spills and turning it into disaster.
Answer:
There has been a considerable increase in shipping through the Indian waters and is expected to increase
further by four times by 2020. With the increasing transit, the accidents involving merchant ships have been
increasing. The recent examples are oil spills near Sundarbans, collision of merchant ship near Mumbai
harbor etc.

Effects of oil spills on marine environment

• Ingestion of oil may impair the ability of animals to digest and absorb foods.
• Absorption of oil through the skin can damage the liver and kidneys, cause anaemia, suppress the
immune system, induce reproductive failure, and in extreme cases kill an animal.
• Oil destroys the insulating ability of fur-bearing mammals, such as sea otters, and the water repellence of
a bird's feathers, thus exposing these creatures to the harsh elements.
• Inhalation of these harmful materials can cause respiratory inflammation, irritation, emphysema, or
pneumonia. Manatees, dolphins, whales, and sea turtles all come to the surface to breathe periodically,
and all are susceptible to this risk.
• If a spill causes direct mortality to the food resources of a particular species, many individuals of this
species will need to relocate their foraging activities to regions unaffected by the spill. This leads to
increased competition for remaining food sources in more localized areas.
Following steps can be taken to prevent oil spills

• The cargo transit during difficult weather conditions such as monsoons should be restricted along with
safer ship designs and better systems to provide navigation information to prevent collisions.
• Effective implementation of frameworks like the National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan of 1996 and
Merchant Shipping Act, 1958 and international conventions such as International Convention on Civil
Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage, 2001.
• The oil spills could be prevented from spreading by using various methods such as burning of oil, spraying
chemical dispersants, bio remediation with the help of bacteria such as oil zapper and plants like
corchorus depresuss, using activated carbon and bentonite clay.
12. India’s commitment to Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) is evident from the fact that it became one of the first
countries to align its National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) with the Sendai Framework. What are
the salient features of India’s first National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP)? How can this plan help in
effective disaster management?
Approach:
• Briefly mention about the Sendai Framework.

• Salient Features of National Disaster Management Plan
• Identify the strengths and weakness of the Plan
Answer:
NDMP is aims to make India disaster resilient and significantly reduce the loss of lives and assets. The plan is
based on four priority themes of “Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-30” namely:
• Understanding disaster risk.

• Improving disaster risk governance.
• Investing in disaster risk reduction (through structural and non-structural measures) and disaster
preparedness.
• Early warning and building back better in the aftermath of a disaster.
Salient Features of NDMP
Vision of the Plan is to “Make India disaster resilient, achieve substantial disaster risk reduction, and
significantly decrease the losses of life, livelihoods, and assets – economic, physical, social, cultural and

environmental – by maximizing the ability to cope with disasters at all levels of administration as well as
among communities.”
• It covers all phases of disaster management: prevention, mitigation, response and recovery.
• It provides for horizontal and vertical integration among all agencies and departments of Government.
• It also spells out roles and responsibilities of all levels of Government right up to Panchayat and Urban
Local Body level in a matrix format.
• It has a regional approach, which will be beneficial not only for disaster management but also for
development planning.
Evaluation of the Plan
• NDMP provides a framework and direction to government agencies for all phases of disaster
management cycle.
• It is designed in such a way that it can be implemented in a scalable manner in all phases of disaster
management.
• It also identifies major activities such as early warning, information dissemination, medical care, fuel,
transportation, search and rescue, evacuation, etc. to serve as a checklist for agencies responding to a
disaster.
• It also provides a generalized framework for recovery and offers flexibility to assess a situation and build
back better.
• To prepare communities to cope with disasters, it emphasizes on a greater need for Information,
Education and Communication activities.
• Globally, the approach towards post-disaster restoration and rehabilitation has shifted to one of
betterment reconstruction. NDMP provides a generalized framework for recovery since it is not possible
to anticipate all possible alternatives of betterment reconstruction.
• The Plan also highlights that disaster risk reduction will be achieved by mainstreaming the requirements
into the developmental plans.
• It incorporates provisions for strengthening disaster risk governance through six themes i.e. integrated
and mainstream disaster risk reduction, promoting participatory approach, capacity development,
working with elected representatives, grievance redress mechanism and promoting quality standards,
certification and awards for disaster risk management.
13. A new disease emerging in any part of the world is a global threat. In the context of “zoonoses” and
“emerging infectious diseases”, analyse the risks for India. Also, identify the structures in place and
measures required to combat these risks.
Approach:
• Introduce in brief the meaning of emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) and zoonosis.
• Discuss the factors which put India at risk of these EIDs and zoonosis.
• Mention the changes needed in health system and strategy to combat the above problem.
Answer:
In an increasingly interconnected world, emergence and spread of infectious diseases constitute grave
health, economic, developmental and security challenges globally. Notably, Emerging Infectious Diseases
(EIDs) are diseases of infectious origin whose incidence in humans has increased within the recent past or
threatens to increase in the near future. These include new, previously undefined diseases as well as old
diseases with new features e.g. Avian influenza, chikungunya, Nipah virus etc.

Over 30 new infectious agents have been detected worldwide in the last three decades; 60 per cent of these
are linked to zoonoses i.e capable of being transmitted to humans from animals. In the recent past, India has
seen outbreaks of at least eight organisms of emerging and re-emerging diseases in various parts of the
country, six of these are of zoonotic origin.
The Indian subcontinent is a ‘hotspot’ for zoonotic, drug-resistant and vector-borne pathogens. India is
especially vulnerable because of:
• High population density: With 1.34 billion people, 512 million livestock and 729 million poultry, the
density and rates of human–animal, animal–animal and human–human contacts are high.
• Inadequacy of research: Threats from EIDs are inadequately understood because of poor domestic
research and lack of international collaborations due to restrictive policies on sharing clinical and
research materials. E.g. There are 460 medical colleges and 46 veterinary colleges in India, but most do
little or no research.
• Coordination issues: The bureaucratic approach and lack of inter-sectoral coordination leads to
fragmented response.
• Lack of policy focus: Recently approved National Health Policy has not mentioned “zoonosis” and
“emerging infectious diseases”, thus, missing the opportunity to have a comprehensive strategy for it.
• Anthropogenic changes: Deforestation brings wildlife into direct contact with humans and domesticated
animals, increasing the risk of zoonosis along with changed weather patterns which further escalates the
spread of EIDs.
• Diverse animal population: For instance, India has an incredibly diverse bat population which harbours
10% of corona viruses. Further, little is known about the viruses in Indian bats and their disease potential.
• Changing lifestyles, patterns of behavior etc., for example, improper food handling and preparation in
order to save time and for convenience.
• Lower latitudes: areas that lie in lower latitudes are at a greater risk of new and emerging EIDs.
• Poverty and social inequality; e.g. tuberculosis is primarily a problem in low-income areas.
Structures in Place
• National Apical Advisory Committee for National Disease Surveillance and Response System (NAAC)
created in 1996
• National Surveillance Programme on Communicable Diseases (NSPCD) in 1997
• Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) established in 2004, as project, in 101 districts and
later expanded to cover all States and districts. It involves Central Surveillance Unit (CSU), State
Surveillance Units (SSUs) District Surveillance Units (DSUs) a surveillance unit and peripheral reportig
units at block level.
• IT connectivity has been established with all the States, districts and medical colleges through 776 sites
for rapid data transfer, video conferencing and distance learning activities.
• Commitment to International Health Regulations (IHR) 2005 of the WHO. This requires all countries to
have the ability to detect, assess, report and respond to public health events and disease outbreaks.
• National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP)
• National Surveillance Programme for Communicable Diseases
• National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) has initiatives such as Division of Zoonosis dedicated to the
control of zoonoses and Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS)
• Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) signed MoU with Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR) for cooperation in the area of zoonoses.
• First SAARC Epidemiology Networking Forum Meeting held primarily to operationalize a sustainable and
functioning veterinary epidemiology network.

Structures and Measures required to combat these risks are:

• There is a need to move from being reactive to proactively understanding zoonotic pathogens before
they cause human disease.
• Identifying the animal source of infection and intervene to stop further transmission. For example,
setting up a district level emergency response team which acts swiftly on such incidents.
• Culture of safe health care practices for timely infection control to stop transmission within hospitals and
healthcare facilities. Capacity augmentation in hospitals ( medical staff, supplies & equipments) to cope
up with epidemics.
• Developing robust early warning, communication & surveillance system at ports, airports etc.
• A strategy should be evolved for the law enforcement/national defence structure as EID etc. promotes
regional tension, mistrust and distort productive economic growth.
• An inter-ministerial task force should prepare a policy framework that enables preparedness by
strengthening inter-sectoral research on zoonosis and health systems. There needs to be regular
collection of data for unusual occurrences and of their origins. Also the National Health Policy should
include specific section on how to deal with EIDs.
14. Why are women particularly vulnerable to the impact of natural disasters? Also analyse, with adequate
examples, how women can play a more effective role in disaster risk management cycle.
Approach:
• List the reasons for vulnerability of women to natural disasters.
• Also discuss the role women can play in disaster risk management, with suitable examples.
Answer:
India is vulnerable to a number of natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, cyclones etc. which not only
lead to economic loss but also claim precious human lives. In past disasters, more than half of the victims
have been women.
Reasons for vulnerability of women to natural disasters
• Lack of access to technical knowledge and information about disaster occurrence in general.
• Less participation of women in the planning, designing, implementing and monitoring emergency
programs and rehabilitation projects.
• Less resources under their control, low socio-economic and political status make them more vulnerable.
• Special health needs in terms of sanitation, nutrition or in the case of pregnancy or lactating mothers.
• Post-disaster, they are more vulnerable to depression or post-traumatic stress disorder.
• Culture and beliefs such as traditional taboo of not letting them enter the sea prevents them from
learning how to swim.
• Difficulty in applying and qualifying for aid after a disaster because of illiteracy or limited literacy, lack of
knowledge on how to apply and navigate bureaucracy.
• Women are mostly employed within the agricultural and informal sectors, which are often the worst
affected by disasters.
• Vulnerable to physical and sexual violence especially post disaster.
Generally, women in disasters are looked at only as victims, but their role in risk management and facing the
aftermath of disaster should not be neglected. They can play effective role in it, as can be seen from the
following instances:
• In 1993, Latur, Maharashtra earthquake where they contributed in repairing and strengthening of
damaged houses and in 2001 Bhuj, Gujarat earthquake where the grassroots women’s groups from
Maharashtra traveled to this neighboring state to share experiences and pledge long-term assistance.

Thus, proving their capability when they are skilled and trained through an NGO or other government
schemes.
• In 1998 Hurricane Mitch, the second deadliest Atlantic hurricane on record, the only village to register no
deaths was given gender-sensitive community education on early warning systems and hazard
management which made women take on abandoned task of continuously monitoring the warning
system. Thus, helping to evacuate the area promptly when the hurricane struck.
• Securing food, water and fuel are key community concerns especially post disaster, which are
predominantly taken care of by women. Thus, including women in disaster risk reduction as well as relief
and rescue operations such as management of refugee camps, distribution of food, etc. could prove to be
an asset.
• Traditional knowledge and skills of women can be used to manage natural resources, aid the injured and
sick, prepare community meals, and nurse displaced infants and children during reconstruction and
recovery processes.
• In a country like India, where women are apprehensive of being touched by a male relief worker even in
the time of disaster, there is need to include female volunteers.

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VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

PAPER III: ECONOMICS
ECONOMICS FOR ANIMAL REARING


Student Notes:
1. Introduction
Ever since the beginning of civilization, humans have depended on animals for many
requirements, such as that of food (milk, meat and egg), clothing (hide or wool), labour (pulling,
carrying load) and security etc. The development of desirable qualities in all such animal
species, through creating better breeds, has been an important human achievement. For this,
humans have consistently tried to improve the breeds of domesticated animals to make them
more useful for them.
The branch of science, which deals with the study of various breeds of domesticated animals
and their management for obtaining better products and services from them is known as
Animal Husbandry. The term husbandry derives from the word “husband”, which means ‘one
who takes care’. When it incorporates the study of proper utilization of economically important
domestic animals, it is called Livestock Management.
2. Different Categories of Animals

• Wild: Those that breed better where they are free than they do when they are captivated.
They have no common use for humans. Example Lion, Tiger, Rhinoceres, Deer etc.
• Tamed: Those, which are caught from the wild and trained to be useful to humans in some
way. Elephant, Chimpanzee, Gorilla, Yak etc.
• Domesticated: Those that are of use at home and are easily bred and looked after by
humans. Common domesticated animals are dog, horse, cow, sheep, buffalo, fowl etc.
3. Role of Livestock in Indian Economy

• Output functions such as source of edible (milk, meat, egg) and non-edible (wool, leather,
hides) products.
• Input functions such as providing draught power (bulls/oxen), dung, urine etc. in crop
production.
• Economic functions by providing steady income - being the source of milk, meat and eggs
almost round the year.
• Risk Coverage in case of crop failures or other disasters and are considered as 'Banks on
hooves'.
• More equitably distributed compared to land, thus has more potential for increasing
farmers’ income. Rapid growth of the livestock sector can be even more egalitarian and
inclusive than growth of the crop sector because those engaged in it are mainly small
holders and the landless.
4. Present Status of Animal Rearing in India

• According to NSSO 68th round survey, 16.44 million people are engaged in the activities of
farming of animals, mixed farming, fishing and aquaculture.
• It contributes around 4% of GDP and 25% of Agricultural GDP.
• India has one of the largest cattle population in the world.
• Value of milk alone in 2014-15 was Rs 4.92 Lakh crore which was more than the value of
wheat and rice combined i.e. 3.6 Lakh crore.
Production Figures
• Milk Production: India is the largest producer of milk in the world with 165.4 million tonnes
in 2016-17, and per capita availability of 355 g/day.
• Egg Production: 88.1 billion, with per capita availability of 66 eggs/annum in 2016-17
• Wool Production: 43.5 million kg in 2017-18

Student Notes:
• Meat Production: 7 million tonnes in 2015-16

• Fisheries Production: India is the second largest producer of Fish (marine + fresh water)
and also, the second largest producer of Fresh Water Fish. About 108 lakh tonnes of Marine
and 17 lakh tonnes of inland fisheries produced in 2016-17. Due its large coastline, India
has high potential for fisheries.
• India is first in total buffalo population (56.7%) in the world, second in cattle population,
second in fish production, second in goat and third in sheep population in the world.
5. Challenges faced by Animal Husbandry Sector

• Lack of access to organized markets and meager profits distract farmers from investing
into improved technologies and quality inputs. Informal market intermediaries often exploit
the producers.
• Shrinking and degrading pastures coupled with limitations of fodder, lack of sufficient
veterinary care and apathy to assisted reproductive technologies have been the major
constraints in reaching the full potential of animal husbandry e.g. potential of raising
Pashmina goats’ viz. Changthangi in Ladakh and Chegu in Himachal Pradesh remains under
exploited due to above reasons.
• Livestock extension services are almost absent. The extension format, methodology and
set-up established for agriculture has failed to cater to the needs of the livestock sector.
Consequently, only 5.1% of the farm households were able to access any information on
animal husbandry against 40.4% for crop farming. The only centrally sponsored scheme on
“Livestock extension and delivery services” with a budgetary outlay of Rs. 15.00 crore
remained non-operational.
• Sufficient facility / setup for disease diagnosis, reporting, epidemiology, surveillance and
forecasting are not on board. Several diagnostic kits required for disease surveillance and
monitoring are imported at a huge cost. The limited diagnostics available in the country are
produced by few laboratories and are not of desired quality.
• Testing of milk for safety and quality parameters at the collection centers is almost non-
existent. Lack of proper anaerobic waste treatment and dairy by-product utilization are the
other concerns. Due to quality concerns of milk, value addition and export potential has not
been fully exploited.
• India has huge diversity of animals, which are adaptable to harsh climate, limited nutrition,
and resistance to diseases and stress. Populations of most of these breeds have alarmingly
gone down due to comparative preferences for highly productive exotic breeds. This calls
for an immediate action for systematic conservation, genetic improvement and sustainable
utilization of indigenous livestock breeds.
• There is also a huge demand of Indian ethnic meat products in the international market.
However, lack of international processing standards is the hindrance. Unfortunately,
schemes on modernization of slaughterhouses and by-product utilization have not been
effectively implemented.
• Bulk of the investment for livestock development comes from the state governments. The
central government contributes about 10% to the total investment. There is hardly any
private sector investment in animal husbandry
• Microbial contamination, antibiotic residues and adulteration in milk, meat and animal
feed is rampant. Quality control for veterinary drugs and vaccines is almost non-existent.
There is a need to establish food testing laboratories duly accredited by the Food Safety and
Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) to check adulteration.

Student Notes:
6. Government Initiatives to Overcome the Challenges

1. National Livestock Mission (NLM)
2. Livestock Health and Disease Control Schemes
3. National Dairy Plan
4. National Program for Bovine Breeding and Dairy Development
5. Establishment of National Fisheries Development Board
6. In Budget speech 2015-16, government came up with schemes for Indigenous Breed and
Blue Revolution
7. In 2017-18 budget speech, government has introduced Dairy Processing and Infrastructure
Development Fund
8. In 2017-18 budget speech, government has extended the facility of Kisan Credit Card to
farmers engaged in fisheries, aquaculture and animal husbandry. A dedicated fund of Rs.
10,000 crore was allocated to develop the animal husbandry sector.
6.1. National Action Plan (Through NLM) 2017-18 to 2019-20
• Double the productivity of goat and sheep for milk, meat and wool by selective breeding.
• Transform Backyard poultry to commercial economic model. The aim is to bring landless,
small and marginal farmers into mainstream of economic activity.
• Fodder development in the country by improving Gauchar lands (grazing pastures).
• Animal insurance of poor farmers as per availability of budget.
6.2. National Livestock Mission
• The National Livestock Mission (NLM) has commenced from 2014-15.
• The Mission is designed to cover all the activities required to ensure quantitative and
qualitative improvement in livestock production systems and capacity building of all
stakeholders.
• The Mission covers everything germane to improvement of livestock productivity and
support projects and initiatives required for that purpose subject.
• It is formulated with the objective of sustainable development of livestock sector, focusing
on improving availability of quality feed and fodder.
• NLM has four sub-missions as follows:
o The Sub-Mission on Fodder and Feed Development will address the problems of
scarcity of animal feed resources, in order to give a push to the livestock sector making
it a competitive enterprise for India, and also to harness its export potential. The major
objective is to reduce the deficit to nil.
o Under Sub-Mission on Livestock Development, there are provisions for productivity
enhancement, entrepreneurship development and employment generation (bankable
projects), strengthening of infrastructure of state farms with respect to modernization,
automation and biosecurity, conservation of threatened breeds, minor livestock
development, rural slaughter houses, fallen animals and livestock insurance.
o Sub-Mission on Pig Development in North-Eastern Region: There has been persistent
demand from the North Eastern States seeking support for all round development of
piggery in the region. For the first time, under NLM a Sub-Mission on Pig Development
in North-Eastern Region is provided wherein Government of India would support the
State Piggery Farms, and importation of germplasm so that eventually the masses get
the benefit as it is linked to livelihood and contributes in providing protein-rich food in 8
States of the NER.
o Sub-Mission on Skill Development, Technology Transfer and Extension: The extension
machinery at field level for livestock activities is very weak. As a result, farmers are not
able to adopt the technologies developed by research institutions. The emergence of

Student Notes:
new technologies and practices require linkages between stakeholders and this sub-
mission will enable a wider outreach to the farmers. All the States, including NER States
may avail the benefits of the multiple components and the flexibility of choosing them
under NLM for a sustainable livestock development.
6.3. National Mission on Bovine Productivity (NMBP)
• The mission has been initiated in November 2016 with an allocation of Rs. 825 crore
(575.80 crore as Central Share and 249.20 crore as State Share) over a period of three years
and implementation of spill over activities of the project beyond the project period.
• It will be implemented as a part of Rashtriya Gokul Mission under umbrella scheme White
Revolution-Rashtriya Pashudhan Vikas Yojna.
• The objective is to enhance milk production and productivity of bovine population, increase
trade of livestock and its products, e-market for bovine germplasm and to double farmers’
income by 2022.
• It has 4 components:
o Pashu Sanjivni: an animal wellness program with provision of Nakul Swasthya Patra
(animal health card) along with unique ID to animals and uploading data on National
Data Depository.
o Advanced breeding technology: IVF/MOET (In-Vitro fertilisation/Multiple-ovulation
embryo transplant) and sex sorted semen technique to improve availability of disease
free high genetic merit female bovines.
o e-Pashuhaat: a website portal launched on birthday of V. Kurien on 26 Nov 2016 to
connect the breeders and farmers for sale and purchase of germplasm.
o National Bovine Genomic Centre for indigenous breeds (NBGC-IB)
6.4. National Program for Bovine Breeding and Dairy Development (NPBB&DD)
• The program has been initiated in February 2014 by merging four ongoing schemes of the
Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries in the dairy sector:
o National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding (NPCBB)
o Intensive Dairy Development Programme (IDDP)
o Strengthening Infrastructure for Quality & Clean Milk Production (SIQ & CMP); and
o Assistance to Cooperatives (A to C)
• The aim is to integrate milk production and dairying activities in a scientific and holistic
manner, so as to attain higher levels of milk production and productivity, to meet the
increasing demand for milk in the country.
• The Scheme has two components
o National Programme for Bovine Breeding (NPBB)
o National Programme for Dairy Development (NPDD)
• NPBB focuses on to ensure quality Artificial Insemination services at farmers doorstep
through MAITRI (Multipurpose AI Technician in Rural India) and to conserve, develop and
proliferate selected indigenous bovine breeds of high socio-economic importance.
Rashtriya Gokul Mission comes within it.
• NPDD will focus on creating infrastructure related to production, procurement, processing
and marketing by milk unions/federations and also extension activities including training of
farmers.
• Under this scheme, there is provision for rehabilitation assistance to improve the condition
of sick milk cooperatives by providing a central grant up to 50 % of the cost of the
rehabilitation project with a maximum financial ceiling of Rs.5 crore.

Student Notes:
6.4.1. Rashtriya Gokul Mission

• Rashtriya Gokul Mission has been initiated under National Programme for Bovine Breeding
(NPBB) in December 2014.
• It is being implemented with the objectives of:
o development and conservation of indigenous breed
o breed improvement programme or indigenous cattle breeds to improve their genetic
makeup and increase the stock
o enhancement of milk production and productivity
o upgradation of nondescript cattle using elite indigenous breeds like Gir, Sahiwal, Rathi,
Deoni, Red Sindhi
o distribution of disease free high genetic merit bulls for natural service.
• The mission includes establishment of
o Gokul Gram (Integrated Indigenous Cattle Centres)
o Gopalan Sangh (Breeder’s Societies)
o distribution of disease free high genetic merit bulls for natural service
o provides incentive to farmers maintaining elite animals of indigenous breed
o heifer rearing programme
o award to Farmers (Gopal Ratna) and Breeders’ Societies (Kamadhenu ).
o National Kamdhenu Breeding Centres for development, conservation and preservation
of indigenous breeds are being established one in north and one in south India, as a
Centre of Excellence, to develop and conserve Indigenous Breeds. Besides being a
repository of indigenous germplasm, it will also be a source of certified germplasm in
the Country.
6.5. Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme
• The scheme was started in September, 2010 with the objective to generate self
employment opportunities in dairy sector in the country.
• It is being implemented through NABARD which provides financial assistance to
commercially bankable projects with loans from Commercial, Cooperative, Urban and
Rural banks with a back ended capital subsidy of 25% of the project cost to the beneficiaries
of general category and 33.33% of the project cost to SC & ST beneficiaries.
• The activities include establishment of small dairy unit from 2 to 10 milch animals, rearing
of heifers (up to 20 calves), vermicompost, purchase of milking machines, etc.
• An individual entrepreneur, farmer, group of farmers, self help groups, Dairy Cooperative
Societies, district milk unions and panchayati raj institutions are eligible under the scheme.
6.6. National Dairy Plan
• NDP (Phase I) is a central sector scheme being implemented by National Dairy
Development Board (NDDB) through the network of End Implementing Agencies (EIAs) for
the period 2011-12 to 2018-19.
• It is a scientifically planned multi-state initiative to increase productivity of milch animals
and thereby increase milk production to meet the rapidly growing demand for milk through
scientific breeding and feeding and to provide rural milk producers with greater access to
the organised milk processing sector.
• NDP-I is being implemented in the 18 major milk producing States.
• Pattern of funding under the scheme is 100 per cent grant-in-aid for nutrition and breeding
activities and in the case of village milk procurement systems, 50 per cent of the cost of
capital items is being contributed by the End Implementing Agencies.
• Under NDP I, 364 sub projects of 158 EIAs from 18 States have been approved till
November 2016.

Student Notes:
6.7. National Mission on Protein Supplement

• It is one of the six components of Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana.
• It was launched in 2011-12 to take up activities to promote animal based protein
production through livestock development, dairy farming, piggery, goat rearing, and
fisheries in selected blocks.
7. Pink Revolution
Pink Revolution is a term used to denote the technological revolutions in the meat and poultry
processing sector.
• In 2014, India surpassed Brazil and Australia to become the largest bovine meat exporting
country in the world.
• Bovine meat became India’s top agricultural export item ($4781m), ahead of Basmati Rice
in 2014-15.
• The largest importer of Indian meat are primarily the countries in the Middle-East and
South East Asia.
• The broiler sector (poultry meat) has also shown more than 8% growth.
• India is home to the largest population of cattle and buffalo in the world (58% of world’s
buffalo population).
• About 10% of the rural labour force is involved in livestock rearing occupation, which
constitutes 26% of the total agricultural value added. UP, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra
are the major states supplying buffalo meat (carabeef).
• Cost of production of meat is much lower in India. Also, India is geographically well
placed in terms of export to the consuming nations
• With a shift towards protein rich diet India can gain from its meat industries.
Challenges faced by Indian Meat Sector
• Largely Unorganized (90% unorganized)
• Lack of adequate meat hygiene
• Inadequate infrastructure like outdated abattoirs (slaughter houses), poor cold storage
facilities etc.
• Animals are not specifically bred for meat.
• Poor quality of meat because spent animals (old age farm animals) are generally used for
meat production.
• Lower domestic demand, low per capita meat consumption in India (5.2 Kg/year vs 39.8 kg
global average)
• Lack of awareness about food safety norms and packaging standards.
7.1. Poultry Sector
• Poultry is one of the fastest growing sub sectors of animal husbandry.
• Policies for poultry development has been included in the National Livestock Mission.
• NLM includes modernisation and development of breeding infrastructure, which includes
training and feed analysis as well.
• It has also been aligned with National skill development framework.
• Technological interventions in the areas of biosecurity, automation and modernisation of
Infrastructure is envisioned in the Central/State Government poultry farms.
• NLM includes Rural Backyard Poultry Development as a component to provide
supplementary income and nutritional support to the BPL families.

Student Notes:
8. Fisheries
Fisheries is a sunrise sector with varied resources and potential, engaging over 14.50 million
people at the primary level and many more along the value chain. Transformation of the
fisheries sector from traditional to commercial scale has led to an increase in fish production
from 7.5 lakh tonnes in 1950-51 to 107.95 lakh tonnes during 2015-16, while the export
earnings from the sector registered at around 33,441 crore in 2014-15 (US$ 5.51 billion).
Constituting about 6.30% of the global fish production and 5% of global trade, India has
attained the second largest fish producing and second largest aquaculture nation in the world.
Besides being a source of protein, income and livelihood to poor fishermen, the fishery sector is
also responsible for engaging rural population in ancillary activities like marketing, retailing,
transportation etc.
While one of the most significant characteristic of Indian fishery is its small-scale nature, Inland
fishery (with respect to marine), and through aquaculture (with respect to capture fisheries)
has become the major norm of Indian Fishery sector.
8.1. Challenges Faced by the Fisheries Sector
• Inland fish production has declined due to proliferation of water control structure, loss of
habitat and indiscriminate fishing.
• Marine fishing has declined due to depleting resources, energy crisis and resultant high cost
of fishing.
• Low investment in the sector coupled with limited capabilities of fishermen and fish
farmers.
• Inadequate supply of seed, feed and genetic resources.
• Slow development and adoption of new and improved farming technologies.
• India is yet to realise the potential of deep-sea fishing.
• Inadequate cold chain, market, trade and safety.
• Environmental integrity and a vicious circle of low productivity.
• The sector is also experiencing loss of biodiversity on account of adverse climate change
• Security of fishermen especially along the maritime boundaries with Sri Lanka and Pakistan
remains a concern.
• Lack of a reliable database relating to aquatic and fisheries resources.
• Water pollution; unscientific management of aquaculture and contamination of indigenous
germplasm resources.
8.2. Blue Revolution – Neel Kranti Mission
The government of India restructured the central plan scheme under an umbrella of Blue
Revolution: Integrated Development and Management of Fisheries (Central Sector Scheme).
Blue Revolution, the Neel Kranti Mission has the vision to achieve economic prosperity of the
country and the fishers and fish farmers as well as contribute towards food and nutritional
security through full potential utilization of water resources for fisheries development in a
sustainable manner, keeping in view the bio-security and environmental concerns. It will have
multi-dimensional approach to all activities concerned with development of the fisheries sector
as modern world class industry in India. It will focus on tapping the full production potential
and enhance productivity substantially from aquaculture and fisheries resources, both inland
and marine. Substantially increasing the share of Indian fisheries in the export area would be a
key goal. It will ensure doubling the income of the fishers and fish farmers with inclusive
participation of the socio-economically weaker sections and ensure sustainability with
environment and biosecurity.

Student Notes:
8.2.1. Vision
“Creating an enabling environment for integrated development of the full potential of fisheries
of the country, alongwith substantially improvement in the income status of fishers and fish
farmers keeping in view the sustainability, bio-security and environmental concerns.”
8.2.2. Mission
• Formulation of a Neel Kranti Mission Plan (Blue Revolution Mission Plan) for tapping the full
potential of the inland and marine culture fisheries of the country by developing it as a
professional modern world class industry.
• Ensure doubling of income of fishers and fish farmers of the country.
• Ensure sustainability of, bio-security and address environmental concerns for enabling
sustainability of the fishing industry.
8.2.3. Objectives
• To fully tap the total fish potential of the country both in the inland and the marine sector
and triple the production by 2020.
• To transform the fisheries sector as a modern industry with special focus on new
technologies and processes.
• To double the income of the fishers and fish farmers with special focus on increasing
productivity and better marketing postharvest infrastructure including e-commerce and
other technologies and global best innovations.
• To ensure inclusive participation of the fishers and fish farmers in the income
enhancement.
• To triple the export earnings by 2020 with focus on benefits flow to the fishers and fish
farmers including through institutional mechanisms in the cooperative, producer
companies and other structures.
• To enhance food and nutritional security of the country.
8.2.4. Strategy – Central Sector Assistance Schemes
The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying &
Fisheries has accordingly restructured the scheme by merging all the ongoing schemes under
an umbrella of Blue Revolution. The restructured scheme provides focused development and
management of fisheries, covering inland fisheries, aquaculture, marine fisheries including
deep sea fishing, mariculture and all activities undertaken by the National Fisheries
Development Board (NFDB).
The restructured Plan Scheme on Blue Revolution: Integrated Development and Management
of Fisheries” has been approved at a total central outlay of Rs. 3000 crore for implementation
during a period of five years (2015-16 to 2019-20) with the following components:
• National Fisheries Development Board and its activities: increasing fish production,
enhance its exports, apply modern tools and techniques, creation of employment etc.
• Development of Inland Fisheries and Aqua Culture: Construction and renovation of ponds,
establishing fish hatcheries, stocking of fingerlings, training and skill development etc
• Development of marine fisheries, infrastructure and post-harvest operations:
Motorisation of traditional craft, promotion of mariculture in the form of sea cages, see
weed cultivation, bi-valve cultivation and pearl culture, infrastructure like ice plants, cold
storages development etc.
• Institutional arrangements for fisheries sector

Student Notes:
• Strengthening of data base and Geographical Information System of the fisheries sector:
assistance to state governments for collection and supply of fisheries data, development of
GIS, mapping of water bodies etc.
• Monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS) and other need based interventions:
o Biometric ID card to marine fishers
o registration of their vessels
o upgradation of the registration centres into Fisheries Monitoring Control and
Surveillance centres (FMCS)
• National scheme of welfare of fishers: Housing for fishermen, basic amenities, group
accident insurance for active fisherman, Grant in aid to the National Federation of Fishers
Cooperative ltd (FISHCOPFED).
An Integrated National Fisheries Action Plan 2020 has been developed to achieve the concept
of Blue Revolution.
8.3. National Policy on Marine Fishery, 2017
National Policy on Marine Fisheries provides guidance for promoting 'Blue Growth Initiative'
which focus on ushering 'Blue Revolution' (NeeliKranti) by sustainable utilization of fisheries
wealth from the marine and other aquatic resources of the country for improving the lives and
livelihoods of fishermen and their families.
• The policy intends to guide the coordination and management of marine fisheries in the
country during the next 10 years.
• It envisions to create a healthy and active marine fishery sector which can fulfill the
necessities of present and future generations.
• The policy states that “private investments will be promoted in deep sea fishing and
processing to fully harness the potential of marine fishery for inclusive development.
Sustainable utilisation of the deep sea fisheries resources necessitates an optimum fleet
size of modern fishing vessels capable of undertaking extended voyages, and wherever
required, support of overseas technology will also be considered for development of the
sector”.
• Legislations will be brought to economically empower the producer cooperatives and the
right of first sale option to be given to the fisherman.
9. Operation Flood
It is the world's biggest dairy development program, launched in 1970 by National Dairy
Development Board (NDDB). It transformed India from a milk-deficient nation into the world's
largest milk producer. India surpassed USA in 1998, with about 17 percent of global output in
2010–11. In 30 years it doubled milk available per person, and made dairy farming India’s one
of the largest self-sustainable rural employment generator.
• It helped dairy farmers direct their own development, placing control of the resources they
create in their own hands.
• A National Milk Grid links milk producers throughout India with consumers in over 700
towns and cities, reducing seasonal and regional price variations while ensuring that the
producer gets fair market prices in a transparent manner on a regular basis.
• The bedrock of Operation Flood has been village milk producers' cooperatives, which
procure milk and provide inputs and services, making modern management and technology
available to members. Operation Flood's objectives included:
o Increase milk production ("a flood of milk")
o Augment rural income
o Reasonable prices for consumers

Student Notes:
Success
• In 1955 India’s butter imports were 500 tons per year, today India's cooperatives alone
produce more than 12,000 tons of butter.
• India imported 3000 tons of baby food in 1955, today cooperatives alone produce 38,000
tons of baby food.
• By 1975 all imports of milk and milk products stopped.
• In 1998 the World Bank published a report on the impact of dairy development in India and
looked at its own contribution to this. The audit revealed that of the Rs 200 crore the World
Bank invested in Operation Flood, the net return on India's rural economy was a massive Rs
24,000 crore each year over a period of 10 years, which no other dairy programme has ever
matched.
• India has retained its leadership as the world’s largest milk producer for the last 15 years.
This has been made possible by Operation Flood — which ushered in the White Revolution
in India.
Criticism
• Operation Flood failed to replicate the success of Amul (Anand Milk Union Limited) in states
other than Gujarat.
• Analysts cited reasons for this failure:
o political interference
o bureaucratic apathy
o lack of a professional approach
o lack of knowledge among the co-operative board and committee members of how to
run co-operatives
10. Need of a Second White Revolution to Overcome Supply Side &

Demand Side Challenges
Supply-Side Challenges:
Eighty per cent of Indian cattle is owned by farmers with a herd size of up to four animals. But a
number of factors impact the sustenance of these traditional small farms, such as:
• the subsidiary nature of dairying as an activity
• stagnant yields
• rising feed/fodder costs and
• a shift in rural areas towards other vocations
Demand-Side Challenges:
• India is slated to witness a boom in dairy demand of over 6 per cent annually, due to
increasing population and increase in income.
However, the average annual growth in supply is only about 4%. The demand-supply interplay
effect is evident in steadily rising milk prices in the recent past. We clearly need a Second White
Revolution.
Way Forward
• Large scale dairy farms: Large scale cooperatives and corporates can establish integrated
dairy farms, with automated milking, feeding, processing, integrated feed production and
in-house breed improvement. They can sell their produce to other dairy plants or can do
further value addition.

Student Notes:
• Hub and Spoke Model: The main farm (hub), owned by an anchor has all the integrated
facilities for milking, feed production and milk processing with a cattle count of over 500
cows. The connected/satellite farms (spokes), with 50 to 200 cattle each, have basic
infrastructure for milking and cattle management and are owned by progressive dairy
farmers in close proximity to the main farm. The anchor provides technical support
(veterinary care, feed management, and training) to the satellite farms. This model will be
socially inclusive.
• Progressive dairy farmer: This model envisages investment in farm infrastructure by an
anchor. Cow stalls are leased out on nominal charges to farmers, who are responsible for
housing of cows and managing them under guidance of the anchor. The automation level
of the farms can depend on the farm size. The milk would be purchased under a buy-back
arrangement by the anchor. This model enables the smallest dairy farmers to avail the
benefits of technology, scale and systems. This model includes the concept of building
hostels for cows and to establish mid-sized dairy farms with 200-300 cattle.
• Community Model: Community ownership and management of common infrastructure
for housing, breeding, feeding and milking under a cooperative/producer company model
shall be applicable here. A number of such farms within a restricted geographical periphery
can avail of technical support services on a pooling basis. Farmers are not restricted to sell
their milk to a specific entity. Milking machines, equipment, bulk coolers and milk storage
facilities are owned by the community.
11. Previous Year Vision IAS GS Mains Test Series Questions

1. Animal rearing is a key livelihood and risk mitigation strategy for tribals and small
and marginal farmers, particularly across the rainfed regions of India. Substantiate.
Also, discuss some strategies to realize the potential of this sector.
Approach:
• Briefly discuss the scope of the sector.
• Bring out its significance for tribals and small and marginal farmers.
• Discuss steps that need to be taken to realize the potential of the sector.
Answer:
Livestock have been an integral component of India’s agricultural and rural economy.
Livestock contribute over 1/4th to the agricultural GDP and about 5% of the country’s
GDP and engage about 9% of the agricultural labor force. The livestock sector has been
growing faster than crop sector.
Its growth has special significance for small and marginal farmers, landless laborers and
tribals and farmers in rain-fed areas as they are more dependent on livestock for
supplementing incomes and generating gainful employment. To elaborate:
• In India, livestock wealth is much more equitably distributed than wealth
associated with land.
About 70 per cent of the livestock market in India is owned by 67 per cent of the
small and marginal farmers and by the landless. Thus, growth of the livestock sector
would reduce poverty more than growth of the crops sector.
• Distribution patterns of income and employment show that rural poverty is less in
states where livestock accounts for a sizeable share of agricultural income as well as
employment.
• The small ruminants and poultry livestock provide livelihood support to the poor
underprivileged landless, and marginal farm households as there upkeep cost is low
and are source of milk, eggs and meat.

Student Notes:
• Rain-fed regions face uncertain and erratic weather conditions which negatively
impact crop productivity and wage labor in the agriculture sector. Animals are
natural capital, which can be easily reproduced to act as a living bank with offspring
as interest, and an insurance against income shocks of crop failure, natural
calamities and climate change.
• Tribals have community controlled lands which provide them large pastures for
their animals. Moreover tribals are still engaged in subsistence agriculture. Thus,
livestock is a good source of income and support to them.
In the light of immense potential of the sector in providing inclusive economic growth
to the rural folks, government has come up with several projects. Yet, the sector has
shown a decline in recent years. Following steps can be taken to improve the potential
of the sector:
• Livestock producers, including traditional pastoralists and smallholders, are both
victims of natural resource degradation and contributors to it. Corrective action
related to environmental protection, ecosystem services, community led
interventions and through incentives for private investment should be taken.
• Improving livestock-related technologies for livestock feed, breeding, processing,
technical manpower and infrastructure.
• Frequent outbreak of diseases and poor productivity should be tackled with
improved focus on animal health and outreach of veterinary services.
• Development of a better paying markets for livestock and commercialization of
livestock.
Livestock sector did not receive the policy and financial attention commensurate to its
contribution. Systematic implementation of loans and insurance schemes particularly in
remote areas is needed.
2. In spite of having the world’s largest livestock population in India, the potential of
animal rearing remains underutilized. In this context, discuss the challenges faced by
the meat and poultry sector and suggest measures for accelerated and sustained
growth for this sector.
Approach:
• Give the current status of the livestock population in India.
• List the challenges faced by the meat and poultry sector.
• Then give an account of measures that can be taken for accelerated and sustained
growth in the sector.
Answer:
With only 2.29% of the land area of the world, India is maintaining about 10.71% of the
world’s livestock. A large manpower is also involved in livestock related activities like
manufacture of animal food products and beverages, manufacture of textiles, tanning &
dressing of leather, farming of animals etc. Despite that, the potential of animal rearing
remains underutilised due to various challenges such as:
• Lack of poultry feed: Maize is the single most important ingredient of poultry feed,
its’ availability at a reasonable cost is the major problem of poultry sector.
• Diseases: Pathogenic and emerging diseases often cause heavy losses both in
domestic market and international trade.

Student Notes:
• Lack of trained Human Resource: This results in less than optimal output.
• Low productivity: Dead weight of carcass is low, indicating low biomass. For bovine
and cattle, milk production is also lesser than international varieties.
• Poor hygiene and upkeep: Poultry unfit to meet industry and export norms.
The challenges faced by the meat sector include:
• Lack of modernised abattoir: it results in poor efficiency and issues of sanitation
which hampers export.
• Cultural issues: In some states meat industry has been facing resistance due to
religious sentiments.
• Low productivity of livestock: In terms of meat output.
• Low level of processing and value addition in animal products.
Both these sectors suffer from ineffective marketing strategy to project these products.
Way Forward:
• Long-term sustainable production measures should be looked into increase the
production & quality of maize.
• Active surveillance, monitoring and control in case of any outbreaks in rapid
manner. Implementation of livestock insurance insurance schemes is also
important.
• Network for a realistic national and global poultry database and marketing
intelligence may be developed. Also, the genetic resource of Indian livestock should
be conserved through programmes like Gokul Mission.
• Sufficient trained manpower should be developed in the existing institutions.
• The by-products from mechanized abattoirs should be utilized for production of
value added products, like Meat-cum-Bone Meal (MBM), Tallow, Bone Chips, Pet
Foods and methane, which can be used as a source of energy for value addition in
most of the modern plants.
• There is a need to support pig rearing in order to improve sow productivity, growth
rate of piglets and feed conversion efficiency.
• Proper utilization of by-products of livestock slaughter for higher income of
livestock owners.
• The environmental pollution and spread of livestock diseases should be prevented.
With growing urbanization and increasing quality consciousness, the market for
scientifically produced meat products is growing for ready-to-eat and semi-processed
meat products. With proper utilisation of livestock resources India needs to be ready
for changing socio-economic scenario.
3. “Compared to animal husbandry’s contribution to the Indian economy, the sector has
received much less resources and institutional support.” Analyse the above statement
in the light of challenges faced by livestock sector in India.
Approach:
Comment on the challenges faced by the animal husbandry sector, referring to its
various components, bringing out the shortcomings and suggesting measure that needs
to be taken to improve the situation of animal husbandry in India.

Student Notes:
Answer:
[The answer deals with every section of the livestock sector separately detailing each
section’s challenges and suggestions making this answer quite long. This has been done
to provide sufficient details with respect to livestock sector so that students can
confidently tackle any section specific question in the examination]
The animal production system in India is predominantly part of a mixed crop-livestock
farming system vital for the security and survival of large numbers of poor people. In
such systems, livestock generate income; provide employment, draught power and
manure. Also it is a major source of milk, meat, eggs, wool and hides. Thus, animal
husbandry plays an important role in the rural economy.
India’s livestock sector is one of the largest in the world. In 2010-11 livestock generated
outputs worth Rs 2075 billion (at 2004-05 prices) which comprised 4% of the GDP and
26% of the agricultural GDP. The total output worth was higher than the value of food
grains. Therefore, though animal husbandry has got special attention through various
schemes and programmes of the GOI to remove the bottlenecks hindering this sector
much still needs to be done.
There are number of socio-economic, environmental, technological and other
challenges that need to be overcome through appropriate policies, technologies and
strategies in order to harness the pro-poor potential of animal husbandry. Various sub
sector specific challenges along with their solutions are as follows:-
Dairy Sector:
India continues to be the largest producer of milk in the world. Production is estimated
to be around 121.8 million tonnes during 2010-11 as compared to 53.9 million tonnes
in1990-91. Per capita availability of milk at national level has increased from 176 grams
per day in 1990-91 to 281 grams per day in 2010-11.
The challenges faced by the dairy sector are:
• Small herd size and poor productivity
• Inadequate budgetary allocation over the years
• Lack of equity with crop production
• Inadequate availability of credit
• Poor access to organized markets deprive farmers of proper milk price
• Shortage of manpower and funds
• Limited availability of quality breeding bulls
• Disease outbreaks: mortality & morbidity
• Deficiency of vaccines and vaccination set-up
• Induction of crossbred animals in areas poor in feed resources
• Majority of grazing lands are either degraded or encroached
• Diversion of feed & fodder ingredients for industrial use
Way Forward:
• Continuous support to the States is essential for further genetic up gradation

programmes to meet the fast increasing demand for milk in the country.
• There is further need to consolidate and improve the breeding infrastructure
created under NPCBB, scientific programmes like Embryo Transfer Technology (ETT),
Multi Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology (MOET)
• Incentivizing investment in this sector

Student Notes:
• Increasing public investment.

Meat and Poultry Sector:
In terms of population, India ranks second in the world in goats and third in sheep. The
growth in poultry production is mainly attributed to the efforts of the organized private
sector, which controls over 80% of the total production in the country.
The challenges faced by the sector are:
• Maize availability and cost: maize is the single most important ingredient of
poultry feed, it’s availability at a reasonable cost is the major problem of poultry
sector.
• Diseases: Pathogenic and emerging diseases namely AI often causes heavy losses
both in domestic market and international trade.
• Lack of Marketing Intelligence: There is a dire need for realistic national marketing
intelligence to bridge the gap between supply and demand of poultry & poultry
products.
• Human Resource Development: To meet the growing demand of sustainable and
safe production there is a huge demand for trained and skilled manpower in
poultry sector.
• Low level of processing and value addition in animal products.
The Way Forward:
The following measures are suggested to strengthen the meat and poultry sector for
accelerated and sustainable growth:
• Long-term sustainable production measures have to be looked into to increase the
production & quality of maize.
• Active surveillance, monitoring and control in case of any outbreaks in rapid
manner.
• Network for a realistic national and global poultry database and marketing
intelligence may be developed. Sufficient trained manpower should be developed
in the existing institutions.
• With growing urbanization and increasing quality consciousness, the market for
scientifically produced meat products is expected to grow rapidly. The market is
growing for ready-to-eat and semi-processed meat products because of a changing
socio-economic scenario and an increase in exports to neighbouring countries,
especially the Middle East.
• The mechanized slaughter houses produce huge quantities of offal and digests from
the slaughtered animals which could be profitably utilized for production of value
added products, like Meat-cum-Bone Meal (MBM), Tallow, Bone Chips, Pet Foods
and methane as a source of energy for value addition in most of the modern plants.
• There is a need to support pig rearing in order to improve sow productivity, growth
rate of piglets and feed conversion efficiency.
• It is important to encourage proper utilization of by-products of livestock slaughter
for higher income of livestock owners. The environmental pollution and spread of
livestock diseases has to be prevented.
Nutrition: Fodder and Feed
With only 2.29% of the land area of the world, India is maintaining about 10.71% of the
world’s livestock. The nutritive value of feed and fodder has a significant bearing on
productivity of livestock. The gap between the demand and supply of fodder is fast
increasing.

Student Notes:
Challenges:
The main challenges in providing adequate and quality fodder and feed include:
• While numbers of livestock are growing, but the grazing lands are gradually
diminishing. The area under fodder cultivation is also limited.
• A majority of the grazing lands have either been degraded or encroached upon
restricting their availability for livestock grazing.
• Due to increasing pressure on land for growing food grains, oil seeds, and pulses,
adequate attention has not been given to the production of fodder crops.
• Diversified use of agriculture residues like paper industry, packaging, etc. widening
the gap between the supply and demand for fodder.
• There is lack of authentic data on availability of fodder, crop residues, agro
industrial by- products and feed grains (coarse cereal grains). This is required to
build an actual database, on feed and fodder, to be used for more effective and
realistic planning of livestock sector development.
• A substantial amount of crop residues is burnt by the farmers after harvesting of
main crop like wheat and paddy.
• In most of the states there are inadequate staffs to address the problems related to
fodder.
The Way Forward:
The measures which can contribute to improved fodder and feed situation include the
following:
• A reliable data-base is required for assisting in realistic planning.
• Supply of quality fodder and feed should be encouraged on a priority basis.
• The forest department can play a major role in augmenting fodder production in
the country. The degraded forest areas, mostly under the Joint Forest Management
Committees (JFMCs), can be used for assisting growth of indigenous fodder
varieties of grasses, legumes, and trees under area-specific silvi-pastoral systems.
• There is a need for undertaking an effective Extension campaign in major states for
efficient utilization of crop residues, growing fodder crops, Azolla production, etc.
• Production of seeds of high yielding fodder varieties needs to be increased in the
organized/cooperative sector.
• Production of condensed fodder blocks needs to be encouraged by creating an
assured market, coupled with providing a transport subsidy for supply to distant
areas.
Livestock Health:
High prevalence of various animal diseases like Foot & Mouth Disease (FMD),
Brucellosis, Classical Swine Fever and Avian Influenza is a serious impediment to growth
in the livestock sector. There is a dire need to strengthen veterinary hospital facilities
for timely diagnosis and treatment of animal diseases. Emphasis also needs to be given
to strengthen art mobile veterinary services to ensure door-step veterinary support.
Challenges:
The main challenges confronting the animal health sector include:
• Veterinary hospitals, dispensaries and technical manpower are inadequate.
• The disease reporting is neither timely nor complete which delays proper
interventions.

Student Notes:
• Inadequate availability of vaccines and lack of cold storage.

The Way Forward:
The following measures will strengthen the animal health sector:
• Adequate veterinary disease diagnosis, epidemiology, hospital infrastructure and
manpower need to be developed.
• A strong programme for supply of sufficient veterinary vaccines is necessary.
Fisheries Sector:
India is the second largest producer of fish in the world, contributing 5.54 percent of
global production. Allocations made for the development of fisheries sector through
the Centrally Sponsored Schemes and Central Sector Schemes are utilized for
implementation of both development and welfare oriented schemes through the
respective states and UTs.
In addition to the allocations made through CSS and CS, assistance is provided through
other flagship programmes like Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) and the recently
launched National Mission for Protein Supplements (NMPS) as well as other
programmes like Marine Fisheries Development Scheme, Inland Fishery Development
Scheme, Fishermen Welfare Scheme.
Challenges:
The main challenges facing the fisheries sector include:
• Shortage of quality and healthy fish seeds and other critical inputs.
• Lack of resource-specific fishing vessels and reliable resource and updated data.
• Inadequate awareness about nutritional and economic benefits of fish.
• Inadequate extension staff for fisheries and training for fishers and fisheries
personnel.
• Absence of standardization and branding of fish products.
The Way Forward:
The following measures will help to further strengthen the fisheries sector:
• Schemes of integrated approach for enhancing inland fish production and
productivity with forward and backward linkages right from production chain and
input requirements like quality fish seeds and fish feeds and creation of required
infrastructure for harvesting, hygienic handling, value addition and marketing of
fish.
• Existing Fish Farmers Development Authority (FFDAs) would be revamped and
cooperative sectors, SHGs and youths would be actively involved in intensive
aquaculture activities.
• Large scale adoption of culture-based capture fisheries and cage culture in
reservoirs and larger water bodies are to be taken up.
• Sustainable exploitation of marine fishery resources especially deep sea resources
and enhancement of marine fish production through sea farming, Mari-culture,
resource replenishment programme like setting up of artificial reefs.
Therefore, the extent to which the pro-poor potential of livestock can be harnessed
would depend on how technology, institutions, policies and financial support address
the constraints of the sector. The number-driven growth in livestock production may
not sustain in the long run due to its increasing stress on the limited natural resources.
The future growth has to come from improvements in technology and service delivery
systems leading to accelerated productivity, processing and marketing.

Student Notes:
4. In India, livestock sector promotes more equitable sharing of resources and gender
equity. Examine.
Approach:
Firstly, along with facts, give an introduction about livestock sector in India. Then,
explain the role played by it in India’s socio-economic setting and then argue how it
brings more equitable sharing of resources and gender equity.
Answer:
India’s livestock sector is one of the largest in the world. In 2010-11 livestock generated
outputs worth Rs 2075 billion (at 2004-05 prices) which comprised 4% of the GDP and
26% of the agricultural GDP. The total output worth was higher than the value of food
grains.
Animal husbandry is an integral component of Indian agriculture supporting livelihood

of more than two-thirds of the rural population. Animals provide nutrient-rich food
products, draught power, dung as organic manure and domestic fuel, hides & skin, and
are a regular source of cash income for rural households. They are a natural capital,
which can be easily reproduced to act as a living bank with offspring as interest, and an
insurance against income shocks of crop failure and natural calamities. However, driven
by the structural changes in agriculture and food consumption patterns, the utility of
livestock has been undergoing a steady transformation.
In India distribution of livestock is more equitable than that of land. It is evident from
the data that in 2003 marginal farm households (≤1.0h hectare of land) who comprised
48% of the rural households controlled more than half of country’s cattle and buffalo
and two-thirds of small animals and poultry as against 24% of land. Livestock has been
an important source of livelihood for small farmers. They contributed about 16% to
their income.
Similarly, animal husbandry promotes gender equity as more than 3/4 th of the labour
demand in livestock production is met by women across the India. The share of women
employment in livestock sector is around 90% in Punjab and Haryana as well as other
states where dairying is a prominent activity and animals are stall-fed.
Thus, the distribution patterns of income and employment show that small farm
households hold more opportunities in livestock production. The growth in livestock
sector is demand-driven, inclusive, pro-poor and pro -women empowerment. Incidence
of rural poverty is less in states like Punjab, Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, Kerala, Gujarat, and Rajasthan where livestock accounts for a sizeable share of
agricultural income as well as employment. Therefore, empirical evidence from India as
well as from many other developing countries suggests that livestock development has
been an important route for the poor households to escape poverty and to enhance
gender equity in labour force participation in livestock production.

Student Notes:
5. The success of “Operation Flood” proves that thoughtful intervention in the livestock
sector has the potential of acting as a growth engine for the agriculture sector and
rural economy. In light of this, examine the potential of the livestock sector and the
challenges it faces. Also enumerate the steps taken by the government in recent years
to leverage the potential of this sector.
Approach:
• Briefly write the benefits of Operation Flood and a short introduction of livestock in
India.
• Write how livestock can be instrumental in tackling the problems of rural economy.
• Write challenges with respect to the competition, new diseases, pollution etc.
• Various government schemes with respect to insurance, modernisation,
quantitative and qualitative development of livestock.
Answer:
It was the organised use of cattle (livestock) that made the Operation Flood a huge
success and converted India from a net importer of dairy products to a net exporter
and positioned India on top of the list of milk production. Livestock being the internal
component of the rural Indian society has huge potential of acting as a growth engine
for agriculture and rural economy.
Mechanization in Agriculture has been to the tune of 20% only, whereas 80% of the
agriculture/farm operations are done by bullock drawn implements. Livestock (Bulls)
provides draught power and manure to the crop enterprise and this in turn provides
feed and fodder.
Fortunately, India is blessed with a tremendous livestock wealth. It has the largest
population of cattle and buffalo in the world and its breeds are admired for heat
tolerance and inherent resistance to diseases and ability to thrive under different
climatic condition. This sector has huge employment potential both for farmers and
landless labourers. The rural population can directly form collaboration with big
investors or through cooperative society and can leverage the benefit from this sector.
But there are many challenges which are as follows:
• Lack of direct market which hampers the commercialisation of livestock sector.

• Lack of policies, financial and institutional support.
• Stringent food safety and quality norms.
• Frequent outbreaks of diseases continue to affect livestock health and productivity.
• Deteriorating common grazing land which is a major source of food to livestock.
• Large influx of foreign breed has the potential to negatively affect the indigenous
breed.
Steps taken by government to leverage the potential of this sector are:
• National Livestock Mission (NLM) launched in FY 2014-15 to ensure quantitative

and qualitative improvement in livestock production systems and capacity building
of all stakeholders.

Student Notes:
• Livestock insurance scheme aims to provide protection mechanism to farmers and

cattle rearers against any eventual loss of their animals and to bring qualitative
improvement in livestock and their products.
• National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding (NPCBB) aims for genetic up-
gradation of cattle and buffaloes by artificial insemination as well as acquisition of
proven indigenous animals.
• Strengthening of Database and Information Networking of livestock to target the
schemes effectively.
• Ensuring the modernisation of this sector to attract foreign investor.
• There are many disease control programs of government to ensure healthy and
productive livestock.


VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

AGRICULTURAL SUBSIDIES AND MINIMUM SUPPORT PRICE


Student Notes:
1. Introduction
The Indian Government plays a vital role in agriculture sector development. The government’s
role is diverse and varied including, but not limited to, self-sufficiency, employment creation,
support to small-scale producers for adopting modern technologies and inputs, reduction of
price instability and improvement of the income of farm households.
This vital role can take a number of forms such as import-export policies and domestic policies
like price support programmes, direct payments, and input subsidies to influence the cost and
availability of farm inputs like credit, fertilizers, seeds, irrigation water, etc. Of all the domestic
support instruments in agriculture, input subsidies and product price support are the most
common.
Derived from the Latin word ‘subsidium’, a subsidy literally implies coming to assistance from
behind. A subsidy, often viewed as the converse of a tax, is an instrument of fiscal policy.
The subsidies may be direct or indirect, cash or kind, general or particular, budgetary or non
budgetary, etc. But their impact is practically visible on both the production and distribution.
The economic rationale of subsidies lies in incentivising the producers to invest in productive
activities and increase production leading to high growth in national income and obtaining
desirable structure of production. The social justification of subsidies lies in reducing inter-
personal income inequalities and inter- regional development imbalances. The justification gets
strengthened if the subsidies promote agricultural development besides equitable distribution
of income.
2. Agriculture Subsidies
An agriculture subsidy is a governmental financial support paid to farmers and agribusinesses to
supplement their income, manage the supply of agricultural commodities, and influence the
cost and supply of such commodities.
Agriculture subsidies act as an incentive to promote agricultural development and as an
instrument of stimulating agricultural production and attaining self-sufficiency. In order to
attain the goal of self-sufficiency in food, government adopts short term policies such as
support prices of products and input subsidy to stimulate the products to increase the food
production. It is expected that subsidies contribute to better cropping pattern, employment and
income of the beneficiaries.
But in most development programmes, subsidies are one among the many developmental
inputs being provided. Thus the observable changes in cropping pattern, employment level and
overall incomes are because of the joint effect of all the efforts going on. Therefore, these
changes cannot be attributed solely to subsidies.
2.1. Types of Agriculture Subsidies in India
2.1.1. Explicit Input Subsidies
Explicit input subsidies are payments made to the farmers to meet a part of the cost of an
input. These are in the nature of explicit payments made to the farmer. For example, subsidy on
improved or high yielding variety seeds, plant protection chemicals and equipments, improved
agricultural implements and supply of mini-kits containing seeds, fertilizers and plant protection
chemicals for certain crops are the explicit subsidies. These are usually made available to small
and marginal farmers and those belonging to scheduled castes and tribes. The objective of such
subsidies is to induce the farmers to adopt yield increasing inputs so that they are able to

Student Notes:
realize the benefits of new technology. The coverage of these subsidies in terms of crops,
inputs, regions and target groups has been changing from time to time. Explicit subsidies have
formed only a small fraction of the development expenditure of Central/ State Governments
2.1.2. Implicit Input Subsidies
While there is transparency in explicit input subsidies, implicit input subsidies are hidden in
nature. The latter arise on account of the mechanics of pricing of inputs. If inputs whose prices
are administratively determined are priced low as compared to their economic cost, it becomes
a case of implicit subsidization. As far as the farmer is concerned, he does not receive any direct
payment but somebody in the economy accounts for the difference.
2.1.3. Output Subsidies
Subsidization of agricultural sector through output pricing means that by a restrictive trade
policy, the product prices in the domestic market are maintained at levels higher than those
that would have prevailed in the absence of restrictions on trade. On the other hand, if the
trade policies have resulted in keeping the domestic prices lower than the corresponding
border reference price, the policies have taxed the agricultural sector. The border reference
price is the free on board prices in the case of exportables and cost, insurance and freight price
in the case of importables.
2.1.4. Food Subsidies
There is an important subsidy linked to the agricultural sector and that is the food subsidy. The
twin policy of providing market support to the foodgrains producers and supplying atleast a
part of the requirement to consumers at reasonable prices, along with the policy of maintaining
a buffer- stock of required quantity for national food security, involves cost in the form of
meeting the differences between the economic cost and issue prices of foodgrains. This is what
is called the food subsidy and appears explicitly in the Union Budget.
2.2. Agriculture Subsidies on the basis of Mode of Payment
2.2.1. Direct Subsidies
Direct subsidies are money transfers by the government that reach the ultimate beneficiary
through a formal predetermined route. In the agriculture and allied sectors, subsidies are given
for crop husbandry, agricultural implements, minor irrigation, soil conservation, horticulture,
animal husbandry, pisciculture, sericulture and also for loss in agriculture during natural
calamities like droughts or floods. The various subsidy schemes in agriculture and allied sectors
are routed through the departments of Agriculture, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry and
Fisheries.
Assessment of Direct Subsidies
Merits
• Direct benefit transfer has been successful in many schemes such as PAHAL in LPG and
MGNREGA.
• There would be no problem of identification, pilferage and corruption etc. as through JAM
trinity or Aadhaar, payments can be made directly to the beneficiaries.
• This would increase efficiency, as well as promote regional balance, and crop diversification.
People can decide for themselves which crop they would want to grow, according to the
profits and their local requirements. They can also use the amount in value addition, mixed
farming and other beneficial activities for their farms/lands.
• It is likely to control Inflation and decrease prices of fertiliser, and other agricultural
produce as well.

Student Notes:
• Behavioural change, as farmers will stop using excessive water or fertiliser in their fields.
• Better Nutrition as cereal centric food policy (Calorie based intervention) ignores micro-
nutrients requirement of human body.
Demerits
• India is a poor country facing hunger, diseases, malnutrition etc. There is a huge chance
that the cash may get used in some non-priority activities or for some non-productive
works e.g. on marriage of girls, alcohol, etc. rather than being used for the right purposes.
• The country may not be able to reach its desired goals such as food grain production may
not be enough to support the huge population and create the problem of food security
instead.
• This will also open the country to volatility of market mechanisms.
• Widespread illiteracy and lack of awareness may also hamper the prospect of Agriculture in
the country.
2.2.2. Indirect Subsidies
Indirect subsidies are provided through price reduction, welfare and other ways but do not
include a direct cash payment. They reach the farmers along with the use of inputs. Therefore,
these are highly correlated with the amount of use of inputs by farmers. Generally, those
farmers who use more inputs would naturally enjoy higher subsidies. Example cheaper credit,
farm loan waivers, reduced tariffs for electricity and irrigation etc.
Assessment of Indirect Subsidies
Merits
• In developing economies such subsidies help development of priority area.
• These subsidies were introduced in India to provide incentives to the farmers to grow food
grains. Hence, generally the indirect subsidies are meant to fulfill some targets fixed by the
Government or to guide people to move towards required goal set by the government.
• Training support and technological assistance helps in enhancing the farmers’ knowledge.
Demerits
• It takes away incentives from other areas, such as Indian agriculture has become cereal
centric, regionally biased, and input intensive. Indirect subsidies are one of the main reason
towards such a state.
• Farmers do not feel the incentive to save resources such as over exploitation of ground
water, indiscriminate use of fertilizers, etc. are resulting due to it.
• Indirect subsidies are not successful in reaching the target beneficiaries because of several
lacunas in identification, corruption, lobbying by rich farmers etc.
• It is liable for misuse for gaining political mileage especially during time of elections.
2.3. Issues related to Agriculture Subsidies and their Possible Resolution
1. Heavy Fiscal Burden: The total outgo on fertilizer subsidy alone in 2017-18 was Rs. 70,000
crore.
• Possible Resolution: A better targeting of subsidies with the usage of JAM (JanDhan –
AADHAAR- Mobile Number) trinity can reduce the fiscal burden.
2. Excessive use of Ground water: The power subsidy has led to overuse of ground water
which has further resulted into dramatic fall in ground water levels. In several villages, wells
have gone dry. Water extracted from deep inside earth has shown contamination of Arsenic
and other heavy metals.

Student Notes:
• Possible Resolution: Separate agriculture feeder network (under Deen Dayal

Upadhayay Gram Jyoti Yojna). This separate agriculture feeder will supply electricity
only for a few hours a day. The process has shown positive results in arresting decline of
ground water levels in Gujarat.
3. Environmental Effects and decline in Soil Fertility: Indiscriminate use of fertilizers
(recommended ratio of NPK fertilizer is 4:2:1 while actual usage is 8:3:1. Similarly, urea
consumption has increased to 60% in 2017 from 55% in 2010-11) harm the soil fertility,
biodiversity, and also leads to eutrophication (increased nutrients in water bodies,
eventually leading to decreased oxygen concentration in them) and bio-accumulation/bio-
magnification (increasing concentration of toxic material in tissues of living organisms at
successively higher levels in a food chain).
• Possible Resolution: Creating awareness among farmers, increasing penetration of soil
health card scheme, promoting organic farming and innovative products like neem-
coated urea will go a long way to check the issue.
4. No benefits to the targeted groups: Fertilizer subsidies are generally cornered by the
manufacturers and the rich farmers of Punjab, Haryana and Western UP.
• Possible Resolution: Nutrient based subsidy and Neem-Coated Urea has been
introduced by Government. There should be Direct Benefit Transfer of fertiliser subsidy
through Aadhaar authentication, organic farming should be encouraged and there
should be phased increase in the price of urea.
5. Cereal Centric, Regionally Biased, and Input Intensive: Price subsidies has affected Indian
agriculture negatively. This has made Indian agriculture cereal centric, and neglectful
towards pulses, oil seeds and coarse cereals. This has led to import of these crops and food
insecurity in lower strata which depend upon coarse cereals. Also, most of the subsidies go
to the rich farmers, and the rich states which are able to grow marketable surplus and have
well developed infrastructure.
• Possible Resolution: Crop diversification by including more crops under MSP, Mission
on Integrated Development of Horticulture, Organic and Cooperative farming, food
processing, mixed farming, Direct Benefit Transfer.

Student Notes:
2.4. Agriculture Subsidies and WTO

2.4.1. Historical Background
A. Uruguay Round, 1995
a) It led to the formation of WTO. One of the main objectives of Uruguay round was to
reduce agricultural subsidies. The Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) was signed by the
WTO members.
b) The agreed long-term objective of the reform process initiated by the Uruguay Round
reform programme is to establish a fair and market-oriented agricultural trading
system.
c) The reform programme comprises specific commitments to reduce support and
protection in the areas of domestic support, export subsidies and market access.
d) The Agreement also takes into account non-trade concerns, including food security and
the need to protect the environment, and provides special and differential treatment
for developing countries, including an improvement in the opportunities and terms of
access for agricultural products of particular export interest to these members.
e) The implementation period for the country-specific commitments is the six-year period
commencing in 1995. However, developing countries have the flexibility to implement
their reduction and other specific commitments over a period of up to 10 years.
f) Special Agricultural Safeguard (SSG) was provided to developing economies under
which they can impose an additional duty in case of import surge (volume) or fall of
import price below a specified reference price.
g) Uruguay Round created two categories of domestic support
1. Support with no, or minimal, distortive effect on trade on the one hand (often
referred to as “Green Box” measures). For example, government funded
agricultural research or training.
2. Trade-distorting support on the other hand (often referred to as “Amber Box”
measures). For example, government buying-in at a guaranteed price (“market
price support”) falls into the Amber Box.
• Green Box: These measures are exempt from reduction commitments and,
indeed, can even be increased without any financial limitation under the WTO.
The Green Box applies to both developed and developing country members but
in the case of developing countries special treatment is provided in respect of
governmental stockholding programmes for food security purposes and
subsidized food prices for urban and rural poor. But, they must not involve
transfers from consumers and must not have the effect of providing price
support to producers (India's PDS does not come under Green Box). Following
programs come under Green Box:
o Government service programs such as Research Programs, Pest and
Disease Control, training, infrastructure etc.
o Direct Payment to producers but it must not influence type or volume of
production, also called Decoupled Payments.
• Blue Box: These are basically Amber Box subsidies but they tend to limit the
production. . Any support that would normally be in the amber box, is placed in
the blue box if the support also requires farmers to limit their production.
These measures are also exempt from reduction commitments. It includes
direct payments under production limiting programs, made on fixed areas and
yield or a fixed number of livestock. Such payments also fit into this category if
they are made on 85 per cent or less of production in a defined base period.
While the Green Box covers decoupled payments, in the case of the Blue Box

Student Notes:
measures, production is still required in order to receive the payments, but the
actual payments do not relate directly to the current quantity of that
production.
De Minimis: Minimal amounts of domestic support that are allowed even though they
distort trade. Under the de minimis provisions of the agreement there is no requirement to
reduce trade-distorting domestic support in any year in which the aggregate value of the
product-specific support does not exceed 5 per cent of the total value of production of the
agricultural product in question. In addition, non-product specific support which is less
than 5 per cent of the value of total agricultural production is also exempt from reduction.
The 5 per cent threshold applies to developed countries whereas in the case of
developing countries the de minimis ceiling is 10 per cent. However, the quantum of
subsidy is computed after taking into consideration prices that prevailed two decades ago.
India is well below and within the de minimis level (10 per cent ) for all its major crops.
Peace Clause : holds that domestic support measures and export subsidies of a WTO
Member that are legal under the provisions of Article 13 of the Agreement on Agriculture
cannot be challenged by other WTO Members on grounds of being illegal under the
provisions of another WTO agreement. The Peace Clause has expired on January 1, 2004.
Another temporary peace clause was made at the WTO Bali conference in December 201
for four years until 2017. It stipulated that no country would be legally barred from food
security programs for its own people even if the subsidy breached the limits specified in
the WTO Agreement on Agriculture.
B. Doha Round
Doha round or Doha Development Agenda is the trade negotiation round of WTO which
started in 2001. For agricultural negotiations, Bali Ministerial Conference (2013) and Nairobi
Ministerial Conference (2015) has been important.
a) 2013 Bali Ministerial Conference:
• An agreement to negotiate a permanent solution to Public Stockholding for food
security purposes and to refrain from challenging breaches of domestic support
commitments resulting from developing countries' public stockholding programmes
for food security provided certain conditions are met.
• A declaration to reduce all forms of export subsidies and to enhance transparency
and monitoring.
• A temporary peace clause was added in Bali. It stated that no country would be
legally barred from food security programmes even if the subsidy breached the
limits specified in the WTO agreement on agriculture. This clause will remain in
force for four years until 2017, by which time the members will find a permanent
solution to the problem. However, the permanent solution is still elusive after the
11th Ministerial Conference.
b) 2015 Nairobi Package:
• WTO members adopted a historic decision to eliminate agricultural export
subsidies. Developed countries to eliminate immediately, except for a handful of
agriculture products, while developing countries to end it by 2018. This step has
been taken to fulfill the key target of Sustainable Development Goal on Zero
Hunger by 2030.
• WTO members agreed to engage constructively in finding a permanent solution to
developing countries' use of public stockholding programmes for food security
purposes.

Student Notes:
• Ministers also agreed to continue negotiations on a special safeguard mechanism

(SSM) that would allow developing countries to temporarily raise tariffs on
agriculture products in cases of import surges or price falls.
2.4.2. Indian Agriculture Subsidies and WTO
India had signed Agreement on Agriculture of WTO expecting that it would:
• reduce the domestic support given by OECD countries to their respective agricultural
sectors
• increase the prices of agricultural products in international markets
• improve export prospects for India.
But, to its surprise, the agricultural prices went down, putting agricultural countries like India at
disadvantage.
The agreement is heavily loaded in favour of developed countries due to following reasons:
• Developed countries have put their agricultural subsidies under Green Box. Highest green
box support to agriculture is provided by USA which spends more than third of its GDP from
agriculture on this support, while India provides support of only 2.34% of its GDP from
agriculture in 1995. Investment in agriculture has been between 8% to 12% of agri-GDP.
• The developed countries are not ready to admit that there exists variation in capacity and
structural composition of the economies of developed and developing countries. A
developed country might need only 1-2% of its GDP to subsidise 50% of its agriculture.
Hence, distortions arising out of Green Box subsidies are significant but are inadequately
addressed.
• Developed countries were required to reduce their volume of subsidised export by 21% and
budgetary allocation for export subsidies by 36%. But, it favoured the developed countries
only, as they were already providing such huge subsidies over their exports that even this
much reduction are not likely to make any impact.
• Post Uruguay (1994-98), the export of agricultural products from Asia actually declined
steeply to 0.5% from 8.2% in 1990-94. For India, the share in 1990-91 was 18.5%, it fell to
2.2% in 2015-16. Also, because of the high subsidies given by developed countries, the
agricultural products sell below the cost of production in international market, and also
results in export dumping of products.
• The developed countries also make use of Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary
Measure (SPS) and Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) to selectively ward off
imports from developing countries by imposing higher standards than those imposed by
international bodies.
o Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures: 1995, Uruguay Round.
It sets out the basic rules for food safety and animal and plant health standards. It
allows countries to set their own standards. But it also says regulations must be based
on science. They should be applied only to the extent necessary to protect human,
animal or plant life or health. And they should not arbitrarily or unjustifiably
discriminate between countries where identical or similar conditions prevail.
o Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade: 1995, Uruguay Round. It aims to ensure that
technical regulations, standards, and conformity assessment procedures are non-
discriminatory and do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade. At the same time, it
recognises WTO members' right to implement measures to achieve legitimate policy
objectives, such as the protection of human health and safety, or protection of the
environment. The TBT Agreement strongly encourages members to base their measures
on international standards as a means to facilitate trade. Through its transparency
provisions, it also aims to create a predictable trading environment.

Student Notes:
3. Agriculture Pricing Policies

The agricultural pricing policies and allied institutional mechanisms evolved in India in the
context of shortages in the availability and excess demand for food grains during 1960s. A
system of procurement and distribution of major food grains was introduced and statutory
minimum prices were set, though not strictly enforced. India’s agricultural price policy includes
three main types of administered prices: support, procurement, and issue price.
The support price is generally announced at sowing time, and the government agrees to buy all
grain offered for sale at this price. These prices guarantee to the farmer that, in the event of
excessive production leading to oversupply in the market, prices of his produce will not fall
below the support price. Support prices generally affect farmers’ decisions indirectly, regarding
land allocation to crops. The areas to be sown, however, depend upon the actual prices farmers
realized from the previous crop and their expectations for the coming season.
The quantity to be procured is determined by the government’s needs for disbursements under
the public distribution system. In recent years, however, the actual quantities procured have
depended upon the grain offered for sale by farmers at prices fixed by the government. These
prices are generally higher than the support prices but lower than the free market prices in
normal years. In a good crop year, in surplus states, free market prices would have been lower
but for government purchases; after the surplus is mopped up, market prices tend to run higher
than procurement prices. The government recognizes the importance of assuring reasonable
prices to farmers to motivate them to adopt improved technology and to promote investment
by them in farm enterprises for increasing agricultural production.
Minimum Support These provide a long term guarantee to the producers, that in case of
Prices glut, prices will not fall below these announced minimum prices. The
Government started large scale procurement of food grains at the MSP
to ensure its intent.
Procurement Prices These are higher than MSP and are meant essentially for the purchase
of quantities needed by the Government to maintain its PDS and for
building up the Buffer Stock.
Issue Prices These indicate prices at which the Government supplies food grains
through Fair Price shops and ration depots.
The basic objective of agricultural pricing policy in India is to evolve a balanced and stable price
structure to meet the overall needs of the economy while protecting, in particular, the interests
of the producers’ and the consumers’. The policy is aimed towards facilitating the desirable path
of attaining the objectives of growth and equity in the process of economic development.
Incentive prices in the form of minimum support prices are essential for the success of
agricultural production programs based on high-yielding-varieties technology. At the same time,
undue reliance cannot be placed on high prices alone as an incentive for increasing production
of food grains. Effective implementation of price support policies requires adequate
institutional arrangements for the purchase of quantities offered for sale at that price.
3.1. Minimum Support Price
It was recognized, even prior to mid sixties, that for the acceleration of agricultural growth,
farmers need to be motivated to adopt better technology and to invest more in their farm
enterprises. This evidently was difficult without assuring reasonable prices to the farmers. The
Government constituted a committee in 1964-65 to suggest price policy for food grains and to
suggest the terms of references for an organization which would be set up to advice the
government on price policy on a long term basis.

Student Notes:
The recommendations of the committee led to the establishment of the Agricultural Price
Commission in 1965 which was later renamed as Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices
(CACP) in March 1985. Simultaneously, the development strategy for agricultural sector was
also remodeled. Remodeling of strategy included application of modern inputs like high
yielding varieties of seed (HYV), chemical fertilizers and mechanization of certain agricultural
operations. Thus, main emphasis in this development was on finding methods of increasing
land productivity through the use of modern input and improved methods of production in the
potential regions of the country. This development strategy in turn required that price policy
should encourage farmers to make greater investments in farm operations so as to enable
them to shift on to higher production possibility curves. Thus the minimum support price was
aimed at:
• Assuring remunerative and relatively stable price environment for the farmers by inducing
them to increase production and thereby augment the availability of food grains.
• Improving economic access of food to people.
• Evolving a production pattern which is in line with overall needs of the economy.
Therefore, the provision of Minimum Support Prices (MSP) was initiated during the mid-1960s
to create a favorable environment for the producers of major food crops, which were seen to
possess vast potential for raising grain production.
Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP)

The Commission for Agricultural Costs & Prices (CACP) is an attached office of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India. It came into existence in January 1965.
Currently, the Commission comprises a Chairman, Member Secretary, one Member (Official)
and two Members (Non-Official). The non-official members are representatives of the farming
community and usually have an active association with the farming community.
It is mandated to recommend minimum support prices (MSPs) to incentivize the cultivators to
adopt modern technology, and raise productivity and overall grain production in line with the
emerging demand patterns in the country
MSP for major agricultural products are fixed by the government, each year, after taking into
account the recommendations of the Commission.
As of now, CACP recommends MSPs of 23 commodities, which comprise
• 7 cereals (paddy, wheat, maize, sorghum, pearl millet, barley and ragi)
• 5 pulses (gram, tur, moong, urad, lentil)
• 7 oilseeds (groundnut, rapeseed-mustard, soyabean, seasmum, sunflower, safflower,
nigerseed)
• 4 commercial crops (copra, sugarcane, cotton and raw jute).
CACP submits its recommendations to the government in the form of Price Policy Reports every
year, separately for five groups of commodities namely Kharif crops, Rabi crops, Sugarcane, Raw
Jute and Copra.
3.1.1. Need of MSP Policy

Rapid and violent fluctuations in agricultural prices can have negative consequences on the
economy of a country, such as:
a) In case, the price of a particular crop declines steeply: growers will be left with little income
and no incentive to grow the same crop next year. If this happens to a staple food item, the

Student Notes:
reduced supply next year will force the government to import that food item to fulfill the
demand of people. This will create a fiscal burden over economy.
b) In case, there is steep rise in price of a commodity: consumers will suffer. If this happens to
a necessary item of consumption, consumers will not have enough income left to spend on
some of the other items. This will have a disastrous effect on other sectors of the economy.
So, there should be an agricultural price policy which can safeguard the interests of both
producers and consumers.
How MSP is Calculated
• MSPs of 23 crops is recommended by Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP).
• It adopts several cost concepts like A2, FL and C2
o Cost A2 – Includes the actual costs paid by farmer for purchase of various inputs like
seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, hired labour, rent of land & machinery, if hired.
o Cost A2 +FL – FL refers to Family Labour. If the hitherto unaccounted family labour cost
is accounted and added to cost A2, it becomes A2+FL.
o Cost C2 – C2 stands for Comprehensive Cost. It includes notional costs of family labour,
notional rent of owned land and notional interest on owned capital.
• M.S Swaminathan headed National Commission on Farmers recommended a 50 per cent
margin over C2, which is also being the demand of the farmers.
• For rabi crop the government is using 50 per cent margin of Cost A2 or cost A2+FL. But even
then the MSPs given by the government is less than cost C2.
Stand of the Government
• In 2014 the union government has promised to offer 50 per cent margin over cost C2 but
this was never implemented in letter and spirit.
• Recently, Finance ministry has announced that the MSP will be in lines with its earlier
announcement on Rabi crops.

Student Notes:
• In budget 2018-2019, Finance Ministry has announced a hike in MSP for Kharif crops.
• Farmers are not satisfied with the announcement as the MSP formula used by the
government is blurred.
Constraints in hiking MSP
• Some of the government officials are of the opinion that it is impractical to give 50 per cent
margin over cost C2 in all crops.
o The estimated cost of C2 components is about 35-40 per cent higher than cost A2+FL.
This would require a significant rise in MSPs. For example paddy MSP might go up by 46
per cent.
o Calculating the MSPs based on cost of input components ignores the demand side of
crops which might compromise the demand-supply principle for determining the cost.
3.1.2. Critical Evaluation of Minimum Support Price
a) Injects an element of certainty and confidence: The advance announcement of MSP and
procurement prices by CACP (Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices) provides an
assurance to the farmers and they can confidently invest in the crops.
b) Contributes to inflationary trend: There has been continuous hike in MSP and Procurement
prices due to the rich farmers’ lobby and it has pushed up the carrying cost of buffer stocks
of FCI considerably. This has pushed up the food subsidy bill to a very high level.
c) Bias in favour of surplus states: Almost all states produce wheat, but 95% procurement is
from Punjab, Haryana and Western UP. Similarly, around 20 states produce rice, while 90%
is procured from Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, UP and Tamil Nadu. Other states do not
get much benefit from it.
d) Adverse impact on investment: Due to extra expenditure in food procurement, the other
sectors looses out on new investments. It has been observed that a 10% increase in MSP of
wheat and rice leads to a decline in investment by 1.9% and in overall GDP by 0.33%.
e) Distortion in cropping pattern: MSP of wheat and rice has generally been higher than the
cost of production and that of cereals and pulses has been less than the cost of production.
So farmers get incentivised for growing profitable crops and hence cropping pattern gets
distorted.
f) Faulty criterion being used for calculating MSP: Since cost of production is the major
criterion to decide MSP by CACP, inefficiency gets built up, land unsuitable for cultivation of
particular crop is being used e.g. rice cultivation is being done in semi-arid regions of
Punjab & Haryana which is creating environment and natural resources problem.
g) Bias in favour of large farmers: It has been estimated that in each state, the average
income transfer to large farmers is approximately ten or more times greater than those
received by marginal farmers.
h) Deterrent to crop diversification: With the price support policy favoring food grains, there
is very little incentive for the farmer to move away from the food grains to the production
of other crop. The price support policy has been a major deterrent to crop diversification. In
determining minimum support prices, the CACP has taken into account cost of production
as well as domestic and global market conditions. MSP is determined by the principle of full
cost of production that includes the rental value of land, an imputed value of family labor
and returns to management.
i) Flaws in PDS: It is restricted mainly to wheat and rice only, while inferior grains which are
main food of the poor have been neglected, PDS coverage in rural areas have been lesser
than that in urban areas, high cost of running, and benefits not reaching the targeted
beneficiary are the major flaws in PDS.
j) Impact on rural poor: Rise in price of cereals (due to higher MSP) leads to significant
burden of high cost for the buyers.

Student Notes:
k) Price incentives and fiscal squeeze: Because of the price incentives, there is an agricultural
price rise. Since wages are linked to the agricultural price, it will end up in raising wage cost
in non-agriculture sector and hence fall in private profits. This will lead to less tax collection
by Government. Also, fall in purchasing power of people due to price rise will compress
effective demand and hence will affect the economy negatively.
The pricing policy has proved to be helpful in several ways. From a situation of massive
shortages, India has emerged as a grain surplus country with self reliance in food grains, and
this inherent process of self sufficiency subsumed the inbuilt proposition of attaining food
security at the national level. A strong base has been created for grain production and for
meeting grain demand in the medium term. The policy has had a favorable impact on farm
income and has led to an economic transformation in the well-endowed, mainly irrigated
regions.
However, the adverse effects can also be recognized as the food policy has been highly
asymmetric and skewed mainly towards the production of rice and wheat at the cost of
cultivation of pulses, oilseeds and other crops. This has created serious imbalances in demand
and supply of principal crops in the country. Similarly, the country has been facing large
shortages of pulses and edible oils and now has to meet about one-tenth of its demand for
pulses and close to half of the demand for edible oil through imports. These imports are in turn
having an adverse impact on producers in the unfavorable dry-land areas. These changes
necessitate a fresh look at the role and relevance of the Minimum Support Price system in the
country.
Announcing procurement prices has become one of the primary tools of intervention in
agriculture while other crucial issues like fall in capital formation, developing irrigation facilities,
need of changing land holding pattern etc. have been ignored.

Student Notes:
4. Vision IAS GS Mains Test Series Questions

1. The imbalance between subsidy expenditure and expenditure on public investment in
agriculture call for a long-term strategic re-orientation. Analyse.
Approach:
• Discuss the scale and nature of expenditure on agriculture sector.
• Point out the imbalance in public expenditure and subsidies
• Stress the significance of public expenditure.
• Provide comprehensive picture of future public investment.
• Discuss need to rationalize subsidies along with mechanism.
Answer:
The government spending in agriculture sector is around 20%-25% of the GDP, one of
the highest in South and South-East Asian region. Yet it does not result in desired
output from agriculture.
• The nature and manner in which expenditure is poured into agriculture is
responsible for precarious situation. Almost 80% of the public expenditure going to
agriculture is in the form of input subsidies (fertilizers, power, irrigation) and only
20% as investments in agriculture.
• In the post-reform period investment has been an overlooked aspect in Indian
agriculture. The role of government must evolve so that those activities which it
still does are performed with the greatest effectiveness, in terms of meeting the
needs of the agricultural sector.
• In past the large investment made by the government in irrigation works,
agricultural inputs and technology played crucial role in the success of the Green
Revolution.
• Public investment has a leading role to play, in the form of infrastructure as well as
necessary research and development in farm technologies. Spread of infrastructure
in power, transport, communication, storage and processing sectors are important.
• By investment irrigation systems can be developed, which in medium and long
term will change the face of Indian agriculture from being rain-fed to irrigated.
• Similarly investment in research and development can help to produce high
productivity crops which can be resilient in face of climate change.
• Along with this rural infrastructure and e-infrastructure creation can open new
avenues for farmers. This investment may also create favourable environment for
allied activities and agro-based industries.
• Rationalisation of subsidies and better targeting of beneficiaries through direct
transfers would generate part of the resources for the public investment that is
essential in research, education, extension, irrigation, water-management, soil
testing, warehousing and cold-storage, whether research, education, and
extension.
• Distortions emerging from various policies, including, exempting user charges for
electricity and water need to be reduced through better targeting and eliminating
leakages.
Hence we can see that for a vibrant agriculture sector preferred approach should be
investment instead of providing subsidies. Although necessity of some subsidies cannot
be written off but they need to be rationalized so that money thus saved can further be
invested for making Indian agriculture an attractive and profitable profession. Proper
balance between investment and subsidies can make agriculture engine of Indian
economy.

Student Notes:
2. Highlight the strengths and weaknesses of the current MSP regime. What are the
changes required to strengthen it and help it achieve its stated policy objectives?
Approach:
• Mention what is MSP and why it is needed
• Bring out the positives of MSP
• Then write down the negative effects of MSP
• Conclude with suggestions for reforms
Answer:
Minimum Support Price refers to the price at which government purchases crops from
the farmers, whatever may be the quantum of the crops.
The Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) recommends MSP based on
cost of cultivation, the overall shortage of grains as reflected by the trend in wholesale
prices, and the need to keep in check the rate of inflation in the consumer’s interest.
The major objectives are to support the farmers from distress sales and to procure food
grains for public distribution. Further, such minimum support prices are fixed at
incentive level, so as to induce the farmers to make capital investment for the
improvement of their farm and to motivate them to adopt improved crop production
technologies to step up their production and thereby their net income. In the absence
of such a guaranteed price, there is a concern that farmers may shift to other crops
causing shortage in these commodities. The policy of MSP has also other beneficial
consequences like income security to farmer bringing investment into agriculture,
building up buffers, a large network of FP shops, stabilizing price line and consumer
welfare.
Fixing of MSP to cover the full costs of cultivation imposes a heavy burden on the
government’s finances. Although the MSP is supposedly based on cost plus formula,
the actual price offered in practice is higher and influenced by high expectations of rich
farmers represented by politically strong farm lobbies. Moreover, the income transfers
accrued disproportionately to large farmers confined mainly to surplus states.
The MSP regime has not only created price distortions in the output market but also a
shift from the production of cereal crops to that of MSP administered crops. Further, it
also led to accumulation of buffer stocks of grains and the credit blocked in these stocks
put pressure on interest rates and crowded out more productive investment. Owing to
above weakness, following reforms are suggested to revamp the MSP regime in India
• MSP policy should extend to all regions
• MSP should be national level floor price, rather than remaining confined to certain
regions
• The MSP should be reduced to levels of average capital costs(that is all costs
including imputed costs of family labour, owned capital, and rental on land)
• Procurement should be at market prices
• The MSP should be supplemented with variable import and export tariff for
effective price stabilization
• When market prices is greater than MSP, government imports or make open market
purchases
• There should be stable and predictable policy regarding open market sales
• Private trade should be encouraged.

Student Notes:
3. With reference to Bali decision clearly stating that Peace clause under Agreement on
Agriculture (AoA) would remain in force, until permanent solution is found, can we say
that India was at least partially successful in placing ‘Food Security Box’ and
‘Development Box’ alongside ‘Green Box’? Analyze. Also, suggest some remedies to
counter the adverse effects of huge Green Box subsidies offered by developed nations
to their farmers.
Approach:
• Briefly write about the Agreement on agriculture and the need for food security
box and developmental box alongside Green box.
• Then explain about the Bali decision to include peace clause until permanent
solution is found and its significance for India.
• Write briefly about the adverse effects of huge Green Box subsidies offered by
developed nations to their farmers and suggest some remedies to counter them.
Answer:
There has been a demand for ‘Development Box’ and ‘Food Security Box’ along with
‘Green Box’ in agreement on agriculture (AoA) in order to cater to the needs of food
security, rural development, and poverty reduction in developing countries. The basic
aim is to ensure that developing countries have the policy flexibility to support
domestic agricultural production and ensure the food security of their population.
With the recent rise in global food prices, many countries have begun giving higher
subsidies to farmers to promote agriculture, putting them in danger of breaching the 10
per cent cap under the deminimus levels.
During the 9th ministerial conference held in Bali a ‘peace clause’ was agreed between
developed and developing countries. The ‘peace clause’ said that no country would be
legally barred from food security programmes even if the subsidy breached the limits
specified in the WTO agreement on agriculture. This ‘peace clause’ is expected to be in
force for four years until 2017, by which time a permanent solution to the problem will
be found.
With reference to this outcome, one can correlate to the provisions of Green Box
subsidies allowed under AoA which includes items like decoupled income support,
research expenditures, pest control measures, training & extension expenses and
promotion expenses and infrastructure expenses. However some of the direct
payments are also listed in this category. There is ambiguity in head and expense
classification, which makes this subsidy highly contentious as many developed nations
misuse the loopholes under this category to support their farmers, USA being at the top
with 1/3rd of GDP support.
So we can definitely say that with the Bali statement regarding peace clause, India was
at least partially successful in placing the ‘Food Security Box’ and ‘Development Box’
alongside the ‘Green Box’. However India and other developing countries should be
cautious of following issues.
• Accepting a temporary peace clause should not be amounted to admitting that the
subsidy programmes in India and other developing nations violate global trade
norms.
• If the clause expires before a permanent solution is in place, food security
programmes and policies to protect farmers, such as Minimum Support Prices,
would come under siege.

Student Notes:
• The peace clause requires full disclosure of MSPs and annual procurement for food
security programmes, which might leave India open to questioning by other
countries on domestic matters.
Hence there is a need for permanent solution in this regard to ensure food security
programme in developing countries.
The WTO agreement with its complex structure provides enough room for maneuvering
subsidies to provide protection to domestic produce under the Green Box subsidies.
Level of subsidies is so high in developed countries that level playing filed in agriculture
trade is a far cry. To counter adverse effect of such support and subsidies following
suggestions are made:
• Developing countries should seek clubbing of all kinds of support to agriculture in
one category and seek some parity among developed and developing countries.
• Other member countries should have the freedom to impose protective tariff linked
to differences in domestic support.
• In order to counter the adverse impact of GBS in other countries on domestic
produce, we need to pay serious attention to infrastructure development, which
has been deteriorating for quite some time.
4. Agricultural subsidies are hotly contested at the WTO negotiations. What are the
concerns of developing countries, especially India, vis-a-vis the attitude of developed
countries on the issue? What is Special Safeguard Mechanism (SSM)? In this context,
what are the reasons underlying India’s keenness on a permanent solution on public
stockholding for food security?
Approach:
• Describe the reservations of developing countries in respect of agricultural
subsidies at WTO negotiations. It should be a comparative outlook vis-a-vis
developed countries.
• Define Special Safeguard Mechanism, and mention its ad-hoc nature.
• Finally, mention why India is keen on a permanent solution on public stockholding.
Answer:
Agriculture occupies crucial space at the WTO negotiations and the issue of subsidies
therein is a bone of contention between the developing countries such as India and
developed countries such as the United States and those from Europe. The Agreement
on Agriculture has been criticised for reducing tariff protections for small farmers in
developing countries while simultaneously allowing rich countries to continue
subsidizing agriculture at home.
The concern of developing countries regarding the attitude of the developed countries
can be summed up thus:
• Whereas the developed countries want subsidies to be removed, the developing
countries view agricultural subsidies as crucial for their farm livelihood and food
security.
• The box-shifting practices and use of green box as well as amber box subsidies by
rich countries such as US cause concern in developing countries. For example
under a 2006 ministerial agreement, agriculture subsidies in rich countries were to
be eliminated by 2013 to spur export competition in global agriculture, but this did

Student Notes:
not happen. In fact, new policies, such as the US Farm Bill of 2014 have ensured
that there will be no cut in their export subsidies.
• The insistence of countries such as US for Countries like India to limit Amber box
subsides to 1986 production (not adjusted to inflation) is a major bone of
contention.
• While developed countries including the US, Australia, the EU oppose public stock-
holding of food crops, it is crucial for India’s food security programme.
• The developing countries are concerned about the issue of import surges and tariffs
to be imposed in case of livelihood threatening. This is perhaps most visible in the
differences over the structure of the Special Safeguard Mechanism (SSM).
Special Safeguard Mechanism (SSM) is a trade remedy that allows developing countries
to impose additional safeguard duties in the event of an abnormal surge in imports or
the entry of unusually cheap imports.
India argued for higher level of tariff and lower import surge for making the SSM. On
the other hand, the US and allies argued for lower tariffs and higher imports. India and
the G33 insist that the SSM mechanism can come into play if imports rise by about 10%,
while developed countries want it as 40%.
For a permanent solution, India had proposed either amending the formula to calculate
the food subsidy cap of 10 per cent, which is based on the reference price of 1986-88,
or allowing such schemes outside the purview of subsidy caps of the AOA. This would
enable India to continue with its policy of public stockholding for food security without
violating any of the extant provisions.
5. Excess subsidies are doubly detrimental to Indian agriculture; on one side they cause
market distortion and a burden on national exchequer; on the other, they lead to
environmental degradation. It is also true that Indian agriculture can’t sustain without
the subsidies. Subsidies are a kind of imbroglio. Analyze.
Approach:
• Give a brief introduction of subsidy provisions in agriculture and first explain why
subsidies are needed for the framers.
• Then relate the subsidies with three keywords in the question – “market
distortion”, “environmental degradation” and “burden on national exchequer”.
• Give your conclusion that instead of subsidies we should invest the money in
agriculture research.
Answer:
There are major agriculture subsidies in India, - for fertilizer, electricity and irrigation.
The subsidies are given on the basis of criteria like merit, income-level, social group etc.
In all, subsidies accounts for roughly 2.5 per cent of India’s GDP. The govt. has taken a
decision to limit the subsides to around 1.2 per cent of GDP by the final year of the
12th Plan.
Reasons in favour of the subsidies in agriculture
• Fertilizer subsidy is a development subsidy, which accelerate the fertilizer use and
promotes agricultural production. Subsidies in fertilizer were reduced in the year
2003 and agricultural production gradually decreased as a result of that.

Student Notes:
• The farmers are not able to purchase fertilizer on the higher price as production
cost increases due to removal of agricultural subsidy. Thus, removal of subsidy
would affect the agricultural sector and economy.
• Subsidies offer employment to unskilled workforce and contribute the human
capital for agricultural needs. Government offers Minimum Support Prices (MSP)
and provides facilities for proper warehousing and packaging facilities under
agriculture subsidies.
• Seeds are distributed for subsidized rates and subsidies are also provided for farm
mechanization to boost the agriculture productivity.
• Subsidies support seeds distribution, marketing facilities, farming techniques, new
technology implementation and training methods, credit assurance, machinery,
plant protecting, disaster management assured yearly crops to feed the every
growing population.
Reasons against the subsidies in agriculture
• The biggest of all these input subsidies is the fertilizer subsidy. The subsidy policy in
fertilizers has led to an imbalanced use of N, P and K in states like Punjab and
Haryana which in turn contributes to deterioration of soil conditions. Subsidies
induce excess use of fertilizers and pesticides in farm production.
• Agriculture subsidies draw marginal agricultural land into for agriculture production
that might be used for forests, wetlands or other environmental conservation
purposes.
• Subsidies given to the farmers for electricity, has resulted in drawing of ground
water in huge excess. This has resulted in lowering of water table in many areas.
• In areas where there is a lack of sufficient electricity for agriculture, it encourages
the private investment in diesel generating sets for agriculture and other purposes
which is an underlying reason of huge petroleum imports. Thus, the fiscal deficit
multiplies.
• Subsidies are paid from the public money. Corrupted politicians, bureaucrats,
middlemen make the most of subsidies to their own benefit. Agricultural economy
is marked with fodder scams, fertilizer scams, and diversion of funds.
• Agriculture subsidies induce excess production in some particular crops eg those
having higher MSP, while some other crops are not produced in enough quantity to
meet the demand and hence it causes food price inflation.
• The way subsidies in agriculture are being administered, food inflation will continue
to be a concern for a long time and for the simple reason that the supply of non-
cereal, protein-rich food items is not keeping pace with their increased demand.
Subsidies also cause less insufficient attention to innovative agricultural practices
such as mixed cropping, animal husbandry and cost control.
• The excess subsidies come at a cost of public investment in agriculture research,
irrigation, rural roads and power. Lesser public investment in such areas due to
more emphasis on subsidies further deteriorates the quality of essential services
for rural areas like uninterrupted power supply.
There are research studies which show that the marginal returns evident in terms of
poverty alleviation or accelerating agricultural growth are much lower than the input
subsidies for agriculture development. There is trade-off between allocating money
through subsidies for agriculture or increasing investments for agriculture development
such as irrigation, backward infrastructure etc. The investment option is much better
than subsidies for sustaining long-term growth in agricultural production and also to
reduce burden on national exchequer.

Student Notes:
5. Past Year UPSC Questions

1. What are the different types of agriculture subsidies given to farmers at the national and at
state levels? Critically analyse the agricultural subsidy regime with reference to the
distortions created by it.
2. How do subsidies affect the cropping pattern, crop diversity and economy of farmers? What
is the significance of crop insurance, minimum support price and food processing for small
and marginal farmers?


VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

GOVERNMENT BUDGETING


Student Notes:
GOVERNMENT BUDGETING
Contents
1. Budgeting: Meaning and Importance......................................................................................3
2. The Union of India’s Budget....................................................................................................4
2.1. Components of the Government Budget .........................................................................6
2.1.1. Revenue Account ......................................................................................................6
2.1.2. Capital Account.........................................................................................................7
2.1.3. Statistics as Given by the Union Budget 2017-18 .......................................................8
2.2. Stages in Enactment ........................................................................................................9
2.2.1. Presentation of Budget .............................................................................................9
2.2.2. General Discussion on Budget .................................................................................10
2.2.3. Scrutiny by Departmental Committees....................................................................10
2.2.4. Demand for Grants .................................................................................................10
2.2.5. Appropriation Bill....................................................................................................12
2.2.6. Finance Bill .............................................................................................................12
3. Weaknesses in the Budgetary Process ..................................................................................12
3.1. Weaknesses in Resource Allocation and Use ..................................................................12
3.2. Weaknesses in the Indian Budgetary System and Implementation .................................13
4. Budgetary Reforms...............................................................................................................14
4.1. Medium Term Budget Frameworks ................................................................................14
4.2. Prudent Economic Assumptions ....................................................................................14
4.3. Top-Down Budgeting Techniques ...................................................................................14
4.4. Relaxing Central Input Controls......................................................................................14
4.5. An Increased Focus on Results .......................................................................................15
4.6. Budget Transparency .....................................................................................................15
4.7. Modern Financial Management Practices ......................................................................15

Student Notes:
1. Budgeting: Meaning and Importance

Budget is a statement of estimated receipts and expenditures of the government in respect of
every financial year. Budgeting is the process of estimating the availability of resources and then
allocating them to various activities of an organization according to a pre-determined priority. It
is an attempt to balance scarce means with public needs and ends.
Budgets are beyond money; they also represent choices, policies and philosophies. It is about
allocating resources to competing priorities and issues of fairness or social justice come into it.
They indicate the direction in which a country is headed and the path it has chosen to achieve
its objectives.
Apart from its financial roles, the other functions performed by or through budgets are:
• Budgets act as instruments of control. They act as a benchmark to evaluate the progress of
various departments. If a department is off-target, w.r.t. its budgetary proposals, it can be
informed and corrective actions could be taken.
• Budgetary process involves all the departments of the government. Conflicts among various
departments have to be resolved. So, budgetary planning and implementation helps in
bringing various departments together and hence achieve co-ordination among them.
• Budgets can also be used as tools of punitive action by reducing the allocation of under-
performing departments. So, they are also helpful in maintaining efficiency in working of
various departments.
• Budgets can also be helpful in bringing about and institutionalising a change that an
administrator wants. For example, if the government wants to improve the productivity of
its employees, it can introduce incentives like performance related bonus through budgets.
• Budget also provides a platform for redistribution of resources. This redistribution might be
from rich to poor or between regions, between generations, between workers and non-
workers.
• It serves the purpose of public accountability of funds.
In sum, it is a planned approach towards increasing government activities that calls for
mobilisation of large resources. The criticality of budgets to governance can be well understood
by the changes in budgetary process in response to changing public opinion about the functions
of government over the years.
Business and government budgeting are more different than alike. The differences between the
two is tabulated below:
Government Budgeting Business Budgeting
It is legally required for almost all government It is not legally required

entities
It has to stay within the amounts appropriated It can implement budget as it pleases and may
and any changes need formal approval and even abandon its budget in midstream
difficult to get through the system
It is formulated with welfare motive It is mostly profit oriented

Student Notes:
2. The Union of India’s Budget

Article 112 of the Indian constitution refers to budget as the ‘annual financial statement.’ The
union budget has two purposes:
1. To finance the activities of the union government.
2. To achieve macroeconomic objectives such as employment, sustained economic growth,
and price level stability, which forms a part of fiscal policy.
Considering limited resources at its disposal to fulfill multivariate responsibilities, financial
planning, and the democratic maxim of ‘no taxation without representation’, the government
has to bring financial statement annually before the Parliament. The Government is not free to
tax, borrow and spend money the way it likes. Every item of expenditure has to be well thought
out and the total outlay worked out for a specific period. Also, there must be the sanction of
the people behind all these financial proposals, expressed clearly through their chosen
representatives.
It is in this context that the Budget of the Government of India is presented before both the
Houses of Parliament every year. The Budget contains the financial statements of the
government embodying the estimated receipts and expenditure for one financial year, which
at present commences on the 1st of April every year. In other words, it is a proposal of how
much money is to be spent on what and how much of it will be contributed by whom or raised
from where during the coming year.
The Budget gives estimates for the ensuing year and offers an opportunity to the government
to review and explain its financial and economic policy and programmes besides enabling the
Parliament to discuss and criticize it. Its importance is not limited to finances only as it also
reflects government’s vision and signals the policies to come in future.
The essential features of the financial procedure followed in India are laid down in the
Constitution, which ensures the supremacy of the Lok Sabha, at the Union, and that of
Legislative Assembly at state level, in the financial matters. The Constitution provides that no
tax shall be levied or collected except by authority of Parliament (Article 265) and that the
President shall, in respect of every financial year, cause to be laid before both Houses, the
Annual Financial Statement (Article 112).
Article 112 (in case of central government) and Article 202 (in case of state government) of the
constitution requires the annual financial statement to be laid before the respective
legislatures.
Since 1921, the union government has had two budgets – Railway budget and General budget.
This separation has been done away with in 2017-2018 budget and the two have been merged
into a single document, presented by the Union Finance Minister.
Any budget has the following three types of information:
• Actual figures of receipts and expenditure of the previous year
• Budget and revised figure for the current year
• Budget estimate for the upcoming year
For example, this year our finance minister presented the budget for the year 2018-19. Then
previous year is 2016-17 and current year is 2017-18 at the end of which budget is presented
and the coming year is 2018-19.
The receipts and disbursements are shown under the three parts, in which Government
Accounts are kept viz. (i) Consolidated Fund (ii) Contingency Fund and (iii) Public Account. The
estimated receipts and expenditures are essentially made into and out of these three funds.

Student Notes:
(i) Consolidated fund - It is a fund to which all receipts are credited and all payments are
debited, that is,
• All revenues received by the Government of India.
• All loans raised by the Government by the issue of treasury bills, loans or ways and means
of advances.
• All money received by the government in repayment of loans forms the Consolidated Fund
of India.
All the legally authorized payments on behalf of the Government of India are made out of this
fund. For example - repayment of debt, giving loans to the state governments etc. No money
out of this fund can be appropriated (issued or drawn) except in accordance with a
parliamentary law. Money can be withdrawn only under appropriation made by law. Due to
constitutional provisions, the expenditures are embodied in the Budget as:
• The sums required to meet the items of expenditure described by the Constitution as those
charged on the Consolidated Fund of India.
• The sums required to meet other expenditures proposed to be made from the Consolidated
Fund of India.
Expenditures contained in the first category can be discussed in both the Houses but are not
submitted to vote of either House. In other words, they constitute the non-votable part of the
Budget. The expenditures charged on the Consolidated Fund of India include:
• The emoluments and allowances of the President
• The salaries and allowances of the Chairman, Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha and the
Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha
• The salary and other allowances payable to the judges of the Supreme Court
• Pensions of the judges of high courts.
• Salary, allowances and pension of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India.
• Salaries, allowances and pension of the chairman and members of the Union Public Service
Commission.
• Administrative expenses of the Supreme Court, the office of the Comptroller and Auditor
General of India and the Union Public Service Commission including the salaries, allowances
and pensions of the persons serving in these offices.
• The debt charges for which the Government of India is liable, including interest, sinking
fund charges and redemption charges and other expenditure relating to the raising of loans
and the service and redemption of debt.
• Any sum required to satisfy any judgement, decree or award of any court or arbitral
tribunal.
• Any other expenditure declared by the Constitution or by Parliament by law to be so
charged
The expenditure falling in the second category is presented in the form of Demands for Grants
to the Lok Sabha and is voted upon by this House. The Lok Sabha has the right to assent or to
refuse any such demand or reduce the demand specified therein. No such demand shall be
made except on the recommendation of the President. Since these demands are meant to fulfill
the programmes and policies of the government, if any demand as a whole is voted down, it
tantamounts to a defeat of the government.
(ii) Public accounts of India - All other public money (other than those which are credited to
the Consolidated Fund of India) received by or on behalf of the Government of India shall be
credited to the Public Account of India.

Student Notes:
• This includes Moneys held by Government in Trust as in the case of Provident Funds, Small
Savings collections, income of Government set apart for expenditure on specific objects like
road development, primary education, Reserve/Special Funds etc.
• This account is operated by executive action, that is, the payments from this account can
be made without parliamentary appropriation.
• Public Account funds do not belong to Government and have to be finally paid back to the
persons and authorities that deposited them. Parliamentary authorization for such
payments is, therefore, not required, except where amounts are withdrawn from the
Consolidated Fund with the approval of Parliament and kept in the Public Account for
expenditure on specific objects, in which case, the actual expenditure on the specific object
is again submitted for vote of Parliament for withdrawal from the Public Account for
incurring expenditure on the specific object.
(iii) Contingency fund of India – Article 267 of The Constitution authorizes the Parliament to
establish a ‘Contingency Fund of India’, into which amounts determined by law are paid from
time to time. Accordingly, the Parliament enacted the Contingency Fund of India Act in 1950.
• This fund is placed at the disposal of the President, so that he can make advances out of it
to meet unforeseen expenditure pending its authorization by the Parliament. The fund is
held by the finance secretary on behalf of the president.
• Like the public account of India, it is also operated by executive action.
• Parliamentary approval for such unforeseen expenditure is obtained, post-facto, and an
equivalent amount is drawn from the Consolidated Fund to recoup the Contingency Fund.
The corpus of the Contingency Fund as authorized by Parliament presently stands at 500
crore and may be enhanced by the Parliament. Finance Ministry operates this fund on the
behalf of the President.
Under the Constitution, Annual Financial Statement distinguishes expenditure on revenue
account from other expenditure. Government Budget, therefore, comprises Revenue Budget
and Capital Budget. The estimates of receipts and expenditure included in the Annual Financial
Statement are for the expenditure net of refunds and recoveries, as will be reflected in the
accounts.
2.1. Components of the Government Budget

The Constitution of the country demands that the budget shall distinguish expenditure on
revenue account from other expenditure. Therefore, the Budget comprises of the Revenue
Budget and the Capital Budget.
2.1.1. Revenue Account
Revenue Account consists of the revenue receipts of Government and the expenditure met
from these revenues.
Revenue receipts – These are the receipts which need not to be paid back to the payee by the
government, that is, it is non-redeemable. It cannot be reclaimed by the government. Therefore
they are one way transaction. It does not create liability for the government. They are divided
into tax revenues and non-tax revenues.
• Tax revenues – It is the revenue generated by levy and collection of taxes by the central
government. It comprises of direct taxes and indirect taxes.
o Direct taxes – These are the taxes which falls directly on individuals and firms like
Income tax (tax on personal income of an individual), corporate tax (tax on a firm),
securities transaction tax, commodities transaction tax etc.

Student Notes:
Other direct taxes such as wealth tax (abolished in 2015-16 budget), gift tax and estate
duty (now abolished) have never been of much significance in terms of revenue yield
and therefore these are known as paper taxes.
o Indirect taxes – These are the taxes which may be levied on one person but ultimately
paid by others. For example – excise duty is levied on producer but ultimately is paid by
consumer along with the price.
It includes excise taxes (duties levied on goods produced within the country), customs
duties (taxes imposed on goods imported into and exported out of India), sales tax/VAT
(tax on sales of goods levied by state government), central sales tax (tax on sales of
goods in inter-state trade levied by central government but collected and retained by
state) and service tax (tax imposed on services).
• Non-Tax revenues – It mainly consists of
o Interest receipts – It is the interest income from the loan given by the central
government to state government and other government bodies. This constitutes the
single largest item of non-tax revenue
o Dividends and profits on the investment made by the government. Dividends are
income from the shares held by government in private enterprises and semi
government enterprises. Profits are dividend income from the fully government owned
enterprises
o Fees and other receipts for the services rendered by the government
o Cash grants-in-aid from foreign countries and international organizations.
The estimates of revenue receipts shown in the Annual Financial Statement take into account
the effect of various taxation proposals made in the Finance Bill. )
Revenue expenditure – It consists of all those expenditures of the government, which do not
result in creation of physical or financial assets. It relates to those expenses incurred for the
normal functioning of the government departments and various services, i.e., day to day and
regular needs expenditure that will not yield any revenue in future. It is a one way payment
which mean if government spends money it cannot recover it. Till 2017-2018 budget, it
included two components:
• Plan Revenue expenditure – It used to be related to Central Plans (the Five-Year Plans) and
central assistance for State and Union Territory Plans.
• Non-plan revenue expenditure – It included:
o Interest payments on debt incurred by the government through market loans or
external loans or from various other reserve funds
o Grants given to state governments and other parties (even though some of the grants
may be meant for creation of assets).
o Others - defense services, subsidies, salaries and pensions and various social services
(non-capital expenditure towards health, education etc.).
This categorization stands abolished by the 2017-2018 budget, based on the recommendation
of Rangarajan Committee. This would be further discussed later in this document.
2.1.2. Capital Account
Capital Account is an account of the assets as well as liabilities of the central government, which
takes into consideration changes in capital. It consists of the capital receipts and capital
expenditure of the government
Capital receipts - All those receipts of the government which create liability or reduce financial
assets are termed as capital receipts. It can be classified into two categories –

Student Notes:
• Debt capital receipts – It mainly includes borrowings and other liabilities.

o Borrowings or public debt – Money raised on the security of consolidated fund of India
and repayable out of it. It includes:
✓ Borrowing within the country, that is, loans raised from the public (market
borrowings), borrowings from RBI and other financial institutions through sale of
treasury bills.
✓ Borrowing outside the country , that is loans received from foreign governments
and international organisations
o Other liabilities – These are money not directly borrowed from people but is available
for the government’s expenditure purpose which government is liable to pay back. It
includes money kept in public account of India which includes small savings (Post-Office
Savings Accounts, National Savings Certificates, etc), provident funds.
• Non-debt capital receipts – It includes recoveries of loans granted by the central
government and net receipts obtained from the sale of shares in Public Sector Undertakings
(PSUs) (This is referred to as PSU disinvestment).
Capital Expenditure: It includes expenditures that create permanent assets and yield periodical
income. This includes expenditure on the acquisition of land, building, machinery, equipment,
investment in shares, and loans and advances by the central government to State and Union
Territory governments, PSUs and other parties. Capital expenditure was also categorised as plan
and non-plan in the budget documents. Plan capital expenditure, like its revenue counterpart
related to central plan and central assistance for state and union territory plans. Non-plan
capital expenditure covered various general, social and economic services provided by the
government.
2.1.3. Statistics as Given by the Union Budget 2017-18
Below is where the money comes from

Student Notes:
Below is how the money is spent
Points to be noted from above:

• Corporate tax contributes the largest share in all tax revenues
• Excise duty contributes the largest share in all indirect tax revenues
• Of all the tax revenues, direct taxes contribute 52.4 percent
2.2. Stages in Enactment
The procedure adopted in the Parliament while dealing with financial matters, specifically the
Budget, involves many stages (refer diagram below):
Presentation of General Scrutiny by

Budget Discussion departmental
committees
Passing of Passing of Voting on

finance bill appropriation demands for
bill grants
2.2.1. Presentation of Budget

From fiscal year 2017-2018, the consolidated budget would be presented whereby the hitherto
existing Railway Budget would be merged in the General Budget. This consolidated budget

Student Notes:
would be presented by the Union Finance Minister. The rationale behind this move would be
discussed later in this document.
The Budget is presented with a ‘Budget Speech’, which is in two parts: Part A contains ‘a general
economic survey’ of the country and Part B ‘the taxation proposals’ for the ensuing financial
year.
The Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in the Lok Sabha for Financial Legislation are
as follows:
• The Annual Financial Statement or the Statement of the Estimated Receipts and
Expenditure of the Government of India in respect of each financial year (also called 'the
Budget') is presented to the House on such day as the President may direct.
• The Budget is presented to the House in such form as the Finance Minister may, after
considering the suggestions, if any, of the Estimates Committee, settle.
• There shall be no discussion of the Budget on the day on which it is presented to the House.
2.2.2. General Discussion on Budget
• Subsequently, on a day appointed by the Speaker, the House is at liberty to discuss the
Budget as a whole or any question of principle involved therein, but no cut motion is
moved nor is the Budget submitted to the vote of the House.
• It takes place in both the Houses of Parliament and lasts usually for three to four days.
• The Finance Minister has a general right of reply at the end of the discussion.
• The Speaker may, if he thinks fit, prescribe a time limit for speeches.
2.2.3. Scrutiny by Departmental Committees
After the general discussion on the budget is over, the Houses are adjourned for about three to
four weeks. During this gap period, the 24 departmental standing committees of Parliament
examine and discuss in detail the demands for grants of the concerned ministries and prepare
reports on them. These reports are submitted to both the Houses of Parliament for
consideration. The standing committee system established in 1993 (and expanded in 2004)
makes parliamentary financial control over ministries much more detailed, close, in-depth and
comprehensive.
2.2.4. Demand for Grants
Demand for grants is a statement of estimated expenditure to be made out of consolidated
fund of India. Article 113 of the Constitution mandates that the estimates of expenditure from
the Consolidated Fund of India included in the Annual Financial Statement and required to be
voted by the Lok Sabha are submitted in the form of Demands for Grants. The Demands for
Grants are presented to the Lok Sabha along with the Annual Financial Statement.
• Generally, separate demands are made for the grants proposed for each Ministry.
• Each demand contains first a statement of the total grant proposed and then a statement
of the detailed estimate under each grant divided into items. A demand becomes a grant
after it has been duly voted.
• Two points should be noted in this context.
o One, the voting of demands for grants is the exclusive privilege of the Lok Sabha, that
is, the Rajya Sabha has no power of voting the demands.
o Second, the voting is confined to the votable part of the budget—the expenditure
charged on the Consolidated Fund of India is not submitted to the vote (it can only be
discussed).
• Demands are required to be made in the form of a motion but in practice, they are
assumed to have been moved and are proposed by the Chair to save the time of the House.

Student Notes:
• During this stage, the members of Parliament can discuss the details of the budget. They
can also move motions to reduce any demand for grant. Such motions are called as ‘cut
motion’
A motion may be moved to reduce the amount of a demand in any of the following ways:
• 'that the amount of the demand be reduced to Re.1/-' representing disapproval of the
policy underlying the demand. Such a motion shall be known as 'Disapproval of Policy Cut'.
A member giving notice of such a motion has to indicate in precise terms the particulars of
the policy which he proposes to discuss. The discussion is confined to the specific point or
points mentioned in the notice and it is open to members to advocate an alternative policy;
• 'that the amount of the demand be reduced by a specified amount' representing the
economy that can be effected. Such specified amount may be either a lump sum reduction
in the demand or omission or reduction of an item in the demand. The motion shall be
known as 'Economy Cut'. The notice has to indicate briefly and precisely the particular
matter on which discussion is sought to be raised and speeches shall be confined to the
discussion as to how economy can be effected;
• 'that the amount of the demand be reduced by Rs.100/-' in order to ventilate a specific
grievance which is within the sphere of the responsibility of the Government of India. Such
a motion shall be known as 'Token Cut' and the discussion thereon is confined to the
particular grievance specified in the motion.
For the sake of convenience, usually the main motion for demand and the Cut Motion relating
to it are put and discussed together in the House. Cut Motion, thus is a device to initiate the
discussion on demand for grants and to uphold the principle of responsible government by
probing the activities of the government. After discussion, first the cut motions are disposed off
and thereafter, the demands for grants are put to vote of the House. Cut Motions are generally
moved by members from the opposition, and if carried, amount to a vote of censure against the
government.
In total, 26 days are allotted for the voting of demands. On the last day the Speaker puts all the
remaining demands to vote and disposes them whether they have been discussed by the
members or not. This is known as ‘guillotine’.
Other grants - In addition to the budget that contains the ordinary estimates of income and
expenditure for one financial year, various other grants are made by the Parliament under
extraordinary or special circumstances:
• Vote on Account- Only after enactment of Appropriation Act after it is assented to by the
President, the payments can be made from the Consolidated Fund of India. Before 2017-18,
this used to go on till the end of April. But the government needed money to carry on its
normal activities after 31 March (the end of the financial year). To overcome this functional
difficulty, the Constitution has authorized the Lok Sabha to make any grant in advance in
respect to the estimated expenditure for a part of the financial year, pending the
completion of the voting of the demands for grants and the enactment of the appropriation
bill. This provision is known as the ‘vote on account’.
• Supplementary grants, Votes of Credit etc.
o Supplementary, additional, excess and exceptional grants and votes of credit are
regulated by the same procedure as is applicable in the case of demands for grants.
o Supplementary grant is granted when the amount authorized by the Parliament
through the appropriation act for a particular service for the current financial year is
found to be insufficient for that year.

Student Notes:
o Additional Grant is granted when a need has arisen during the current financial year for
additional expenditure upon some new service not contemplated in the budget for that
year.
o Excess Grant is granted when money has been spent on any service during a financial
year in excess of the amount granted for that service in the budget for that year. It is
voted by the Lok Sabha after the financial year.
o Vote of Credit is granted for meeting an unexpected demand upon the resources of
India, when on account of the magnitude or the indefinite character of the service, the
demand cannot be stated with the details ordinarily given in a budget. Hence, it is like a
blank cheque given to the Executive by the Lok Sabha.
o Exceptional Grant is granted for a special purpose and forms no part of the current
service of any financial year.
• Token grant
o When funds to meet proposed expenditure on a new service can be made available by
reappropriation, a demand for the grant of a token sum may be submitted to the vote
of the House. If the House assents to the demand, funds may be made available.
2.2.5. Appropriation Bill
Under the Constitution, no money can be withdrawn from the Consolidated Fund of India
without enactment of law by the Parliament. In pursuance of this, a Bill incorporating all the
demands for Grants voted by the Lok Sabha, along with the expenditure charged on the
Consolidated Fund, is introduced in the Lok Sabha. This Bill is known as the Appropriation Bill.
The Bill, as the name suggests, intends to give legal authority to the government to appropriate
the expenditure from and out of the Consolidated Fund.
Procedure regarding Appropriation Bill
• The procedure in regard to the passage of an Appropriation Bill is the same as for any other
Bill, generally with only those modifications that the Speaker may consider necessary.
• The debate on an Appropriation Bill, however, is restricted to those matters, which have not
already been raised while the relevant demands for grants were under consideration.
• No amendments can be proposed.
After the Bill is passed by the Lok Sabha, the Speaker certifies it as a Money Bill and transmits it
to the Rajya Sabha. The latter House has no power to amend or reject the Bill, but has to give
its concurrence, and if Rajya Sabha doesn’t take any action on it within 14 days even then it is
considered as passed by the Rajya Sabha. The bill, thereafter, is presented to the President for
his assent.
2.2.6. Finance Bill
At the time of presentation of the Annual Financial Statement before Parliament, a Finance Bill
is also presented in fulfillment of the requirement of Article 110 (1)(a) of the Constitution,
detailing the imposition, abolition, remission, alteration or regulation of taxes proposed in the
Budget. A Finance Bill is a Money Bill as defined in Article 110 of the Constitution. It is
accompanied by a Memorandum explaining the provisions included in it.
3. Weaknesses in the Budgetary Process

3.1. Weaknesses in Resource Allocation and Use
Many of the weaknesses in budgeting reflect the failure to address linkages between the
various functions of budgeting. The following factors contribute to budget systems and
processes that create a disabling environment for performance in the public sector, both by
commission and by omission:

Student Notes:
• Almost exclusive focus on inputs, with performance judged largely in terms of spending no
more, or less, than appropriated in the budget;
• Input focus takes a short-term approach to budget decision making; failure to adequately
take account of longer-term costs (potential and real), and biases in the choice of policy
instruments (e.g., between capital and current spending and between spending, doing, and
regulation) because of the short-term horizon;
• A bottom-up approach to budgeting that means that even if the ultimate stance of fiscal
policy was appropriate (and increasingly after 1973 it was not) game playing by both line
and central agencies led to high transaction costs to squeeze the bottom-up bids into the
appropriate fiscal policy box;
• A tendency to budget in real terms, leading either to pressure on aggregate spending where
inflation is significant (which was often validated through supplementary appropriations) or
arbitrary cuts during budget execution with adverse consequences at the agency level;
• Cabinet decision making focused on distributing the gains from fiscal drag across new
spending proposals;
• Cabinet and/or central agencies extensively involved in micro-decision making on all
aspects of funding for ongoing policy;
• Weak decision making and last-minute cuts cause unpredictability of funding for existing
government policy; this is highlighted to the centre by central budget agencies on the alert
to identify and rake back “fortuitous savings;”
• Strong incentives to spend everything in the budget early in the year and as quickly as
possible, since the current year’s spending is the starting point for the annual budget
haggle and the fear of across-the-board cuts during execution;
• Existing policy itself (as opposed to its funding) subject to very little scrutiny from one year
to the next. (This and previous point epitomize the worst dimension of incremental
budgeting);
• Poor linkages between policy and resources at the centre, between the center and line
agencies, and within line agencies because of incremental budgeting;
• A lack of clarity as to purpose and task and therefore poor information on the performance
of policies, programmes and services, and their cost because of poor linkages;
• The linking together (in association with the point above) within government departments
of policy advising, regulation, service delivery and funding and an aversion to user charging;
and
• Overall, few incentives to improve the performance of resources provided.
• Weak parliamentary control over finances, as the accountability is number driven.
Therefore, the ruling party, having the majority in Lok Sabha, has its say in budget making.
• The goals in the budget are very difficult to quantify and measure. As a result the
accountability of the executive to the legislature remains weak.
3.2. Weaknesses in the Indian Budgetary System and Implementation

• Unrealistic budget estimates
• Delay in implementation of projects
• Skewed expenditure pattern with a major portion getting spent in the last quarter of the
financial year, especially in the last month.
• Inadequate adherence to the multi-year perspective and missing ‘line of sight’ between
plan and budget
• No correlation between expenditure and actual implementation
• Ad hoc project announcements
• Emphasis on compliance with procedures rather than on outcomes.

Student Notes:
4. Budgetary Reforms
Attempts are continuously being made to overcome as many of the shortcomings as possible. A
good example is the trend in OECD countries. The common elements of the budgetary reforms
in OECD member countries are:
4.1. Medium Term Budget Frameworks
Medium-term budget frameworks form the basis for achieving fiscal consolidation. They need
to clearly state the government’s medium term fiscal objectives in terms of high-level targets
such as the level of aggregate revenue, expenditure, deficit/surplus, and debt. They then need
to operationalize these high-level targets by establishing hard budget constraints for individual
ministries and programmes over a number of years.
4.2. Prudent Economic Assumptions

Deviations from the forecast of the key economic assumption underlying the budget are the
government’s key fiscal risk. There is no single factor more responsible for “derailing” fiscal
consolidation programmes than the use of incorrect economic assumptions. Great care must be
taken in making them and all key economic assumptions should be disclosed explicitly. The
establishment of an independent body to recommend the economic assumptions to be used in
the budget may be considered as well. All this serves to place safeguards against the use of
unrealistic, or “optimistic,” economic assumptions.
4.3. Top-Down Budgeting Techniques
Budgeting has traditionally operated on a bottom-up principle. This means that all agencies and
all ministries send requests for funding to the finance ministry. These requests greatly exceed
what they realistically believe they will get. Budgeting then consists of the Finance Ministry
negotiating with these ministries and agencies until some common point is found. This bottom-
up system has several disadvantages to it.
First, it is very time consuming and it is essentially a game; all participants know that the initial
requests are not realistic. Second, this process has an inherent bias for increasing expenditures;
all new programmes, or expansion of existing programs, are financed by new requests; there
was no system for reallocation within spending ministries and there were no pre-set spending
limits. Third, it was difficult to reflect political priorities in this system as it was a bottom-up
exercise with the budget “emerging” at the end of this process. This manner of budgeting is
now being abandoned and replaced with a new top-down approach to budget formulation. This
has been of great assistance in achieving fiscal consolidation.
The starting point for the new system is for the government to make a binding political decision
as to the total level of expenditures and to divide them among individual spending ministries.
This decision is made possible by the medium-term expenditure frameworks which contain
baseline expenditure information, i.e. what the budget would look like if no new policy
decisions were made. The political decision is whether to increase expenditures for a high-
priority area, for example education, and to reduce expenditures, for example defence
programs. Only the largest and most significant programmes reach this level of political
reallocation. The key point is that each ministry has a pre-set limit on how much it can spend.
4.4. Relaxing Central Input Controls

This is based on the simple premise that the heads of individual agencies are in the best
position to choose the most efficient mix of inputs to carry out the agency’s activities. The end-
result is that an agency can produce the same services at less cost, or more services at the same
cost. This greatly facilitates fiscal consolidation strategies by mitigating their effects on services.

Student Notes:
Relaxing central input controls operates at three levels. First, the consolidation of various
budget lines into a single appropriation for all operating costs (salaries, travel, supplies, etc.).
Second, the decentralization of the personnel management function. Third, the decentralization
of other common service provisions, notably accommodations (buildings). This can be seen as
the public sector’s version of “deregulation.”
4.5. An Increased Focus on Results
An increased focus on results is a direct quid pro quo for relaxing input controls as described
above. Accountability in the public sector has traditionally been based on compliance with rules
and procedures. It didn’t matter what you did as long as you observed the rules. Now, when the
public sector is deregulated, a new results-based system is needed to hold managers
accountable. This is a fundamental change: holding managers accountable for what they do, not
how they do it.
4.6. Budget Transparency

The budget is the principal policy document of government, where the government’s policy
objectives are reconciled and implemented in concrete terms. Budget transparency – openness
about policy intentions, formulation and implementation – is therefore at the core of good
governance agenda. The extent to which budget achieves any or all of its purposes is
dependent on its transparency. If we take a look at fiscal transparency in concrete terms, we
can say that it has three essential elements:
• The first is the release of budget data. The systematic and timely release of all relevant
fiscal information provided for analysis and conclusions by decision makers is what we
typically associate with budget transparency. It is an absolute pre-requisite, but it is not
enough.
• The second element is an effective role for the legislature. It must be able to scrutinize the
budget reports and independently review them. It must be able to debate and influence
budget policy and be in a position to effectively hold the government to account. This is
both in terms of the constitutional role of the legislature and the level of resources that the
legislature has at its disposal.
• The third element is an effective role for civil society, through the media and
nongovernmental organisations. Citizens, directly or through these vehicles, must be in a
position to influence budget policy and must be in a position to hold the government to
account. In many ways, it is a similar role to that of the legislature albeit only indirectly.
4.7. Modern Financial Management Practices
The modernisation of financial management within governments made great advances during
the past ten years. The sheer scale of government means that such improvements had a
material effect on fiscal outcomes. These include the introduction of accruals, capital charges,
carry-overs of unused appropriations, and interest-bearing accounts.
Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act (FRBMA) The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget
Management Act (FRBMA) 2003 has been enacted by the Parliament to institutionalize fiscal
discipline at both the centre and state level by setting targets including reduction of fiscal
deficits and elimination of revenue deficit. It is a legal step to ensure fiscal discipline and fiscal
consolidation in India.
(Kindly refer the document of Fiscal Policy for more details on FRBMA.)

Student Notes:
5. Recent Changes in Union Budgeting

5.1. Budget 2016-17
5.1.1. Rationalization of Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) and expenditure Thereon
Budget 2016-17 introduced a new classification system for the Centre’s spending, based on the
categorization of CSS, pruning the existing 66 CSSs to 28, and then further divided them into
three categories—six ‘core of the core’ schemes, 20 core schemes, and two optional schemes.
The classification is discussed as under:
1. Core of the Core: Those schemes which are for social protection and social inclusion should
form the core of core and be the first charge on available funds for the National
Development Agenda. Under the new classification, six schemes are classified as Core of
the Core, including MGNREGA and all the umbrella schemes for the upliftment of
minorities, Scheduled Castes, and Scheduled Tribes.
As per the new system, the Core of the Core schemes are of highest priority, and thereby
will retain their expenditure allocation framework. For example, MGNREGA had 75 per cent
of the material expenditure from the Centre and 25 per cent from the states.
2. Core: Focus of CSSs should be on schemes that comprise the National Development Agenda
where the Centre and States will work together in the spirit of Team India. The Core
schemes, 20 in number, include schemes as far-ranging as the Krishi Unnati Yojana, the
Smart Cities programme, and the modernisation of the police force. These are second in
priority and will have a 60:40 formula of expenditure.
3. Optional Schemes: It includes all those schemes, presently two in number, which a
particular state feels necessary considering its level of socio-economic development. These
will have a 50:50 formula, with the states having the flexibility to decide whether to invest
in these or not.
This system was put in place on the recommendations of a sub-committee of Chief Ministers
formed by Niti Aayog for the rationalisation of the CSS.
5.2. Budget 2017-18
With the Budget 2017-18, the government brought in three kinds of changes in budgeting
process. These are discussed as under.
5.2.1. Scrapping of Plan and Non-Plan classification
The previously exiting Plan and non-plan classification of expenditure has been done away with
from FY 2017-2018 and their place has been now taken by capital and revenue spending
classifications. In 2011, an experts’ committee headed by C. Rangarajan had proposed that this
distinction should be abolished.
Under the previous classification, all expenditures which were done in the name of planning
were called plan expenditures while all other expenditures were placed under non-plan
expenditures. Further, generally (not always), the plan expenditure produced some tangible
assets related to economic development. This was the reason that plan expenditures were also
called “development expenditures”.
Rationale behind this move
1. This move is in line with the scrapping of Planning Commission and thereby development
based on hitherto existing planning.

Student Notes:
2. This classification has led to an increasing tendency to start new schemes/projects

neglecting maintenance of existing capacity and service levels.
3. It has also led to the misperception that non-plan expenditure is inherently wasteful,
adversely affecting resource allocation to social sectors like education and health where
salary comprises an important element.
4. It prevented any meaningful 'outcome based budgeting' because only plan expenditure is
considered for looking at outcomes while practice should be to look at total expenditure.
5. Growing complexity in nature of government and expenditure on varied heads ensure that
segregating a head under plan or non-plan items is not done on rational grounds and hence
the distinction is not logical.
6. The distinction meant that infrastructure like schools come under planned expenditure
while expenditure on teachers come under non-planned expenditure likewise hospitals
under planned and salaries etc. of doctors under non-planned. This mismatch leads to
mismanagement and ineffective resource utilization.
5.2.2. Merging of Railway and General Budget
The 92 years old practice of presenting separate budgets- Railway Budget and General Budget
has been abolished. It was recommended by Bibek Debroy Committee on restructuring and
reforming railways. This move is being lauded for it will be beneficial for the economy at large
and there will be positive influence in the development in railways.
Rationale for introducing separate budgets in 1921
The separation was introduced in 1921 based on the recommendation of Acworth Committee
report. The reason was that a larger part of the country’s GDP depended on railway revenue,
therefore, railway demanded separate budgetary focus. Independent India also continued this
practice and over the period of time it became accepted practice with following advantages:
1. Accountability: Separate budget used to give sufficient media attention to the budgetary
proposals, thereby enforcing accountability of the government.
2. Public transport: Railways has been the public transportation system, therefore it was
desirable that railways should be given special attention by separate budget.
3. Autonomy: It was expected that separate budgetary process would ensure requisite
autonomy to the railways to function as independent commercial entity.
However, over a period of time, the railway budget became a tool for populism and led to
populist waste and inefficiency. Hence, there was a strong demand for corporatization of the
Railways. Not having a separate budget for it prepares the ground for such a change.
Rationale for Merger
1. During the British rule Railways took up to 85% of the yearly budget while now it has gone
down to about 15% only.
2. Now that the Railway Budget will be introduced along with the Union Budget, there will be
less wastage of time when a new policy is to be initiated and implemented.
3. Separate Railway Budget became a tool for corruption, inefficiency, and populist measures.
As a result, the successive Railway Minister used to find it hard to increase fairs in line with
the increasing operational costs. This was the primary reason for cross subsidization (where
the passenger traffic is subsidized by the freight traffic).
4. The Railways would not need to pay Rs 10,000 crore annual dividend to the union
government. This annual dividend can now be used for development of Indian Railways.
5. Synergetic transportation policies would henceforth be possible because the Finance
Ministry would be responsible for allocation of resources to all kinds of transportation
system.

Student Notes:
Apprehensions against this move

1. The resource allocation to Railways would henceforth be dependent on Finance Ministry.
Therefore, there may be rise or fall in resource allocation to Railways depending on the size
of the budget. This may hamper the independent development of Railways.
2. Merger may result in reduced accountability, as the media attention given to separate
budget would no longer be there. This would make easy for the government to sweep the
losses in railways under the carpet.
3. Some experts feel that merger would throw railways open to privatization and crony
capitalism.
There have been mismanagement of the highest order in Indian railways and if there are
chances of seeing it improve, merging it with the Union budget is just the solution that could
help. The falling revenue and more projects for new trains and stoppages have been a difficult
project for the railway ministry which took the right step by merging the two budgets.
5.2.3. Budget Advancement
The Budget was present 27 days before the earlier practice of presenting the budget on last day
of February. The objective behind this move is to have the Budget constitutionally approved by
Parliament and assented to by the President, and all allocations at different tiers disseminated
to budget-holders, before the financial year begins on April 1.
Rationale of this move
1. The Finance Bill, incorporating the budget proposals, could be passed well before the
starting of fiscal year. Therefore, the government departments, agencies would know their
allocation right from April 1, the onset of financial year.
2. It would also help the private sector to anticipate government procurement trends and
evolve their business plans.
3. In the earlier scheme of things, the Lok Sabha passed Vote on Account for April-June
quarter, under which departments are provided with a sixth of their total allocation for the
year. Advancing the budget enables the government to do away with this practice.
4. The investment in infrastructural projects largely takes place in later part of the year,
because budget gets passed only by June, but by then monsoon sets in making it difficult to
start infrastructural project. As a result, the effective investment period is quite short,
thereby ending in ‘March Rush’. This causes inefficiency in resource utilization and delays in
project implementation.
Apprehensions against this move
1. One big disadvantage of advancing the Budget was lack of comprehensive revenue and
expenditure data. Previously, work on the Budget began in earnest by December. By the
time it was finalized in mid-February, data on revenue collections and expenditure trends
was available for the first nine months of the financial year, i.e. April-December, based on
which, projections for the full year would be made.
2. Advancing the Budget dates is fraught with practical difficulties. Effective Budget planning
also depends on the monsoon forecasts for the coming year, making advancing the whole
exercise even more difficult.
Despite the apprehensions, all the above discussed budget reforms are a welcome move, but
these reforms have to go further, as has been suggested by C. Rangarajan Committee in 2011.

Student Notes:
6. Evolution of Budgeting
When governments had to prove to their tax-payers that they could be trusted with their
money, the budget emphasized controlling costs, accounting for finances, and improving
efficiency. Later, during the depression, people wanted the government to proactively solve
problems for which the private sector was largely blamed, the effectiveness of public programs
came into greater budgetary focus. In recent years, both of these missions have been reflected
in the budgets.
6.1. The Line Item Budget

• In the early nineteenth century, government budgeting in most countries was characterized
by weak accounting procedures, adhocism, little central control and poor monitoring and
evaluation.
• In the late nineteenth century, line-item budgeting was introduced in some countries. The
line item budget is defined as “the budget in which the individual financial statement items
are grouped by cost centers or departments .It shows the comparison between the financial
data for the past accounting or budgeting periods and estimated figures for the current or a
future period”
• In a line-item system, expenditures for the budgeted period are listed according to objects
of expenditure, or “line-items.” These line items include detailed ceilings on the amount a
unit would spend on salaries, travelling allowances, office expenses, etc. The focus is on
ensuring that the agencies or units do not exceed the ceilings prescribed which is
monitored by a central authority or the Ministry of Finance
Advantages
• The line item budget approach is easy to understand and implement.
• It also facilitates centralized control and fixing of authority and responsibility of the
spending units.
Disadvantages
• Its major disadvantage is that it does not provide enough information to the top levels
about the activities and achievements of individual units.
• The weaknesses of the line item budgeting were sought to be remedied by introducing
certain reforms. Performance budgeting was the first such reform.
6.2. Performance Budgeting

Unlike the traditional line item budget, a performance budget reflects the goal/objectives of the
organization and spells out performance targets. These targets are sought to be achieved
through a strategy. Unit costs are associated with the strategy and allocations are accordingly
made for achievement of the objectives. A Performance Budget gives an indication of how the
funds spent are expected to give outputs. However, performance budgeting has a limitation - it
is not easy to arrive at standard unit costs especially in social programmes, which require a
multi-pronged approach.
6.3. Outcome budgeting

It is the compilation of anticipated and intended outcomes of various ministries. Outcome is not
just the physical output of financial input. Outcome means the benefits arising out of the
physical output from respective financial input.

Student Notes:
For example – allocating money for constructing building, buying table chairs etc. is the input
for which construction of school is the output. Here outcome will be the number of students
finally getting educated.
6.4. Zero-based Budgeting

The concept of zero-based budgeting (ZBB) was introduced in the 1970s. As the name suggests,
every budgeting cycle starts from scratch. Unlike the earlier systems where only incremental
changes were made in the allocation, under zero-based budgeting every activity is evaluated
each time a budget is made and only if it is established that the activity is necessary, are funds
allocated to it. The basic purpose of ZBB is phasing out of programmes/activities, which do not
have relevance anymore. However, because of the efforts involved in preparing a zero-based
budget and institutional resistance related to personnel issues, no government ever
implemented a full zero-based budget, but in modified forms the basic principles of ZBB are
often used.
6.5. Gender Budgeting
Gender budgeting is a strategy for ensuring gender sensitive resource allocation and a tool for
engendering macro economic policy, not a separate budget for women.
The 2005-06 Indian Budget introduced a statement highlighting the gender sensitivities of the
budgetary allocations. Gender budgeting is an exercise to translate the stated gender
commitments of the government into budgetary commitments, involving special initiatives for
empowering women and examination of the utilisation of resources allocated for women and
the impact of public expenditure and policies of the government on women. The 2006-07
budget enlarged the earlier statement.
Need of Gender Budgeting
• To ensure men’s and women’s needs and priorities are considered equally.
• To encourage the incorporation of gender analysis in preparation, implementation, audit
and evaluation of government budgets at all the levels and evaluating the impact of the
budget on the gender equality objective.
• To enhance the linkages between economic and social policy outcomes.
The Framework adopted for gender analysis of expenditures is often broken down in three
categories:
• Gender-specific allocations are allocations specifically targeting women and girls or men
and boys. For example, school bursaries for girls or domestic violence counselling for men.
Many governments have allocated special funds for women’s programmes and it is
important to analyse their impact on women’s lives and ensure that such programmes give
value for money.
• Mainstream allocations need to be examined for their gendered impacts. Most
expenditures fall in this category and the real challenge of gender analysis of budgets is to
examine whether such allocations address the needs of women and men, girls and boys of
different social and economic backgrounds equitably.
• Equal opportunity employment allocations are allocations intended to promote gender
equality in the public service. For example, day-care facilities for employees’ children, paid
parental leave, or special training for women middle-level managers.
Challenges and Limiting factors in Gender Budgeting
Various challenges remain in implementing gender budgeting and accepting the analysis
generated by these processes:

Student Notes:
• Collection of sex-disaggregated data: There is some sex-disaggregated data available but

there is a need to generate more information in order to shed more light on the differences
between women and men, girls and boys, particularly in access to resources, opportunities
and security without which it is not possible to integrate a gender perspective in the budget
process.
• Limited evidence connecting analysis with policy & budget changes as most of the gender
budgeting initiatives worldwide are at the stage of analysis.
• Limitation of parliamentary intervention: Legislatures, in partnership with gender experts
and civil society groups, have sometimes played an important advocacy role in various
countries but the role of legislatures in the budget process is often confined to budgetary
approval and oversight and not involved in formulation and execution
• Political will to institutionalise gender budgeting: Gender budgeting requires political will,
adequate resources and capacity to support a process of transforming the traditional
budget-making and policy processes by removing long-standing, in-built biases which
disadvantage women and girls.
6.6. E-Budgeting
E-budgeting may be defined as electronic or enterprise-wide budgeting. It presents a strategic
advantage with help of the capability of internet to let various establishments execute an
enterprise wide budgeting system, which can be reached from any location.
Advantages
• Extremely efficient as it brings efficiency with supervision and control and elimination of
cumbersome accounting tasks
• convenient and adaptable as the technology is being used for anywhere and anytime
budgeting.
• enables planning to keep pace with e-business
• ability to collaborate with managers, administrators, ministers in the same platform
• worldwide communication and collaboration
• easy assessment through automatization of calculations and other processes
E-budgeting is rapidly becoming the norm all over the world due to its ability to allocate
resources efficiently and assisting governments in competing successfully in an ever changing
economic environment

1. What do you mean by gender budgeting? Examine the rationale and achievements of
gender budgeting in India.
Approach:
• First of all briefly explain gender budgeting.
• Then bring out the rationale as to why there is need of Gender Budgeting.
• Finally elaborate the achievements of Gender Budgeting in India.
Answer:
Gender Budgeting is a tool for achieving gender mainstreaming so as to ensure that
benefits and development reach women as much as men. It is not an accounting
exercise but an ongoing process of keeping a gender perspective in policy and program
formulation, its implementation and review. Gender Budgeting entails dissection of the
Government budgets to establish its differential impact on women and to ensure that
gender commitments are translated into budgetary commitments.

Student Notes:
The rationale for gender budgeting arises from recognition of the fact that budget
impacts men and women differentially. Women, who constitute 48% of India’s
population, lag behind men on many social indicators like health, education, economic
opportunities etc., and therefore warrant special attention.
Also, gender inequality poses a significant development challenge in India. The Global
Gender Gap Index 2014 ranked India at 114 out of 142 countries. The ranking is based
on a country’s ability to reduce gender disparities in four areas: economic participation
and opportunity, education, political empowerment, and health and survival. Violence
against women and girls persists, both in private and in public spaces. As a response to
these challenges, India adopted ‘gender-responsive budgeting’ (GRB) in 2005, which is
a method of planning, programming and budgeting that helps advance gender equality
and women’s rights.
Examination of steps taken for GB:
• Gender Budgeting cells (GBCs) have been setup in various ministries and
departments as focal points for coordinating GRB. Many state governments have
also adopted it.
• Pre-budgeting consultations are organized every year before the budget.
• The quantum allocation for women as proportion of total budget has remained
almost constant for the past 10 years.
• Budget for MoCWD has improved although most of it is allocated for ICDS scheme,
leaving only a little for schemes exclusively meant for women.
• New schemes such as Beti Bachao Beti Padhao and Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana are
examples of explicit targets in order to improve socio-economic conditions of
women.
The stand-alone goal on gender equality and women’s empowerment in the
Sustainable Development Goals will remain elusive if not backed by adequate
investments. As such GB is essential to achieve these targets.
2. What are the reasons behind a low tax base in India? Discuss the issues associated
with it and the steps required to widen the tax base.
Approach:
• Explain why taxes are required and the reasons for low tax base.
• Explain what are the problems due to this.
• End with positive note like what needs to be done.
Answer:
Tax collection form the backbone of an economy as taxes fund an effective state that
protects national security, administers justice, builds infrastructure and funds a social
security net. However, India’s economic development lags behind its political
development, as the tax collection is very low- only 3-4% registered voters pay income
taxes in India.
Reasons:
• Ineffective tax administration: Therefore, we do not have data on potential tax
payers.
• Frequent raising of tax exemption threshold- Faster than the rise in income levels.
• High rate of poverty.

Student Notes:
• Tax evasion due to corruption, black money, low number of income tax official, high
rate of tax due to multiplicity of tax and various tax exemptions.
• Non taxation of agriculture sector.
• 90% of workforce is in informal sector, which is poorly regulated and majorly out of
tax net.
• Prevalence of cash transactions, avenues for parallel economy like Hawala
transactions etc.
A low tax collection adversely affects the economy in several ways :
• Regressive tax structure: Low direct tax means increasing share of indirect taxes in
total revenue which affect poor.
• Reduced legitimacy of the state.
• Generation of black money which directly affects the expenditure on capital
formation and social security.
• Taxation evasion also results in rise of organised crime.
• Limits government’s ability to fund social security and developmental schemes.
• Less number of tax payers pose limitations to accountability and transparency
mechanisms and implicitly penalises the honest tax payers.
Way forward
• Reduce corruption in tax administration to increase legitimacy of the state. This
would motivate people to pay their dues.
• Improve tax administration to make tax compliance easier.
• Need for widening the tax base.
• Explore the possibility of taxing the property tax in urban areas which has not been
explored fully till now.
• Do not raise tax exemption limits so frequently.
• Swift implementation of big tax reforms like GST, GAAR etc.
• Promoting cashless and digital transactions.
• Creating awareness among consumers and establishments regarding tax discipline.
The Indian state is fiscally constrained thanks to inadequate direct tax collections. The
solution is neither a sharp increase in tax rates nor a carefree disregard for fiscal
imbalances. The way ahead has to be based on further tax reforms combined with
better tax administration, so that more Indians pay income tax.
3. The “Outcome Budget” reflects the endeavour of the Government to convert

"Outlays" into "Outcomes". Explain. Also, discuss why the potential of outcome
budgeting remains untapped in the Indian context.
Approach:
• Explain Outcome budgeting in the context of changing outlays to outcomes.
• Highlight its benefits.
• Discuss challenges faced by India while using the practice of outcome budgeting
Answer:
Budgeting is an annual government exercise of estimating receipts and expenditures for
the coming year. Accordingly, outlays are assigned to various ministries and government
schemes on the basis of estimated output or outcome.

Student Notes:
Under ‘Outcome-based Budgeting’, outcomes of each programme or scheme designed

by the government is estimated. These Outcomes are the end results or impact of
initiatives and interventions. Here Output must be differentiated from Outcome, as the
former deals with quantitative result while the latter also includes qualitative aspect.
For instance, if outlay of 100 Crore is assigned for construction of hospital, then the
‘output’ would be measured in terms of physical infrastructure, whereas ‘outcome’ will
also include the impact of the initiative, like percentage reduction in death rate,
maternal mortality rate in that area among other parameters.
Benefits of Outcome based Budgeting
• Outcome Budgeting shifts the perspective from “doing the job” to “doing it well”.
• It leads to efficient service delivery, transparency, and accountability.
• The outcome budget indicates actual performance which helps people scrutinising
the government and educates them about policies.
Outcome Budgeting in India:
The Outcome Budget was first introduced in India in 2005-06, with an understanding
that “the people of the country are concerned with outcomes, not outlays”. However,
limited progress has been made in this front, primarily due to three key reasons:
• Much of the development interventions are routed through the state governments.
Only a few states have adopted planning outcome budgeting.
• Limited understanding exists on the linkage between specific Government
interventions and their outcomes. Ministries face difficulties in spelling out the
outcomes on ex-ante basis.
• The principles and intent of outcome budgeting are often overlooked. There is lack
of programme formulation, programme implementation and programme
monitoring capabilities in the ministries.
Way Forward
• Appropriate Centre-State institutional framework should be created to standardize
set of output indicators and processes for collecting and collating outcome related
information.
• Effective feedback system such as social audit is required in implementation of
every programme.
• The country needs to evolve ways and means to strengthen its institutions, without
undermining them. Following steps have to be undertaken in this regard:
o strengthening the Public Accounts Committee
o professionalising the internal audit and vigilance organisation in the ministries
o building capacities for risk management techniques in the programme divisions
o making budget division and budget formulation activities independent of the
executive to improve the outcome of programmes.
o as the outcome may not be co-terminus with the period of the budget. There
needs to be defined intermediate outcomes as well.

Student Notes:
4. "Good economics and bad politics cannot coexist in a sound budgetary process"
Discuss.
Approach:
The question needs to cover the following issues:
• The importance of a sound budgetary process in a developing country like India
• First define briefly what you mean by ‘Good Economics’ and ‘bad politics’
o Does demand politics play a role in the government budgeting process?
• Conclusion, on a positive note, with suggestions for reforms
Answer:
The government budgeting process, in most countries of the world, is influenced by the
exigencies of popular politics. However, the extent to which political exigencies and
economic decision-making are interlinked differ from one country to another. In a
country like ours, where the Indian State is envisaged as a developmentalist State,
politics and economics are intricately intertwined. Our demand politics is oriented
towards short term goals, competitive processes for determining policies, public
interest and the provision of private goods. It is constrained and directed by the
imperatives of electoral victory and pluralist and class bargaining. This is essentially ‘bad
politics’.
A sound budgetary process, on the other hand, requires resources allocation, efficiency,
achieving macroeconomic objectives like employment, sustained economic growth, and
price level stability, capital formation, controlling deficits, curtailing wasteful
expenditure, efficient management of BoP etc. This is essentially ‘Good Economics’.
A necessary condition to achieve these economic goals is the state’s ability to free itself
through leadership or repression from the constraints of societal demand. It requires
sacrificing short run for long run benefits, while demand politics do the reverse. The
preference of political leaders and bureaucrats largely determine budgetary decisions
and policy choice in our country. They favour, repress, license, or co-opt economic
classes, organized interests, and elites. Thus we can say, in Indian scenario, that ‘good
economics’ and ‘bad politics’ are not compatible in a sound budgetary process. For
instance, ‘good economics’ says that fuel subsidies should be removed as they are
harmful for financial health of nation. But due to ‘bad politics’ these subsidies are still
continuing to some extent.
However seeing ‘bad politics’ as populist measures – they need not be always
incompatible with the ‘good economics’. Adopting budgetary reforms like adopting
medium-term budget frameworks, prudent economic assumptions, top-down
budgeting techniques, relaxing central input controls, focussing on results, budget
transparency and modern financial management practices, along with performance
budgeting, outcome budgeting and zero budgeting can bring an end to the
contradiction between bad politics and good economics.
5. “Unspent provisions in a grant or appropriation indicate either poor budgeting or

shortfall in performance or both”. Elaborate this statement in the context of
budgeting in India. Also suggest few remedies to overcome it.
Approach:
The lack of efficiency in programme management at the departmental level in an
annual budget cycle should be stressed.

Student Notes:
Answer:
Despite having an elaborate and time consuming system of making budgetary
estimates, large amounts of unspent money is surrendered every year at the lapse of
the financial year. Large-scale unspent provisions are indicative of lack of efficiency in
programme management at the departmental level in an annual budget cycle and
undermine efficient use of public money which is one of the major objectives of any
budgeting system. Excessive provision under various sub-heads during the budget
preparation stage due to lack of a realistic assessment of departmental requirements is
the major reason for this. It also shows that proper forecasting methods are not used to
estimate expenditure on account of various items.
Following steps can be taken to solve this problem.
• Ministry of Finance advised the Ministries/Departments to gear up the ‘existing
mechanism of review, monitoring and control’ as to make a careful formulation of
plan/schemes having regard to ‘ground realities and achievable targets’ and also to
make ‘realistic assessment of funds.’
• The assumptions made while formulating estimates must be realistic. At the end of
each year the reasons for the gap between the ‘estimates’ and ‘actuals’ must be
ascertained and efforts made to minimize them. These assumptions should also be
subject to audit.
• The method of formulation of the annual budget by getting details from different
organizations/ units/ agencies and fitting them into a predetermined aggregate
amount leads to unrealistic budget estimates. This method should be given up
along with the method of budgeting on the basis of ‘analysis of trends’. This should
be replaced by a ‘top-down’ method by indicating aggregate limits to expenditure
to each organization/agency.
• Internal capacity for making realistic estimates needs to be developed.
8. Previous Years UPSC Mains Questions

1. One of the intended objectives of Union Budget 2017-18 is to ‘transform, energize and
clean India’. Analyse the measures proposed in the Budget 2017-18 to achieve the
objective.
2. Women empowerment in India needs gender budgeting. What are the requirements and
status of gender budgeting in the Indian context?
3. In what way could replacement of price subsidy with Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) change
the scenario of subsidies in India? Discuss.
4. What are the reasons for introduction of Fiscal responsibility and Budget Management
(FRBM) act, 2003? Discuss critically its salient features and their effectiveness.
5. What is meaning of the term tax-expenditure? Taking housing sector as an example, discuss
how it influences budgetary policies of the government.
6. Discussion the rationale for introducing Good and services tax in India. Bring out critically
the reasons for delay in roll out for its regime.


VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

PAPER III: SECURITY
MONEY LAUNDERING


Student Notes:
1. Introduction
As per OECD, “Money laundering is the process of concealing illicit gains that were generated
from criminal activity”. Prevention of Money-Laundering Act, 2002 defines the offence of
‘Money Laundering’ as, “Whosoever directly or indirectly attempts to indulge or knowingly
assists or knowingly is a party or is actually involved in any process or activity connected with
the proceeds of crime and projecting it as untainted property shall be guilty of offence of
money-laundering”.
In simple terms, Money laundering is the process of taking money earned from illicit activities,
such as drug trafficking or tax evasion, and making the money appeared to be earnings from
legal business activity.
1.1. Why is Money Laundered?

Illegal arms sales, smuggling, and other organized crime, including drug trafficking and
prostitution rings, can generate huge amounts of money. Corruption, embezzlement, insider
trading, bribery and computer fraud schemes can also produce large profits. The money
generated from such illicit activities is considered dirty and needs to be laundered to make it
look ‘clean’. The criminals need a way to deposit the money in financial institutions. Yet they
can do so if the money appears to come from legitimate sources. By successfully laundering the
proceeds, the proceeds can be made to appear ‘clean’ and the illicit gains may be enjoyed
without fear of being confiscated or being penalized.
1.2. How is Money Laundered?

Traditionally money laundering has been described as a process which takes place in three
distinct stages.
Placement Stage – At this stage
criminally derived funds are
introduced in the financial
system. This is the riskiest
stage because of large amounts
of cash involved which can
catch the eyes of law
enforcement agencies. So the
launderer breaks large
amounts of cash into less
conspicuous smaller sums that
are then deposited directly into
a bank account, or is used to
purchase monetary
instruments such as cheques, Figure: Process of Money Laundering
money orders etc.
Layering stage - It is the stage at which complex financial transactions are carried out in order
to camouflage the illegal source. In other words, the money is sent through various financial
transactions so as to change its form and make it difficult to follow. Layering may be done by
below mentioned ways:
• Several bank-to-bank transfers which may be in small amounts.
• Wire transfers between different accounts in different names in different countries.
• Making deposits and withdrawals to continually vary the amount of money in the accounts.
• Changing the money's currency.

Student Notes:
• Purchasing high-value items such as houses, boats, diamonds and cars to change the form
of the money.
• Disguising the transfers as payments for goods or services provided
Integration stage – This is the final stage at which the ‘laundered’ property is re-introduced into
the financial system as legitimate money. At this stage, the launderer might choose to invest the
funds into real estate, luxury assets, or business ventures. At this point, the launderer can use
the money without getting caught. It's very difficult to catch a launderer during the integration
stage if there is no documentation during the previous stages.
1.3. Various Techniques Used for Money Laundering

1. Structuring Deposits: This is a method of placement whereby cash is broken into smaller
deposits of money which is then exchanged by many individuals (known as “smurfs”) to
avoid anti-money laundering reporting requirements. This is also known as smurfing
because many individuals (the “smurfs”) are involved.
2. Shell companies: These are companies without active business operations. They take in
dirty money as "payment" for supposed goods or services but actually provide no goods or
services; they simply create the appearance of legitimate transactions through fake invoices
and balance sheets.
3. Third-Party Cheques: Counter cheques or banker’s drafts drawn on different institutions are
utilized and cleared via various third-party accounts. Since these are negotiable in many
countries, the nexus with the source money is difficult to establish.
4. Bulk cash smuggling: This involves physically smuggling cash to another jurisdiction and
depositing it in a financial institution, such as an offshore bank, with greater bank secrecy
or less rigorous money laundering enforcement.
5. Credit Cards : Clearing credit and charge card balances at the counters of different banks.
Such cards have a number of uses and can be used across international borders. For
example, to purchase assets, for payment of services or goods received or in a global
network of cash-dispensing machines
1.4. Hawala and Money Laundering
The word "Hawala" means trust. Hawala is a system of transferring money and property in a
parallel arrangement avoiding the traditional banking system. It is a simple way of money
laundering and is banned in India.
How it works?
In a hawala transaction, no physical movement of cash is there. Hawala system works with a
network of operators called Hawaldars or Hawala Dealers. A person willing to transfer money,
contacts a Hawala operator (‘A’ in the figure) at the
source location who takes money from that person.
The Hawala operator then calls upon his counterpart
(‘B’) at the destination location who gives the cash
to the person to whom the transfer has to be made,
thus completing the transaction.
Status of Hawala in India
• Hawala is illegal in India, as it is seen to be a
form of money laundering.
• As hawala transactions are not routed through banks, the government agencies and the RBI
cannot regulate them.

Student Notes:
• In India, FEMA (Foreign Exchange Management Act) 2000 and PMLA (Prevention of Money
Laundering Act) 2002 are the two major legislations which make such transactions illegal.
Hawala network is being used extensively across the globe to circulate black money and to
provide funds for terrorism, drug trafficking and other illegal activities. Inspite of the fact that
hawala transactions are illegal, people use this method because of the following reasons:
• The commission rates for transferring money through hawala are quite low
• No requirement of any id proof and disclosure of source of income
• It has emerged as a reliable and efficient system of remittance
• As there is no physical movement of cash, hawala operators provide better exchange
rates as compared to the official exchange rates
• It is a simple and hassle free process when compared to the extensive documentation
being done by the banks
• It is the only way to transfer unaccounted income
1.4.1. Cryptocurrency: The New Hawala
• Cryptocurrency like Bitcoin provides absolute anonymity and facilitates terror financing
which was evident in the 2015 Paris terrorist attack.
• The Financial Action Task Force in Paris reported in 2015 that some terrorist websites
encouraged sympathisers to donate in bitcoins.
• After, demonetisation action by the Government of India in 2016, there was noticed a flood
of such digital transactions.
• This new Hawala has a potential to become an easy way to provide funds for terrorists and
other illegal activities.
• So, there is a need to have proper control over bitcoin in the interest of the economy and
the security of the country.
2. Impact of Money Laundering on Nation

• Social Impact: It damages social institutions by following ways:
o Transfers the economic power from the right people to the wrong
o Increases income inequality
o Loss of morality and ethical standards leading to weakening of social institutions
o Increased unemployment as legitimate business companies fail to compete with
operators operating through illegal money
o Increased crime and corruption which slows down human development and thus
affecting societal progress
• Economic Impact:
Microeconomic impacts of money laundering are as following:

• Potential damage to reputation of financial institutions and market
• Destabilises economy of the country causing financial crisis
• Give impetus to criminal activities
• Policy distortion occurs because of measurement error
• Legitimate businesses lose when competing, as there is no fair competition involved
• Organised crime at local level can flourish.
• It also leads to higher cost of doing business.
Macroeconomic impacts of money laundering are as following:
• These include volatility in exchange rates and interest rates due to unanticipated transfers
of funds

Student Notes:
• Fall in asset price due to the disposition of laundered funds.

• Misallocation of resources in relative asset commodity prices arising from money
laundering activities
• Loss of confidence in markets caused by insider trading, fraud and embezzlement.
• Discourages foreign investors
• Other indirect economic effects are higher insurance premiums for those who do not make
fraudulent claims and higher costs to businesses therefore generating fewer profits which
make it difficult to break even.
• Due to such negative impact, policy makers have to face difficulty to devise effective
responses to monetary threats and it causes difficulties in the government efforts to
manage economic strategy.
All the above points would lead to artificial inflation, jobless growth, income inequality, poverty
etc. which culminates in the end to pose security challenges to the society.
• Political Impact
o Affects the Government’s capability to spend on development schemes thereby
affecting a large section of populations who could have benefitted from such spending
o Legislative bodies find it difficult to quantify the negative economic effects of money
laundering on economic development and its linkages with other crimes – trafficking,
terrorism etc. becomes
3. Prevention of Money Laundering

Anti-money laundering involves the laws and regulations designed to prevent criminals from
generating income through illegal activities. The government has become increasingly vigilant in
its effort to curb money laundering by passing anti-money laundering regulations. These
regulations require financial institutions to have systems in place to detect and report
suspected money laundering activities.
3.1. Indian Mechanisms to Combat Money Laundering
3.1.1. Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA)
• It is a comprehensive law enacted by the Parliament of India to prevent money-laundering
and to provide for confiscation of property derived from money laundering.
• The Act and Rules notified thereunder impose obligation on banking companies, financial
institutions and intermediaries to verify identity of clients, maintain records and furnish
information in prescribed form to Financial Intelligence Unit – India (FIU-IND).
• It seeks to bring certain financial institutions like Full Fledged Money Changers, Money
Transfer Service and Master Card within the reporting regime of the Act.
• It adds a number of crimes under various legislations in Part A and Part B of the Schedule to
the Act for the purpose of money-laundering.
• In cases of cross-border money-laundering the Act enables the Central Government to
return the confiscated property to the requesting country in order to implement the
provisions of the UN Convention against Corruption.
• The Act prescribes for formation of a three-member Adjudicating Authority for dealing with
matters relating to attachment and confiscation of property under the Act.
3.1.2. Financial Intelligence Unit - India (FIU-IND)
• Financial Intelligence Unit – India (FIU-IND) was set by the Government of India as the
central national agency responsible for receiving, processing, analyzing and disseminating
information relating to suspect financial transactions.

Student Notes:
• FIU-IND is also responsible for coordinating and strengthening efforts of national and
international intelligence, investigation and enforcement agencies in pursuing the global
efforts against money laundering and related crimes.
• FIU-IND is an independent body reporting directly to the Economic Intelligence Council
(EIC) headed by the Finance Minister.
3.1.3. Enforcement Directorate
• It is a government agency responsible for enforcement of the Foreign Exchange
Management Act, 1999 (FEMA) and certain provisions under the Prevention of Money
Laundering Act (PML).
• The Directorate is under the administrative control of Department of Revenue for
operational purposes; the policy aspects of the FEMA, its legislation and its amendments
are within the purview of the Department of Economic Affairs.
3.2. Global mechanisms to Combat Money Laundering:

Since money laundering is an international phenomenon, transnational co-operation is of
critical importance in the fight against this menace. A number of initiatives have been taken to
deal with the problem at the international level. The major international agreements
addressing money laundering are as:
3.2.1. Vienna convention
It was the first major initiative in the prevention of money laundering held in December 1988.
This convention laid down the groundwork for efforts to combat money laundering by obliging
the member states to criminalize the laundering of money from drug trafficking. It promotes
international cooperation in investigations and makes extradition between member states
applicable to money laundering.
3.2.2. The Council of Europe Convention
This convention held in 1990 establishes a common policy on money laundering to facilitate
international cooperation as regards investigative assistance, search, seizure and confiscation
of the proceeds of all types of criminality, particularly serious crimes such as drug offences,
arms dealing, terrorist offences etc. and other offences which generate large profits. It sets out
a common definition of money laundering and common measures for dealing with it.
3.2.3. Basel Committee’s Statement of Principles
In December 1988, the Basel Committee on Banking Regulations and Supervisory Practices
issued a statement of principles which aims at encouraging the banking sector to adopt
common position in order to ensure that banks are not used to hide or launder funds acquired
through criminal activities.
3.2.4. The Financial Action Task Force (FATF)
The FATF is an inter-governmental body established at the G7 summit at Paris in 1989 with the
objective to set standards and promote effective implementation of legal, regulatory and
operational measures to combat money laundering and terrorist financing and other related
threats to the integrity of the international financial system. It has developed a series of
Recommendations that are recognized as the international standards for combating money
laundering and the financing of terrorism. They form a basis for a co-ordinated response to
these threats to the integrity of the financial system and help ensure a level playing field.

Student Notes:
3.2.5. United Nations Global Programme Against Money Laundering (GPML)

GPML was established in 1997 with a view to increase effectiveness of international action
again money laundering through comprehensive technical cooperation services offered to
Governments. The programme encompasses following 3 areas of activities, providing various
means to states and institutions in their efforts to effectively combat money laundering.
Three further Conventions have been adopted for Money Laundering related crimes:
1. International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism(1999)
2. UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (2000)
3. UN Convention against Corruption (2003)
3.2.6. Other Organization and Initiatives against Anti-Money-Laundering (AML)
• International Money Laundering Information Network (IMoLIN)
o IMoLIN is an Internet-based network assisting governments, organizations and
individuals in the fight against money laundering and administered by UN office on
Drugs and Crime.
o It provides with an international database called Anti-Money Laundering International
Database (AMLID) that analyses jurisdictions' national anti-money laundering
legislation.
• Wolfsberg AML Principles
o This gives eleven principles as an important step in the fight against money laundering,
corruption and other related serious crimes.
o Transparency International (TI), a Berlin based NGO in collaboration with 11
International Private Banks under the expert participation of Stanley Morris and Prof.
Mark Pieth came out with these principles as important global guidance for sound
business conduct in international private banking.
o The importance of these principles is due to the fact that it comes from initiative by
private sector.
o The Wolfsberg Principles are a non-binding set of best practice guidelines governing
the establishment and maintenance of relationships between private bankers and
clients.
• Egmont Group of Financial Intelligence Units
o The Egmont Group is the coordinating body for the international group of Financial
Intelligence Units (FIUs) formed in 1995 to promote and enhance international
cooperation in anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing.
o The Egmont Group consists of 108 financial intelligence units (FIUs) from across the
world. Financial intelligence units are responsible for following the money trail, to
counter money laundering and terrorism financing.
o FIUs participating in the Egmont Group affirm their commitment to encourage the
development of FIUs and co-operation among and between them in the interest of
combating money laundering and in assisting with the global fight against terrorism
financing.
• Asia-Pacific Group on Money Laundering (APG)
o The Asia/Pacific Group on Money Laundering (APG) is an international organisation
consisting of 38 member countries/jurisdictions and a number of international and
regional observers including the United Nations, IMF and World Bank.
o All APG members commit to effectively implement the FATF's international standards
for anti-money laundering and combating financing of terrorism referred to as the
40+9 Recommendations. Part of this commitment includes implementing measures
against terrorists listed by the United Nations in the "1267 Consolidated List”.

Student Notes:
4. Challenges in Prevention of Money Laundering

Various measures taken by India against money laundering has not been completely successful.
It is also evident from the fact that, the PMLA act has witnessed only one conviction since its
enactment in 2002. Various challenges faced in effective implementation of anti-money
laundering efforts are following-
• Fast pace of change in technology including cyber technologies creates problems of
tracking money launderers. The enforcement agencies have failed to match such a high rate
of growth.
• Lack of awareness about the seriousness of Money Laundering in common people due to
which they continue to use Hawala system offering fewer complexities and formalities
• Failure of Banks to effectively implement KYC norms as stipulated by the RBI
• A number of black market channels sell imported smuggled goods and they deal in cash
transactions and avoid custom duties thus generating black money.
• Multiplicity of agencies dealing with money laundering, cyber crimes, terrorist crimes,
economic offences etc. Such agencies lack convergence among themselves which is
required to tackle multi-facet and global nature of money laundering
• Many Tax Haven countries exist which allows the creation of anonymous accounts with
strict financial secrecy laws prohibiting the disclosure of financial information to foreign tax
authorities.
• The provision of financial confidentiality in other countries which are unwilling in
compromising with this confidentiality.
5. Way forward
• Implement procedures for Anti Money Laundering provisions as envisaged under the
Prevention of Money laundering Act, 2002. Such procedures should include inter alia, the
following three specific parameters which are related to the overall 'Client Due Diligence
Process:
o Policy for acceptance of clients.
o Procedure for identifying the clients.
o Transaction monitoring and reporting especially suspicious transactions
• Bankers also has vital role and without their involvement, the operation cannot be
successful.
• The global nature of money laundering requires international law enforcement cooperation
to effectively examine and accuse those that initiate these complex criminal organizations.
• Money laundering must be combated mainly by penal ways and within the frameworks of
international cooperation among judicial and law enforcement authorities.
• There is a need to draw a line between financial confidentiality rules in various financial
institutions and these institutions becoming money laundering havens.
• To have effective anti-money laundering measures there need to be a proper coordination
between the Centre and the State. The FATF Recommendations set out a comprehensive
and consistent framework of measures which countries should implement in order to
combat money laundering and terrorist financing, as well as the financing of proliferation of
weapons of mass destruction. Some of them are as
o Identify the risks, and develop policies and domestic coordination.
o Countries should criminalise money laundering on the basis of the Vienna Convention
and the Palermo Convention. Countries should apply the crime of money laundering to
all serious offences, with a view to including the widest range of predicate offences.

Student Notes:
o Countries should implement targeted financial sanctions regimes to comply with United
Nations Security Council resolutions relating to the prevention and suppression of
terrorism and terrorist financing.
o Countries should review the adequacy of laws and regulations that relate to non-profit
organisations which the country has identified as being vulnerable to terrorist financing
abuse.
o Apply preventive measures for the financial sector and other designated sectors.
o Countries should ensure that financial institution secrecy laws do not inhibit
implementation of the FATF Recommendations.
o Financial institutions should be required to maintain, for at least five years, all
necessary records on transactions, both domestic and international, to enable them to
comply swiftly with information requests from the competent authorities.
o Establish powers and responsibilities for the competent authorities (e.g., investigative,
law enforcement and supervisory authorities) and other institutional measures.
o Enhance the transparency and availability of beneficial ownership information of legal
persons and arrangements.
o Facilitate international cooperation to ensure that their competent authorities can
rapidly, constructively and effectively provide the widest range of international
cooperation in relation to money laundering, associated predicate offences and
terrorist financing.
Therefore, to have an effective anti-money laundering regime, nations need to think regionally,
nationally and globally to mitigate internal security threat associated with it.
1. Any counter-terrorism strategy can succeed only if sources of terrorist funding are
blocked by efficient financial regulation. In light of the statement discuss the need for
an efficient legal framework to combat terror financing in India and steps taken by
the government in this regard.
Approach:
Question must be answered in two parts
• Stress on the need for legal framework to tackle terrorist financing.
• Enumerate the steps taken by government to block the financing routes.
Answer:
Terrorism finance (TF) has been termed as the lifeblood of terrorism, one of the most
important factors sustaining its continuing threat, both from within and without.
Need for legal framework to combat terrorist financing-:
• Prevention and early detection is at the core of government threat mitigation
efforts. Preventing terrorists from raising, moving, placing and using funds is central
to this effort. Government must deprive terrorists of their enabling means, which
includes financial support, by expanding and enhancing efforts aimed at blocking
the flow of financial resources to and among terrorist groups and to disrupt
terrorist facilitation and support activities, pursuing prosecutions to enforce
violations and dissuade others.
• Efficient legal framework helps in checking activities that generate funds for
terrorist activities like drug trafficking, human trafficking, arms smuggling and range
of the activities. In India we have numerous legal instruments to block the sources.

Student Notes:
Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA), the Narcotic Drugs and
Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 (NDPS Act) and Unlawful Activities (Prevention)
Act, 1967 (UAPA) are some of the legislations that are aimed at blocking the
activities that produce funds for terrorist activities.
• However, these legislations need changes in light of the best international
practices. PMLA needs changes. It must expand the list of financial institutions
under scrutiny list, non-business entities must be under the PMLA supervision and
the agencies working to investigate cases must get access to information for
effective implementation. To secure compliance to PMLA rules, sanctions under the
act must be harsh to check evasion.
• The Financial Intelligence Unit, India (FIU-IND), as an independent body is
responsible for coordinating and strengthening efforts of national and international
intelligence, investigation and enforcement agencies in pursuing the global effort
against money laundering, terrorist financing and related crimes. They need
Protection from criminal and civil proceedings for breach of restrictions and
disclosure of the information during investigation.
Steps taken by Government:
• India has joined as the 34th member of Financial Action Task Force (FATF). FATF
membership is important as it will help India to build the capacity to fight terrorism
and trace terror funds and to successfully investigate and prosecute money
laundering and terrorist financing offences.
• PMLA has been amended in 2013 to overcome the difficulties being faced in its
enforcement and to conform to international standards. The definition of money
laundering has been expanded, new category entities is created to include non-
financial businesses. Sanctions are substantially increased in the amended act along
with the removal of upper limit on the fine.
• Amended act provides empowers the FIU to seek compliance to the PMLA and
greater protection during investigation of cases.
• UAPA Act amended in 2013, adds to the efficiency of existing framework and meets
standards set by FATF. Amended act terms production smuggling and circulation of
counterfeit currency as terrorist act. It expands the ambit of act by including
companies, trusts and societies for investigation.
India’s serious commitment to combating terrorism in all its forms is acknowledged
internationally. From a law enforcement perspective, this commitment is reflected in an
active pursuit of the financial aspects of terrorism.
2. India has put in place stringent rules to tackle money laundering. The growing
challenge is compliance to the Anti-Money Laundering legislations. What are the
various constraints in compliance to legislations?
Approach:
• Briefly explain the Anti-Money Laundering (AML) framework in India.
• Enumerate the constraints in the given framework to tackle money laundering.
Answer:
Money Laundering is a global phenomenon being employed by launderers worldwide
to conceal criminal activities associated with it such as drugs, arms, human trafficking,
terrorism and extortion, smuggling, financial frauds, corruption etc.

Student Notes:
• The Financial Intelligence Unit - India (FIU-India) is the nodal agency in India for
managing the AML ecosystem and has significantly helped in coordinating and
strengthening efforts of national and international intelligence, investigation and
enforcement agencies in pursuing the global efforts against money laundering and
related crimes; while the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), forms the
core framework for combating money laundering in the country.
There are many a key constraints which need to be addressed to implement an
effective AML regime in India. Some of the key constraints are as follows:
• Unlike relatively mature regulatory countries, Indian AML regulations are being
viewed as a compliance tool by the financial services community rather than as a
risk management tool. Hence the objective has been basic compliance rather than
using it as a risk management practice.
• Lack of adequate number of skilled and certified AML workforce is also a big
operational challenge. Unawareness about the grave problem of money-laundering
among the common people and dealing staff is also an impediment in having a
proper AML regime.
• AML compliance brings a huge financial burden on the financial institution. To keep
up with the regulatory environment, sound investments are required in customer
due diligence, customer identification and acceptance procedures, monitoring
suspicious transactions and related AML processes and procedures.
• Absence of comprehensive enforcement agency to tackle exclusively cases of
money-laundering. Separate wings of various law enforcement agencies are dealing
with digital crimes, money laundering, economic offences and terrorist crimes.
These agencies lack convergence on matters of money-laundering. The Special
Investigation Team (SIT) on black money recommended an integrated system of
investigations into black money.
• Technical shortcomings in the criminalisation of both money laundering and
terrorist financing and in the domestic framework of confiscation and provisional
measures.
• Despite all available infrastructures through government bodies, the onus of AML
implementation mostly lies with financial institutions. Most institutions see it as a
financial and operational burden. Depending on the size and different lines of
business for a given financial institution, the scope of a given AML programme can
vary significantly. A lack of clarity over compliance and tighter timelines can result
in ad hoc implementation of AML processes rather than a long-term, strategic
solution.
• Another significant issue is lack of enforcement. Despite the laws that criminalise
money laundering and empower authorities to confiscate assets, prosecutions and
convictions have been few and the rate of confiscation is low. Based on the
findings, the SIT has recommended to the government stricter enforcement of tax
laws and expediting pending prosecutions. Government records revealed that over
8,000 prosecution cases pertaining to direct tax laws had been pending for the past
several years. Nearly 5,000 other cases had been pending before lower courts for
over a decade in Mumbai alone.
India has a long way to go before we can match the efforts of developed countries in
the area of AML. The government needs to take more effective action and generate a
grassroots-level focus amongst financial institutions. It is difficult to implement control
over money laundering activities without support from legislative and executive bodies.

Student Notes:
3. Over the years, laws dealing with money laundering have proved to be less than
effective. Briefly discuss the statement in the context of government's proposal to
make money laundering a separate criminal offence. Also enumerate the
recommendations made by FATF to combat money laundering.
Approach:
• In the introduction briefly highlight the seriousness of money laundering and then
proceed to delineate laws dealing with money laundering.
• Briefly discuss arguments regarding there ineffectiveness.
• Link the above discussion with the new proposal to deal money laundering as a
separate criminal offence.
• Lastly, enumerate FATF recommendations.
• Conclude by highlighting the progress made by India in combating money
laundering.
Answer:
Money laundering is the process of transforming illegally gained money or proceeds of
crime into legitimate money and assets. It helps in flourishing organised crime and has
debilitating impact on economy as well as society of any country. To curb this menace,
India has brought several laws over the years such as:
• The Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling
Activities Act, 1974 (COFEPOSA)
• The Smugglers and Foreign Exchange Manipulators Act, 1976 (SAFEMA)
• Foreign Exchange Regulation Act, 1973 (FERA)
• Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA)
The PMLA 2002 is comprehensive legislation aiming to prevent money laundering and
to provide for confiscation of property derived from money laundering. However, it has
not been effective in prevention of money laundering from India. The law has seen only
one conviction in 15 years of its history. To make anti-money laundering measures more
effective, union government has proposed making money laundering a separate
criminal offence.
With this, the money laundering offence will be investigated by the Enforcement
Directorate, irrespective of a probe by other agencies. This will facilitate quick action.
Under the current arrangement in India, the fate of money laundering cases depends
on the probe and prosecutions in predicate offences pursued by primary agencies.
These restrictions cause impediments in taking the money laundering cases to their
logical conclusion.
It will also align India’s quest against money laundering with best practices around the
world. Several countries such as the United Kingdom have defined it as a separate
criminal offence.
However, the government will have to bring about several amendments to the PMLA,
including the current definition of the “proceeds of crime” that is right now dependent
upon the predicate offences as listed in the Act’s schedule.
FATF’s key recommendations
• Identify, assess and take effective action to mitigate their money laundering
and terrorist financing risks.

Student Notes:
• Countries should have anti-money laundering policy and should designate an

authority that is responsible for such policies.
• Criminalise on the basis of the Vienna Convention and the Palermo Convention.
• Enable competent authorities to confiscate property and proceeds from money
laundering.
• Ensure that financial institution secrecy laws do not inhibit implementation of these
measures.
• Prohibit financial institutions from keeping anonymous accounts.
• Require financial institutions to maintain all records on transactions.
• Money transfer services providers should be licensed or registered.
• Identify risks that may arise with development of new technologies.
• Ensure that financial institutions monitor wire transfers.
• Ensure that FIs’ foreign branches and subsidiaries apply these measures.
• Apply appropriate countermeasures when called upon to do so by FATF.
• Financial Institutions should report suspicious transaction to FIUs.
• Establish financial intelligence unit (FIU).
• Ensure that designated law enforcement authorities have responsibility for
money laundering and terrorist financing investigations.
• Take immediate steps to become party to important global conventions framed to
combat money laundering.
• Provide mutual legal assistance in relation to money laundering.
• Effectively execute extradition requests in relation to money laundering and
terrorist financing.

1. Money laundering poses a serious threat to country’s economic sovereignty. What is its
significance for India and what steps are required to be taken to control this menace?
(2013)
8. References
• http://www.nja.nic.in/4.1.%20Paper-
%20Money%20Laundering_1_%20Paridhi%20Saxena.pdf
• http://www.fatf-gafi.org/publications/methodsandtrends/documents/role-hawalas-in-ml-
tf.html
• http://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/why-no-one-has-gone-to-jail-for-
money-laundering-116061100602_1.html
• http://blogs.economictimes.indiatimes.com/et-commentary/bitcoin-the-new-hawala/
• http://www.igidr.ac.in/conf/money/mfc-11/Singh_Vijay.pdf
• http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/money-laundering-may-be-made-criminal-
offence/article18279241.ece
• http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/first-money-laundering-
conviction-ex-min-jailed-for-7-yrs/articleshow/56890458.cms
• http://www.fatf-
gafi.org/media/fatf/documents/recommendations/pdfs/FATF_Recommendations.pdf


VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

PUBLIC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM, BUFFER STOCKS AND

FOOD SECURITY


Student Notes:
1. Public Distribution System in India

Public distribution system is a government-sponsored chain of shops entrusted with the work of
distributing basic food and non-food commodities to the needy sections of the society at very
cheap prices.
1.1. Objectives
● to provide essential consumer goods at cheap and subsidized prices to the consumers.
● to insulate them from the impact of rising prices of these commodities.
● to maintain the minimum nutritional status of our population.
● to put an indirect check on the open market prices of various items.
It is supplemental in nature and is not intended to make available the entire requirement of
any of the commodities distributed under it to a household or section of the society. Yet, it acts
as a safety net and attempts socialization in matter of distribution of essential commodities.
1.2. Evolution and Functioning of PDS
In India PDS is working since 1960s. It was initially a general entitlement scheme for all
consumers without any target.
• In 1992, a Revamped PDS (RPDS) was launched in 1775 blocks throughout the country to
strengthen and streamline the PDS as well as to improve its reach to poor families
especially in the far-flung, hilly, remote and inaccessible areas. RPDS covered areas where
special programmes were under operation such as Drought Prone Area Program (DPAP),
Integrated tribal development program (ITDP), Desert Development Program (DDP), and
certain Designated Hill Areas (DHA).
• In 1997, Targeted PDS (TPDS) was launched with focus on the poor families. It aimed to
benefit 6 crore poor families for whom 7.2 MT foodgrains was earmarked annually. Over
and above the TPDS allocation, ‘additional allocation’ was also given periodically to the
states. This transitory allocation was to benefit APL population. But, this allocation was
issued at higher prices than the ones at BPL quota.
• In December 2000, Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) was introduced for poorest of the poor
people (the hungry) and 25kg/month per household (increased to 35kg in 2002) was
provided at the highly subsidised rate of Rs 2/kg of wheat and Rs 3/kg of rice. The scheme
aimed to reach one crore Antyodaya households. Since then, AAY has undergone three
phases of expansion and now covers 2.5 crore poorest of the poor people. In between
2003-2006, 3 expansions took place which included 1.5 crore people (38% of BPL)
belonging to terminally ill, widows, senior citizens with no societal support, landless and
marginal farmers, rickshaw pullers, rag pickers, primitive tribal groups, etc have been added
to AAY.
• In 2013, National Food Security Act (NFSA) was enacted. It introduced individual
entitlement of 5 kg per person per month foodgrains to around 82 crore of population.
The PDS seeks to provide to the beneficiaries two cereals, rice and wheat and four essential
commodities viz. sugar, edible oil, soft coke and kerosene oil. However, state governments,
which actually manage the system at the ground level, are exhorted to add other essential
commodities like pulses, salt, candles, matchboxes, ordinary clothes, school text books/copies
and the like. Supply of additional items through PDS is especially relevant in interior areas,
which are away from markets and where one or two traditional shopkeepers, who also double
up for money-lenders, have the market monopoly. A number of state governments have set up
Civil Supplies or Essential Commodities Corporations to buy such additional items directly from
the manufacturers and use the existing structure of PDS to arrange for the sale at lower than

Student Notes:
market rates. Making available the six essential commodities (rice, wheat, sugar, edible oil, soft
coke and kerosene oil) to the state government is the responsibility of the central government.
The PDS distributed commodities worth more than 98,000 crore in 2014-15 through 5.21 Lakh
Fair Price Shops. Rice, wheat, sugar and kerosene have been the four major items of
distribution under PDS. Other than them, edible oils, coal and cloth have also been distributed
through it. Coarse grains (jowar, bajra, maize, etc) virtually remained absent from it as their
combined sales have amounted to less than 1% of the total PDS sales. Pulses, which are an
important source of protein for poor, constitute only about 0.2% in total PDS sales.
1.3. Limitations of PDS In India
1. Limited benefits to poor from PDS: Rural poor have not benefited much from PDS and their
dependence on the open market has been much higher than on PDS. Urban poor face the
similar scenario. Since, there is residential requirements for ration cards, a large number of
homeless people, migrants etc. are automatically left out of the food security.
2. Urban Bias: For quite a longer period of time, PDS remained limited mostly to urban areas.
Although things have changed now and there has been expansion of PDS in rural areas but
its effectiveness in terms of timely and adequate availability remains meager. Also, their
meaningfulness in remote, inaccessible, backward areas remains under question.
3. The burden of food subsidy: After inclusion of NFSA-2013, the burden of food subsidy has
become huge. Also, APL have no incentive to buy from PDS, so there has been increasing
stock with FCI. Other than that the procurement prices have been rising continuously due
to rich farmers’ lobby and issue prices are getting lower due to populist policies. All of this
together are making the PDS unsustainable.
4. Inefficiencies in the operations of FCI: The economic cost of FCI food grains operation has
been rising on account of increase in procurement prices and other costs (distribution cost,
carrying cost, etc.) and also due to inefficiencies caused by highly centralised and
bureaucratic mode of operations.
5. PDS results in Price increases: Due to large procurement of food grains every year by
Government, the net quantities available in open market reduces. This leads to increase in
Price. This dual market system i.e. PDS and Open market operates to the disadvantages of
poor, especially those who are excluded from the food security system.
6. Leakages from PDS: The major part of leakage is due to diversion of food grains to the open
markets because of widespread prevalence of corruption. Transport and diversion losses
also takes place. There is problem of ghost beneficiaries as well.
1.4. Targeted Public Distribution System
This system has been adopted by Government of India since 1997, to provide foodgrains to
people Below Poverty Line at highly subsidized rate from the PDS and foodgrains to people
above poverty line at much higher prices. The identification of the poor under the scheme was
done by the States. TPDS maintains universal character of PDS but has special focus on BPL.
Total number of families covered under BPL and AAY is 6.52 crores. The allocated amount is 35
kg per month per household to BPL and AAY, while for APL, it will be between 15 kg to 35
kg/month/household.
1.4.1. Key Features of TPDS
1. Targeting: Those earning a maximum of Rs. 15,000 per annum are kept within BPL. Initially
10 kg of food grains were provided per household per month, but in 2002 the limit was
revised to 35 kg/household/month.
2. Dual Prices: In 2000, the Central Issue Prices for the PDS to state governments was set at
50% of the economic cost of FCI for BPL families and at 100% of the economic cost for APL

Student Notes:
families. In 2001, a third price was also issued for beneficiaries of ANTYODAYA ANNA
YOJANA (Rs 2/kg of wheat and Rs. 3/kg of rice per family under AAY).
3. Central-State Control: PDS is designed and managed by State Governments, while the
Central Government allocates the foodgrains to the states. Under TPDS, the size of the BPL
population and the entitlement for them is decided by the Central Government.
1.4.2. Issues related with TPDS
1. Targeting: It has both conceptual and operational issues. Conceptual issues include the
problems related with definition of eligibility for BPL status based on income poverty line
does not cover a large number of vulnerable population. Under operational issues,
Identification has been considered as the biggest challenge. Exclusion errors are so high
that 63% of the poor household were not covered by the system (NSS-2007). A high
Inclusion Error is also reported as APL were having unacceptably large amount of subsidised
grains. NCAER reports about ‘ghost’ card holders. The Gram Panchayats and the Gram
Sabhas are given responsibility of identification, but in states where these bodies are not
functional, PDS dealers are seen performing the task and benefitting from it.
2. Leakages and diversion: Planning commission estimated that in 2004-05, more than half
(54%) of the grain taken off for TPDS disappeared before they reached buyers in the fair
price shop. NSSO 68th round reports that diversion of grains from PDS amounts to 46.7% in
2011-12.
3. Late and irregular arrival of grains in fair price shop: because of lack of awareness among
poor households about the exact arrival of grains creates the problem of physical and
economic access.
4. No variation in purchase across expenditure groups: A successful targeting is said when
there is continuous decrease in quantity purchased from PDS with increase in expenditure
class. Other than Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, no state has shown this trend.
5. TPDS has failed in transferring cereals from surplus to deficit regions: The policy of
targeting and allocation of grain on the basis of income poverty line has worked against the
earlier objective of price stabilisation through grain movements across the country. In pre-
TPDS time, the areas where PDS offtake was high, were not only deficient in terms of cereal
production but also tended to be the area of low cereal consumption.
6. Burden of subsidy has increased: Because of introduction of AAY and low prices for BPL,
and exclusion of APL as they are not getting any incentive to buy from fair price shops
(hence increasing the stock with FCI), the burden of subsidy has pushed the burden of
subsidy further.
1.5. Recent PDS Reforms
1. Digitization of almost all of 23 crore ration cards.
2. 56% of the digitised cards have been seeded with unique identification number Aadhaar.
3. Installation of ePOS (electronic point of sale) devices by many states at the fair price shops
to track the sale of foodgrains to actual cardholders on a real time basis.
4. Three UTs-Chandigarh, Puducherry and Dadra and Nagar Haveli have implemented DBT on
a pilot basis.
1.6. Revamping of PDS
Suggested Reforms
Procurement Side
• States which have gained sufficient experience (Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Punjab,
Haryana and MP) should be encouraged to procure for PDS directly from the farmers.

Student Notes:
• FCI should focus on states which suffer from distress sale at prices much below MSP, and
which are dominated by small holdings, like Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal,
Assam etc.
• Private sector should be encouraged to shoulder the responsibility of procuring, storage
and distribution of PDS commodities.
• Negotiable warehouse receipt system (NWRs) should be taken up on priority and scaled up
quickly.
• GoI should widen its procurement basket so as to incorporate adequate nutrient mix. It will
prevent skewed incentive to wheat and rice only and promote crop diversification.
• A transparent liquidation policy is the need of hour, which should automatically kick-in
when FCI is faced with surplus stocks than buffer norms.
Supply Side
• End to end computerization: Mapping of FPS and the registered customers at each FPS will
help to identify exact requirements at each FPS. Timely and adequate allotment of goods at
Fair Price Shops (FPS) in adequate quantities.
• Monthly declaration of sales by FPS to prevent piling up of excess inventories.
• Truck dispatch information & stock availability at FPS through SMS to registered users.
• GPS based tracking of trucks carrying PDS goods.
• FPS should be operated through Gram Panchayats, Cooperatives, Self Help Groups etc.
Consumer Side
• Proper identification of beneficiaries and creating a web database with allotted quantity of
each goods as per entitlement.
• Computerized entry via AADHAAR authentication at Point of Sale (POS).
• Pilot testing of cash transfers in PDS, starting with large cities with more than 1
million population; extending it to grain surplus states, and then giving option to deficit
states to opt for cash or physical grain distribution.
• Toll Free Number for complaint registration.
1.7. Alternatives to PDS

1. The high level committee chaired by Shanta Kumar in 2015 had recommended gradual
introduction of cash transfers in PDS, starting with large cities with more than 1 million
population; extending it to grain surplus states, and then giving option to deficit states to
opt for cash or physical grain distribution. DBT in the name of lady of the house, and routed
it through PM Jan Dhan Yojana, and dovetailing it with the UIDAI has also been suggested.
This will help in better targeting, and plugging leakages.
2. Food coupons can be provided to the beneficiaries through which they can buy food grains
from store, and the dealer could be reimbursed on production of these coupons at the
Government treasury. This will remove the problems of procurements, diversion and black
marketing of food grains.
3. A Universal Basic Income to all.
4. Entitlement of a fixed basket of food or its monetary equivalent can be provided to all, but
the richest individuals. This will remove exclusion error, as it is easier to identify rich, than
to identify a poor person.
1.8. Universal vs. Targeted Debate
1. A universal scheme will create an unnecessary burden over the exchequer, as this will have
huge inclusion error because those who do not need the security, such as rich people, will
get automatically included in it. But, at the same time a universal PDS will remove the

Student Notes:
exclusion error seen in targeted schemes due to misidentification of beneficiaries, rampant

corruption, leakages and diversion in the PDS, etc. Some critics are of view that a more
inclusion error, but less or no exclusion error is more favourable condition for the success
of PDS. Also, rich people can be persuaded to give up their subsidy, as successfully done in
LPG.
2. A high procurement of food grain will have to be done for a Universal PDS. This will increase
the price of wheat and rice in open markets. In case of drought, or inefficient rainfall, will
the government be able to import such quantities of highly subsidized food grains?
3. A targeted PDS approach can limit the operations of both market forces and the
bureaucracy.
4. India is home to a large number of migrants, non-citizens etc. A targeted PDS excludes
these people as they do not have required documents for ration card. A universal PDS will
bring them under the fold of food security. But both budget and grains are limited.
Universal schemes implemented in North Africa suggests that it involves unnecessary high
costs and no significant benefits to the poor.
5. Universal programs lack the element of ‘affirmative action’.
1.9. Food Corporation of India (FCI)
FCI is a statutory organisation set up in 1965 under Food Corporation Act 1964. It is the main
agency providing foodgrains to the PDS. Its primary duty is to undertake the purchase, storage,
movement, transport, distribution and sale of food grains and other foodstuffs. FCI is
mandated with three basic objectives:
1. to provide effective price support to the farmers, also, it ensures that the farmers are
getting the announced remunerative prices and the consumers are getting food grains at
the uniform price fixed by the Government.
2. to procure and supply grains to PDS for distributing subsidized staples to economically
vulnerable sections of society.
3. keep a strategic reserve to stabilize market (for basic food grains).
1.9.1. Recommendations of High Level Committee on Restructuring of FCI
The Committee was set up in 2014, with Shanta Kumar as Chairman. It submitted its report in
2015.
1. On Procurement Related Issues:
• FCI should hand over procurement to those States which have gained sufficient
experience (Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Punjab, Haryana and MP). It should focus on
states which suffer from distress sale at prices much below MSP, and which are
dominated by small holdings, like Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam etc.
• Negotiable warehouse receipt system (NWRs) should be taken up on priority and scaled
up quickly.
• GoI needs to revisit its MSP policy which gives skewed incentive to wheat and rice only
and neglects crop diversification.
• MSP policy should work in coordination with trade policy so that the landed costs of
imported crops are not below their MSP.
2. On PDS And NFSA Related Issues:
• GoI should defer implementation of NFSA in states that have not done end to end
computerization; have not put the list of beneficiaries online for anyone to verify, and
have not set up vigilance committees to check pilferage from PDS.
• The current coverage of 67% Population under NFSA is a huge fiscal burden. It should
be brought down to 40%.

Student Notes:
• Gradual introduction of cash transfers in PDS, starting with large cities with more than 1
million population; extending it to grain surplus states, and then giving option to deficit
states to opt for cash or physical grain distribution.
o Cash transfers can be indexed with overall price level to protect the amount of real
income transfers.
o Cash can be given in the name of lady of the house.
o Cash can be routed through Prime Minister's Jan-Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) and
dovetailing Aadhaar and Unique Identification (UID) number.
3. On stocking and movement related issues: FCI should outsource its stocking operations to
the private sector.
4. On Buffer Stocking Operations and Liquidation Policy: the current system is extremely ad-
hoc, slow and costs the nation heavily. A transparent liquidation policy is the need of hour,
which should automatically kick-in when FCI is faced with surplus stocks than buffer norms.
5. On Labour Related Issues:
• Increase mechanisation to reduce the number of manual labour requirements and
offices.
• At top level, hire executives from private sector
• daily wage contractual labour or outsourcing should be done wherever possible
6. On direct subsidy to farmers: Farmers be given direct cash subsidy (of about Rs 7000/ha)
and fertilizer sector can then be deregulated.
• This will plug diversion of urea to non-agricultural uses, as well as to neihbouring
countries.
• This will also help raise the efficiency of fertilizer use.
• This may also help those who take loans from money lenders at exorbitant interest
rates to buy fertilizers or other inputs, thus relieving some distress in the agrarian
sector.

Student Notes:
The new face of FCI as envisioned by Shanta Kumar committee:

• The FCI will become an agency for innovations in Food Management System
• Its primary focus would be to create competition in every segment of foodgrain supply
chain-from procurement to stocking to movement and finally distribution in TPDS.
• It will reduce the overall costs of the system substantially, plug leakages, and will serve
larger number of farmers and consumers.
• It will make itself much leaner and nimble (with scaled down/abolished zonal offices)
• It will focus on eastern states for procurement
• It will upgrade the entire grain supply chain towards bulk handling and end to end
computerization by bringing in investments, and technical and managerial expertise from
the private sector.
• It will be more business oriented with a pro-active liquidation policy to liquidate stocks in
OMSS/export markets, whenever actual buffer stocks exceed the norms.
This would be challenging, but HLC hopes that FCI can rise to this challenge and once again play
its commendable role as it did during late 1960s and early 1970s.
2. Buffer Stocks
2.1. Introduction
A buffer stock is a system or scheme which buys and stores stocks at times of good harvests to
prevent prices falling below a target range (or price level), and releases stocks during bad
harvests to prevent prices rising above a target range (or price level). So, it neutralizes the
fluctuation in production of a given crop, so that the prices may remain stable.
In times of surplus production, government procures the crops from farmers through MSP so
that the farmers do not suffer negatively for producing more. In times of deficit, government
releases the buffer stocks in a phased manner so that interests of the consumers do not suffer,
and they are able to meet their nutritional requirements at reasonable prices.
2.2. Buffer Stock Policy of India

The concept was introduced in the fourth five year plan (1969-74), and a buffer stock of food
grain was to be maintained by FCI on behalf of the Government of India to meet the monthly
release of food grains for supply through PDS (Targeted Public Distribution System, TPDS and
Other Welfare Schemes (OWS) to meet emergency situations arising out of unexpected
calamities such as crop failure, natural disasters, etc. and for market intervention to augment
supply in case of deficit production of food grains, so that, the open market prices get
moderated.
Buffer norms are fixed by CCEA (Cabinet committee on Economic Affairs chaired by PM) on
quarterly basis as on 1st April, 1st July, 1st October, and 1st January of every financial year. The
buffer norms have been revised in January 2015.
Operational stock = Stocks earmarked for TPDS + OWS and Food security stocks/reserves.
In addition to the buffer norms, a strategic reserve of 30 lakh tonnes of wheat and 20 lakh
tonnes of rice is also maintained. This stock is termed as Food Grain Stocking Norms.
Food grain stocking norms refers to the level of stock in the central pool that is sufficient to
meet the operational requirements of food grains i.e. for distribution under Targeted Public
Distribution System TPDS, Other Welfare Schemes (OWS) and exigencies at any point of time.
Earlier this concept was termed as Buffer Norms and Strategic Reserves. The Buffer norms of

Student Notes:
food grains in the central pool have been revised in 2015 and Cabinet Committee on Economic
Affairs, CCEA has approved that in case the stock of food grains is more than the revised buffer
norm, the Department of Food and Public Distribution will offload excess stock in the domestic
market through open sale or through exports.
From 2015, Government has decided to create a buffer stock of 1.5 lakh tonnes of pulses to
control fluctuation in their prices. NAFED, SFAC and FCI will procure pulses for buffer stock.
Food stock above the minimum buffer norms are treated as ‘Excess Stock’, and government can
liquidate them through export, open market sales or additional allocation to states.
2.3. Critical Evaluation of Buffer Stocks in India
There are several problems in operating and designing a sustainable food intervention system.
From procurement of grains, to storing the grains to releasing them, the system is handled
mainly by the government (although more recently some part of the logistics have been
handed over to private contractors, based on tender-auctions) and is plagued with
inefficiencies. Some of the inefficiencies are given below:
1. Open-ended procurement: The Government procures for TPDS, OWS and for maintaining
buffer/strategic stocks. FCI has to procure a large amount of grain from market due to
increasing commitment of government, and has become a buyer of last resort. In 2016-17,
Government ended up procuring more than 30% of the marketable surplus of wheat.
2. Procurement Prices have become Support Prices: Procurement prices which were kept for
maintaining the buffer stock has virtually become the prices for purchasing whatever
amount the farmer offers for sale. The quantity purchased exceeds the storing capacity of
FCI and leads to excessive damage of procured grains.
3. One tool serving many objectives: The buffer stocking policy of food grains has become the
one tool with the government to fulfill the interlinked objectives of supporting food
producers and food consumers, and of ensuring food availability at the national level. Buffer
stocking is used to simultaneously tackle the problem of volatility in the price of food grains,
provide food security and incentivize high production. Using the same instrument to
achieve the objectives of ensuring remunerative price to farmers and providing the
procured food grains to the poor at highly subsidized prices creates conflicts. By implication,
this entails a huge gap between the purchase price and issue price, and consequently a
larger subsidy bill.
4. Inefficient Inventory management: In the absence of clear targets for the stock level, the
whole inventory management system of the FCI becomes inefficient and thus costly.
a. First, the FCI’s inventory management policy has a counter-cyclical character. The
government should procure grain in times of abundant supplies in the market, and
release it in times of scarcity. However, the need to meet the needs of the TPDS and the
other food- based welfare schemes, the government not only withholds stocks during a
bad crop year, because it expects off-take to be higher than normal, it also steps up its
procurement, pushing up prices in an already supply-constrained market.
b. Inefficient Inventory management: Even after allocating to the mandated schemes and
maintaining reserves, an excess of millions of tons of grain remains in the FCI godowns.
There is no pro-active, pre-defined, sustainable policy practiced for this residual grain.
As a policy, such residual grain, which is of good quality, can be released through two
channels.
i. It could be released in the domestic market under the open market sale scheme
(OMSS)
ii. Grain can be released in the global markets through exports (depending on the
prevailing export policy)

Student Notes:
Grain of inferior quality or destroyed grain is disposed of as feed, generally at a pre-

determined reserve price.
The policy towards international grain trade has been of an ad-hoc nature, with the
domestic grain supply and price situation determining the export/import policy every year.
Also, there have been frequent bans on grain export. While, OMSS-Domestic remains a
failure because the issue prices are always kept higher and poor quality of released grains.
Both, the methods have proved inadequate for disposing off the residual grain.
5. Rising cost of Operation: Under grain management, FCI’s main heads of costs are
acquisition costs, which include the pooled cost of grain and procurement incidentals, and
distribution costs (these are costs involved in the allocation and distribution of grains to
various states/UTs under various food- based welfare schemes). To maintain strategic
stocks, FCI incurs buffer-carrying costs, which include the cost of warehousing, stock
maintenance etc and this cost of FCI is called “annual rate of buffer carrying cost”. This cost
has more than doubled since 2001-02. There has been rise in all the above mentioned costs
due to:
a. Higher acquisition cost: MSPs and Bonuses are continuously increasing. Mandi charges,
milling charges, administrative charges are increasing as well. The economic costs of FCI
for acquiring, storing and distributing food grains is about 40 per cent more than the
procurement price.
b. Higher storage costs and losses due to inadequate capacity: FCI’s average annual rate
of increase in storage capacity has been a meager 4.5 percent while the growth rate of
rice and wheat stocks in the central pool has been more than 18 per cent. Data for the
year 2011-12 show that FCI’s storage and transit losses have increased by close to 147
per cent in nominal terms between 2006-2007 and 2011-2012, much of which is
accounted for by a 164% increase in storage costs in the period.
6. De-facto nationalization of the grain market: With more than 75 per cent of the
marketable surplus procured by the government, very little grain is available for the open
market. This lower market supply exerts an upward pressure on prices in the open market,
neutralizing much of the consumer benefits that the subsidy provides. Also, the Essential
Commodities Act, APMC Act and state government interferences adversely affect the price
competitiveness of Indian grain in the international market.
7. Increasing gap between per capita production and per capita availability: Although rice
and wheat production rose by 29 per cent between 2000 and 2012, per capita net
availability of grains went down by close to 1 per cent. When rising stock levels with the
government reduces grain availability for consumption, it counters the whole objective of
buffer stocking. The idea was to procure grain and distribute it to the needy to improve the
access to and availability of grain. However, if the grain is procured, stored, and not
distributed/released when needed, then it could, contrary to the objectives of the system,
increase food insecurity.
8. Inefficiencies in the targeted public distribution system: Along with high amount of
pilferage, inclusion and exclusion errors, the economic cost of operation has also increased
more than 100% in last decade, while the issue price has remained constant. The huge
amount of financial implication can be observed by following facts (2014)
a. India’s food subsidy bill has grown more than 25 times (in nominal terms) during the
last two decades
b. it is more than one per cent of annual gross domestic product (GDP) and five per cent of
the agricultural GDP
c. and is nearly one-third of all subsidies given by the central government.

Student Notes:
3. Food Security
3.1. Introduction
The definition of food security has evolved over a period of time. As a concept, food security
originated in the mid-1970s, in the wake of global food crisis. The initial focus of attention was
assuring the availability and to some degree the price stability of basic foodstuffs at the
international and national level. This was then broadened to incorporate the demand side of
food security in early eighties. During the nineties issues such food safety, nutrition, dietary
needs and food preferences were also considered important ingredients of food security.
In FAO report on ‘The State of Food Insecurity, 2001’ , food security is defined as a “ --- situation
that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient,
safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and
healthy life”.
World Summit on Food Security stated that the "four pillars of food security” are availability,
access, utilization, and stability i.e. food security over time.
To accomplish all the above criteria, requires not only an adequate supply of food but also
enough purchasing power capacity with the individual or household to demand adequate level
of food.
Food Security vis-a-vis Constitution of India

In the Indian context, the underpinnings for food security of the people can be found in the
Constitution, though there is no explicit provision on right to food.
The fundamental right to life enshrined in Article 21 of the Constitution has been interpreted by
the Supreme Court and National Human Rights Commission to include right to live with human
dignity, which includes the right to food and other basic necessities.
Under Directive Principles of State Policy, it is provided under Article 47 that that the State shall
regard raising the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the
improvement of public health as among its primary duties.
Providing food security has been focus of the Government of India’s planning and policy.
Attainment of self-sufficiency in foodgrains production at the national level has been one of the
major achievements of the country. In order to address the issue of food security at the
household level, Government is implementing the Targeted Public Distribution System under
which subsidized foodgrains is provided to eligible households. To further strengthen the efforts
to address the food security of the people, the Government has enacted the National Food
Security Act, 2013.
3.2. Qualitative and Quantitative Dimensions of Food Security
The adequate supply of food involves two dimensions:
• Quantitative Dimension or overall food availability in the economy.
• Qualitative Dimension pertaining to the fulfillment of nutritional requirements.
3.2.1. Quantitative Dimension of Food Security in India
India gained self-sufficiency in the food grains in 1970s mainly because of green revolution and
has sustained it since then.
Foodgrain output in 2016-17 was 275.11 million tonnes. It is forecasted to increase by 0.9% to
277.49 million tonnes in the crop year ending June 2018 after a normal monsoon and wider

Student Notes:
planting in winter. Thus, in terms of per capita food requirements, India is self-sufficient in the
production of major food crops like wheat and rice.
Trends in Per Capita Net Availability of Food Grain

It has fluctuated since last five years. While in 2014, it was 489 g/day, it went down to 465.1
g/day in 2015. As per provisional data, it went up again to 518.1 g/day.
3.2.2. Qualitative Dimension of Food Security in India

While the per capita food availability is sufficient, food is not equally distributed. Due to
anomalies in the distribution channels and disproportionate purchasing power capacity of
people, the nutritional requirements of vulnerable sections are not adequately addressed.
This can be gauged from the following facts:
• According to State Of Food Security and Nutrition in The World 2017 Report of FAO,
proportion of undernourished population of India was 14.5% during 2014-16; 21% of
children under the age of five are wasted (too thin for their height) and 38.4% of children
under the age of five are stunted (too short for their age) and 51.4% of women (15-49 years
of age) were anaemic in 2016.
• Recently released NFHS-4 report also shows similar facts i.e. 53% women (15-49 years of
age) and 58.4% of children (6-59 months) are anaemic and 35.7% of children (under 5) are
underweight.
• According to Global Hunger Index 2017 (published by International Food Policy Research
Institute), India ranks 100 out of 119 countries.
• India’s Hunger Index score for 2017 is 31.4, which indicates that India is at the high end of
the ‘serious’ category.
3.3. Why Securing Food is a Challenge?
Over the coming decades, a changing climate, growing global population, rising food prices,
poor agricultural growth rate (trends shown below) and environmental stress factors will have
significant yet highly uncertain impacts on food security.
Moreover, a significant proportion of population is economically backward to be able to afford
adequate food for fulfilling their dietary requirements. Despite the availability of government
support programs, there have been numerous question at international foras like WTO over
government public procurement and distribution of food grains to the needy people.

Student Notes:
To tackle the quantitative and qualitative aspect of food security problem, India provides three
food-based safety nets
• Public Distribution System (PDS)
• Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS)
• Mid-Day Meals Program (MDM)
3.3.1. Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS)
A centrally sponsored scheme launched in 1975, it is a one of the largest child intervention
programs in the world with a holistic package of 6 basic services for children up to 6 years of
age, and for pregnant and lactating mothers. These services are:
● Supplementary feedings (Child-500 calories, 12-15gm protein for 300 days, Pregnant
mothers-600 calories, and 18-20 gm protein)
● Immunization
● Health Checkups
● Referral services
● Health and nutrition education to adult women
● Non-formal pre school education to 3-6 years old.
3.3.2. Mid-Day Meal (MDM) Scheme
National Program of nutritional support to primary education, also called MDM scheme was
launched in 1995. It is a nationwide central scheme intended to improve the enrolment and
regular attendance and to reduce the dropouts in schools. It is also intended to improve
nutritional status of primary school children. From 2008-09, Children from upper primary level
i.e. till Class VIII were also included in the scheme. MDM is the world’s largest school feeding
program reaching out to about 11 crore children in Schools and Education Guarantee centres
(EGS) across the country. For primary students-300 calories and 8-12 gm protein and for upper
primary students-700 calories and 20 gm protein has been kept as norm.

Student Notes:
3.3.3. Critical Appraisal of ICDS and MDM

India’s one of the biggest flagship programs, the Rs 8,000 crore-a-year Supplementary Nutrition
Program (SNP) to fight child malnourishment under ICDS suffers from gross violations and
misuse of rules and has failed in meeting its ends.
1. Due to meager allocation of resources and faulty policy designs, the overall impact of ICDS
and MDM over malnutrition has remained very limited.
2. The states with high degree of malnutrition, have low coverage of both the schemes.
3. Poor quality of nutrient deficient meal is being served at most of the schools.
4. ICDS has limited itself with just one function of Supplementary Nutritional Program (SNP)
and is not concerned about other functions. Also, it focuses on children 3-6 years of age, so,
0-3 years (when maximum nutrition is required) old suffer neglect.
5. Since food is nutrition deficient in ICDS as well, children are facing the problem of hidden
hunger i.e. prevalence of Iodine, calcium, iron or Vitamin A deficiency.
6. Child Immunization and pre-school education is neglected under ICDS, except in Tamil Nadu
(FOCUS report).
7. ICDS is poorly implemented. Also, several posts such as of CDPO and supervisors remain
vacant in many states.
8. FOCUS reports (Focus on Children Under Six Report by Right To Food Campaign NGO) show
that corruption is the main reason for failure of ICDS and MDM in removing malnutrition.
It was found that ‘panjiri’ (ready-to-eat energy mix) meant for children is being used
illegally to feed the cattle of rich and influential in Uttar Pradesh. Rampant corruption,
fudged records and bland panjiri has become the reality of ICDS.
9. MDM is falling prey to private contractors. Also, political leaders and influential business
people have formed SHGs and mahila mandals to gain such contracts.
3.4. National Food Security Act, 2013
It marks a paradigm shift in approach to food security – from a welfare to rights based
approach. The Act legally entitles up to 75% of the rural population and 50% of the urban
population to receive subsidized foodgrains under Targeted Public Distribution System. About
two thirds of the population therefore is covered under the Act to receive highly subsidized
foodgrains. There is a special focus in the Act on nutritional support to pregnant women and
lactating mothers and children up to 14 years of age by entitling them to nutritious meals.
Pregnant women will also be entitled to receive cash maternity benefit of Rs. 6,000 in order to
partly compensate her for the wage loss during the period of pregnancy and also to supplement
nutrition. Keeping in view the important role that women play in ensuring food security of the
family, the Act contains an important provision for women empowerment by giving status of
head of the household to the eldest woman of the household, for the purpose of issuing of
ration cards.
Further, the Act seeks to provide food and nutritional security in human life cycle approach, by
ensuring access to adequate quantity of quality food at affordable prices to people to live a
life with dignity and for matter connected therewith or incidental to it. The Act brings the Right
to Food within the framework of legally mandated entitlements.
3.4.1. Key Features of the Act
1. It entitles 75% of the rural population and 50% of the urban population (67% of the
population i.e. 80 crore people) for subsidized grain under TPDS.
2. The act provides ‘individual entitlement’ and each individual will be provided 5 kg of
wheat, rice or coarse cereals a month at the rate of Rs 3, Rs 2, and Re 1 per kg respectively.

Student Notes:
These Prices may be changed by the Central Government from time to time, but after 3
years of the act only and not above the MSP.
3. 2.43 crore people under AAY will get 35 kg food grain per household per month, like
earlier.
4. State Governments have been given responsibilities to identify the households within 365
days of the passage of the act.
5. For children below 6 months, exclusive breast feeding is to be promoted. For children
between 6 month to 6 years, age-appropriate free meals will be provided by the
Aanganwadi Centres. For children between 6-14 years of age (unto Class VIII) will be given
Mid Day Meal at public schools.
6. Every pregnant and lactating mother will get free meal at local aanganwadi (till 6 months of
delivery) and a maternity benefit of Rs 6000 in instalments.
7. A State Food Commission will be set with a chairperson, five members and 1 secretary
(including at least 2 women, and 1 member each from the SC and ST community)
8. If concerned state government is not able to provide the food grain, then equivalent food
security allowance has to be provided.
9. Act includes three schedules:
a. Schedule 1 prescribes issue prices for the PDS.
b. Schedule 2 prescribes nutritional standards for MDM, take home rations and related
entitlements.
c. Schedule 3 lists various provisions to advance food security under 3 broad headings:
● revitalisation of agriculture (land reform, R&D, etc.)
● procurement, storage and movement of food grains, and
● other provisions (safe drinking water, sanitation, healthcare, adequate pensions for
vulnerable, etc.)
3.4.2. Critical Evaluation of NFSA
1. Cost Of Implementation: It will take around Rs 1.3 lakh crore (1.3% Of GDP at current
market prices) to provide annual food subsidy under NFSA. Critics believe that other
entitlements, maternity benefits, transportation, grievance redressal and other associated
costs will make a huge cost burden of around 6.8 lakh crore over the 3 year period 2013-14
to 2015-16.
2. Risk of Leakages: NSSO data shows a huge leakage of 37% from PDS in 2011-12. Although it
is unacceptably high but is declining as compared to 44% in 2007-08 and 54% in 2004-05.
3. Identification Of Beneficiaries: Identification is an inherent problem in targeted schemes. It
amounts to a huge exclusion error in India, mainly because of prevalent illiteracy and
corruption. However a Socio Economic Caste Census (SECC, 2011) has been done and its
reports are in public domain now. Criteria can be find out to select beneficiaries, or to keep
out a section of people who do not need such subsidies.
4. Problems In Procurement CACP argues that production has to go up by an extra 25 MT to
meet the requirements of NFSA. But, analysts say that since our production and
procurement of cereals has been increasing continuously since 2000-01, procurement shall
not be a problem. Also, CACP has included just wheat and rice in its estimation, coarse
cereal has not been included.
3.5. WTO and Food Security
[WTO rounds related to Agriculture and Public Stockholding has been dealt in detail in the
Farm Subsidies Section]
According to WTO, people are considered food secure when they have access to sufficient,
safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life. For food security reasons several

Student Notes:
countries adopt Public Stockholding Programmes through which the government purchases,
stockpiles and distribute food to people in need. WTO considers it a legitimate policy objective,
but when this involves purchases at “supported” or “administered” prices by the government,
then it is considered as trade distorting.
● At 2013 Bali Ministerial Conference, ministers agreed that on an interim basis, public
stockholding programmes would not be challenged legally even if a country’s agreed limits
for trade-distorting domestic support were breached, subject to certain safeguards. They
also agreed to negotiate a permanent solution to this issue by the end of 2017 (Peace
Clause).
● At present such subsidies are classified as trade distorting and capped at 10% of production
value (for developing countries).
● The safeguards include several tough conditions such as these subsidies must not affect the
food security of other countries and world prices, information has to be shared, etc.
● At 2015 Nairobi Ministerial Conference, the resolution was reaffirmed that the members
must take all concerted efforts to agree on a permanent solution.
3.5.1. Recent debates in WTO meets over Food Security
Demands of India in WTO
• to find out a permanent solution for its public stockholding programmes for food security.
• special safeguard mechanism for millions of farmers from unforeseen surges in agricultural
imports.
• an agreement for removing bottlenecks for facilitating trade in services.
The G-33 Coalition of developing countries led by Indonesia in 2014 and 2015 had offered
several options to reach a permanent solution, such as to:
• include these ‘support programmes’ for food security under Green Box which is exempted
from any subsidy reduction commitments.
• modify the rules to address the historical inequities in the existing WTO’s Agreement on
Agriculture.
• G-33 countries also want that “traditional staple food crop” term used in Bali decision be
replaced by “foodstuffs” to cover all food crops.
The above two proposals (inclusion in Green Box, and addressing historical inequalities) have
been defied by US, EU, Canada, Australia, Brazil, Thailand, Pakistan, etc. They argue that
inclusion in green box:
• will amount to a carte blanche i.e. unrestricted power to act on one’s own discretion,
• would lead to unsustainable production; and
• the permanent solution must be based on the Bali agreement, which affirms that such
programmes lead to distortion.
WTO 11th Ministerial Conference at Buenos Aires in December, 2017 ended in a stalemate
with no permanent solution.

Student Notes:

1. With overflowing godowns and the presence of one of the largest population of
hungry in the world, there seems to be a paradox in the Indian system. Comment and
provide suggestions to rectify it.
Approach:
• First explain that this paradox occurs using some basic facts and then we can
explain “why” this paradox occurs
• Then give some suggestion at institutional level and policy level to address this
paradox.
Answer:
More than 45 years after Green Revolution began; India provides a unique spectre of
overflowing godowns and rotting grains on the one hand while millions go to bed
hungry. Having the largest population of hungry in the world, India ranks 66 among 105
countries in the 2012 Global Hunger Index. That too at a time when there is no
shortage of food within the country. Recent record on the food grain stock in the
country shows that the government of India is pilling up one of the world’s largest
stockpiles of food grains amounting to around 667 lakh tonnes, as of January 2013.
This is much higher than the government's rule of stocking up buffer stock of 250 lakh
tonnes which must be maintained in a year.
To ensure that no starvation death takes place and people are saved from malnutrition
as far as possible, the Supreme Court directed the centre to release five million tons of
food grains immediately for distribution in 150 most poverty-stricken districts or other
poorer segments in the country. The entire food production and distribution system
therefore needs an urgent overhaul. If only the government was to focus on agricultural
production, procurement and distribution in a decentralized manner, much of the
agrarian crisis would disappear. There is a need is to take the following steps to address
this paradox -
Institutional Set up
• Set up a wide network of mandis and temporary purchase centers across Bihar,
eastern Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha, Assam and the other northeastern
states. Extending the Green Revolution to northeast has already increases rice
production, but farmers are resorting to distress sale getting about 20 to 30 per
cent less because of the absence of procurement centers. Thus mandis will cater to
their problems where they will get optimum price for their produce.
• Invest in setting up a network of grain silos, warehouses and godowns across 50
places spread throughout the country. The public-private partnership model to
improve storage facilities is a promising solution
• Thrust on food processing industries thereby setting food processing centres across
the country.
Policies and legislations
• Strengthening PDS- The public distribution system should be strengthened and
should be designed to reach the unreached.
• Bringing food security bill based on right based approach - effective bill on food
and nutrition security, address the issue of rotting food grains -- a criminal waste
when people still die of starvation-- and rely on bottom-up methods that

Student Notes:
complement the top-down administrative structure to identify the poor and reduce
both exclusion and inclusion errors in targeting
• Removing barrier to interstate trade
• Longer term policies of restoring purchasing power need to be started on an urgent
basis, and the stepping up of food-for-work programmes to cover every state
whether drought affected or not, is the obvious answer.
• Decentralised procurement and decentralised storage will help to minimise
transport and transaction costs.. The storage can be done through a national grid of
Community Food Banks (CFBs) managed by self-help groups
A universal and user-sensitive Public Distribution System, Food Guarantee Scheme,
Community Food Banks and various other food entitlement projects need to be
implemented in an integrated manner, so that the goal of hunger-free India can be
achieved.
2. Starvation in the midst of plenty; this reflects the sorry state of affairs associated with
the issue of food security today. In light of this statement, what role does buffer stock
play in promoting food security? Comment on the Institutional Setup for the
management of buffer stocks and bring forward challenges as well as solutions
associated with the same.
Approach:
Explain the concept of Buffer Stock and why it is required to maintain. Further,
Elaborate on the institutional setup for the management of stocks, analysing the
current shortcomings and suggestions for revamping the system.
Answer:
The Buffer norms are the minimum food grains the Centre should have in the Central
pool at the beginning of each quarter to meet requirement of public distribution
system and other welfare measures. Buffer stock constitutes an important parameter
for ensuring food security in the country. It is well known that a modicum of self-
sufficiency in food is desirable which immediately means that the state will have the
responsibility of maintaining a certain amount of food stocks. Further, it is argued that
in a big country like ours, it is politically risky to rely entirely on private traders and
international trade to iron out excessive price fluctuation and international experiences
in the past have shown that relying entirely on international market comes with its own
strategic costs.
Maintaining buffer stocks helps in achieving multiple objectives i.e. they are required to
feed TPDS and other welfare schemes; ensure food security during the periods when
production is short of normal demand during bad agricultural years and stabilize prices
during period of production shortfall through open market sales.
The Food Corporation of India, is the nodal agency for procurement, storage and
release of food grains in India. It was setup under the Food Corporation Act 1964. The
objectives of FCI are:
• Effective price support operations for safeguarding the interests of the farmers
• Distribution of food grains throughout the country for public distribution system
• Maintaining satisfactory level of operational and buffer stocks of food grains to
ensure National Food Security.

Student Notes:
Buffer stocks have been under frequent attacks in recent times. The level of stocks is
said to be too high in relation to the buffer stock norms which is causing huge cost in
terms of storage, interest on value of produce, and wastage, tying up huge resources
that could have been put to better use. It is argued that price stabilization can be
better achieved through trade rather than stocks and the former is found to be much
cheaper than latter. Further, it is also argued that buffer stocks for absorbing shocks due
to production fluctuation were justified when India did not have enough foreign
exchange reserve to maintain excessive stocks held by public agencies.
What needs to be done is to vary our procurement, taking in more when the weather is
good, supply plentiful and with low prices, when the weather is bad and prices are high.
Further, the efficacy of the policy of offloading of grains is enormously dependent on
the size of packages to be offloaded in the open market.
Inspired by the sight of food grain going waste, it is often made out to be that our
central problem is that of poor food grain storage. Though there is no doubt regarding
improving our storage facilities, it is important to be clear that this will not lower the
price of food. To achieve that we need to redesign the mechanics of how we acquire
and release food on the market.
3. Huge increase in food production in recent times has neither resulted in a more
equitable distribution of food nor has it led to a moderation in food inflation. In this
context, discuss the systemic and operational inefficiencies in the grain management
system in the country.
Approach:
Elaborate upon the current situation where increase in food production has not had the
desired commensurate effects on Indian economy and food security scenario. Major
part of the answer should focus on inadequacies in India’s grain management system.
Answer:
While the Indian agriculture on a whole grew at a rate of 4.1 percent for 11 th FYP, there
was no commensurate increase in per capita food grain availability. A lot of this gap
between production and availability to end user can be attributed to various lacunae in
the way we manage food grain as it moves from the producer to the consumer.
A majority of our population is dependent on PDS, managed by FCI making government
the largest procurer of food grains in the country. This structure faces is plagued by a
myriad of inefficiencies like:
• FCI was set up in 1965 with the twin objective of procuring food grains for the
government’s food policies and to offer some support to farmers who can sell their
produce at the government-mandated minimum support price (MSP). However
over the years with increase in MSP and inability of FCI to move grains out of its
storage quickly , has resulted in making FCI one of the largest hoarders of food grain
in the country. It currently holds more than four times the required buffer stocks.
This stock can be safely off loaded in the open market to increase the net food
availability.
• Lack of adequate capacity with FCI to store the procured grains leading to wastage,
rotting of food grains etc.
• The centralized procurement and storage of food grains makes the cost of taking
food to go-downs and to consumers cost more than the food procurement at MSP.

Student Notes:
There is a need to encourage local procurement and storage model. This will
further increase the local food grain availability.
• Lack of accountability is the central issue. FCI is neither a PSU- company nor a
government department as it is formed under the Food Corporation of India Act of
1964.The FCI Act itself says all its expenses will be borne by the centre. So there is
no accountability inherent in the structure. It’s neither a government department
which is accountable to parliament nor is it a PSU which is accountable to
shareholders.
• There is a need to change storage technology. Following tradition, FCI stores grain
mainly in jute sacks; but this causes problems as the gunny sacks are easily
damaged by rodents. This has lead to huge food grain losses over the years. Instead
we need to move towards grain silo which is a concrete or metal structure where
grain is stored loose and not in bags.
• Cost is the biggest problem at FCI. FCI's biggest cost is its labor.- it has a staff
strength of over 36,000 employees and 18,000 loaders. Rationalization of
operational costs can make it possible to invest more on increasing storage capacity
and improving it distribution system.
In future we will continue to focus on increasing agricultural production because of its
benefits to rural economy. This coupled with the need to feed our increasing population
makes it imperative that FCI to resolve the above lacunae in a time bound manner.

Student Notes:
4. Food and nutritional security, increasing farm income, poverty alleviation and
minimizing crop production risks on account of climate change are the priority
challenges faced by Indian agriculture. Comment. Also, suggest measures to address
these challenges on priority basis.
Approach:
• Discuss the challenges facing agriculture sector under various themes listed in the
question.
• Discuss the remedial measures to address the challenges identified in the first part.
Answer:
India is an agrarian nation where half of population is still dependent on agriculture and
allied sectors for livelihood. But its GDP contribution is around 19% (2014-15). Also
there is a huge disparity in land distribution with average landholding size of 0.2 ha,
majority of whom are small and marginal farmers. However, since the merger of global
economies many new issues are arising while many old ones are getting more
concerning which is evident from the logjam in Doha round of WTO negotiations. Some
of the priority challenges and their possible solutions are discussed as follows:
• Food and nutritional security: Though government has given statutory status to
food security covering around 67% of population, our main focus has been on
making available staple food comprising of cereals – wheat and paddy. Also, there
are many issues regarding access to these food items. On account of nutritional
security, we have launched few missions focusing on increasing production of
oilseeds and pulses – like Integrated Scheme for Oilseeds, Pulses, Oilpalm and
Maize (ISOPOM) and the latest push has been given through launch of Protein
mission in annual budget 2014-15, but tangible benefits are yet to be achieved as
we are still importing them. Also, there are major problems in extension program
regarding the transfer of the technology from research institutions to the farmers’
field.
• Increasing Farm Income: Focus must be diverted from just increasing crop
production to farm income, which includes income from livestock, poultry and
other related agricultural enterprises. However, this has not been encouraging on
account of institutional drawbacks, lack of access to modern technology, market
information which needs to be corrected.
• Poverty Alleviation: India resides in villages – main source of income agriculture –
lack of synergy between Policy initiatives, technology extension and welfare
program results in persistent poverty among rural population.
• Minimizing the crop production risks on account of climate change: Climate
change is the reality and since India is an agrarian economy, we have lot of reasons
to be concerned…lack of awareness among the farmers, slow pace of R&D in
development of Good Farming Practices – climate resilient agriculture.
Some remedial measures to tackle above mentioned challenges on priority basis:
• Increasing agricultural productivity - focusing on the technology development and
its effective dissemination; focus on access to inputs in timely manner along with
attention to output sector.
• Attention to rainfed regions of India – can constitute Rainfed Authority of India –
focus on crop diversification, availability of modern technology.
• Linking farmers with markets with least possible intermediaries.

Student Notes:
• Increasing investment in agriculture, especially in new potential areas like North

east, collaboration with private sector with proper legal reforms creating conducive
environment.
• The introduction of climate-smart agriculture to adapt the sector to changing
environment and climate characteristics.
• All the above measures should inter alia include the sustainable development
approach – tackling climate change challenges.
5. Despite being amongst the top agricultural producers, there exists a huge gap
between production and availability of food grains and vegetables in India. Analyse
the reasons for the same with special focus on post-harvest losses. Also enumerate
the steps taken by the government to address the problem.
Approach:
• Introduce the given statement by substantiating some key facts.
• Discuss the reasons including supply chain problems which cause wastage.
• Mention the steps of the government in this regard.
Answer:
India’s is the world’s largest producer of milk, many fruits and vegetables, and some
staples. In recent years India has achieved a record production in food grains. It is
favoured by a vast geographical area supported by varied climatic conditions.
Even though India has enough food it is home to about 25 percent of the world’s
hungry poor. The per capita availability of food grains, fruits and vegetables, vis-a-vis
production, is quite low.
The Per capita amount of food available is typically calculated as production plus
imports minus exports divided by the population.
Reasons for the low per capita availability
• Poverty: India is a hugely demand-constrained economy due to poor purchasing
power reflecting poor access to nutritious food despite high production.
• Exports: When demand is low, an increase in local production need not translate
into increased availability as a larger portion of the produce may be exported.
• Government stocks: Huge public stocks have been built up, foregoing
consumption. The food in these stocks is deteriorating because of poor
management, reducing availability.
• Huge leakages in Public Distribution System
• Post-Harvest losses: Around 25-30% of the production is wasted which means the
inefficient utilisation of production and lowering of its availability.
• Absence of a unified Agricultural market which creates wide differentials in prices
for the same commodity in different regions. It also leads to sharp seasonal
variation of prices.

Student Notes:
These higher levels of post-harvest losses are caused by the following:

• Inefficient supply chain for the distribution of the fruits and vegetables because of
several problems:
o Numerous stake holders working in isolation
o Absence of demand forecasting
o Absence of application of technology improvements
o Lack of system integration
o Presence of large number of unorganized retailers
• Improper bagging without crating,
• Lack of temperature controlled vehicles and cold chain facilities. According to
research, approximately only 10% of the fruits and vegetables produced in India
use cold storage
• Unavailability of enough processing facilities for the agricultural produce
• Lack of vertical integration of production with processing.
The government has adopted multi-pronged strategy to improve food availability in
India:
• Increase production through various programmes such as Rashtriya Krishi Vikas
Yojana, ISOPOM etc.
• Increasing purchasing power through welfare measures such as MGNREGA, NSAP
etc.
• Reducing leakages by improving PDS through Aadhaar and Direct Benefit Transfer.
• Rationalising buffer stocks
• E-NAM- pan-India electronic trading portal which networks the existing APMC
mandis to create a unified national market for Agriculture.
• Model APMC act and exclusion of fruits and vegetables from the purview of State
APMC act by certain states.
Several steps have also been taken to reduce post-harvest losses:
• Scheme for Development of Infrastructure for Food Processing having components
of Mega Food Parks, Integrated Cold Chain, Value Addition and Preservation
Infrastructure and Modernization of Abattoirs
• Scheme for Quality Assurance, Codex Standards, Research & Development and
Other Promotional Activities.
• Central Sector Scheme of Cold Chain, Value Addition and Preservation
Infrastructure.
• Various departments and ministries are providing assistance for setting up cold
storages under different schemes.
6. “Food Security Act shouldn’t be seen as just another subsidy. If implemented well, it
has the potential to give a huge boost to the sagging economy.” Comment.
Approach:
• Explain the FSA – describe that it leads to substantial increase in subsidy
• Then explain that it’s not just another subsidy – if implemented in spirit, it would
boost economy by
o Construction boom due to stepping up of construction of procurement,
storage, transport facilities
o boosting rural demand
o Building productive human resource

Student Notes:
• Finally conclude hence although it is costly – but the attempt is worth the cost. It’s
not only morally appropriate but makes economic sense as well.
Answer:
• The Food Security Act envisages the distribution of wheat, rice and coarse grains to
over 2/3rd of its population. The new bill will expands that coverage at a cost of
about 1.35% of the GDP which is going to increase as our population increases. It
will worsen the fiscal deficit situation and may even lead to high CAD in years of
bad monsoons when government has to import food to meet its legal obligations.
Hence financial analysts are raising predictable concerns about its affordability.
These concerns, however, are misplaced.
• A large part of the food subsidy today is also wasted on the transport and storage
of monumental food stocks. With a well-functioning PDS, it will be much easier to
coordinate procurement and distribution, so that excess stocks don’t accumulate.
The availability of excess stocks also means that the short-run economic cost (as
opposed to the financial cost) of the Act is virtually nil.
• With clear legal obligations, the governments will be forced to step up their
procurement infrastructures, create more storage houses, cold storage, etc. which
may give rise to construction boom in the economy.
• Further to make up for the increased demand, the ministry of agriculture may have
to take steps to improve farm productivity substantially. This will raise farmer’s
income, effectively giving rise to higher aggregate demand. This will boost the
sagging economy as well.
• Finally the Act is a form of investment in human capital. It will bring some security
in people’s lives and make it easier for them to meet their basic needs, protect their
health, educate their children, and take risks. This will make better, healthier and
more productive work force, which will benefit the economy as a whole. In short,
the Food Security Act is sound economics.
7. Indian agriculture has become cereal-centric and as a result, regionally biased and
input-intensive. Discuss. What steps have been taken by the government to rectify
this issue?
Approach:
• Discuss the regional bias and input intensive character of Indian agriculture due to its
cereal-centric nature.
• Mention various schemes and programs being implemented by the government to
bring about crop diversification, remove regional bias and reduce input intensity.
Answer:
The current scenario in Indian agriculture is that wheat and rice, the two main cereals,
are grown on the most fertile and irrigated areas of the country. Green revolution was
focused around these cereals which made the country self-sufficient in food
production. However this also meant diversion of land from crops like pulses and coarse
grains to water guzzling crops like paddy. It also led to growing regional disparities
between the original Green Revolution States (Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar
Pradesh) as compared to the eastern states of the country.
The successive monoculture has also led to increased dependence on fertilizers for
maintaining soil fertility and sustained outputs. Input intensive agriculture has brought
down the profit margins for farmers, especially the marginal ones.

Student Notes:
Not only these cereals highly input intensive, they also use a large part of the resources
that the government channels to agriculture, be it water, fertilizer, power, credit or
procurement under the MSP program. It has created a vicious cycle, where increasing
input costs lead to further demand of increase in MSP and increases of MSP has led to
these crops being grown in unsuitable regions leading to rise in input costs.While the
government announces MSP for 23 crops, effective MSP-linked procurement occurs
mainly for wheat, rice and cotton. The MSP policy needs to encourage other crops, like
pulses, through a Rainbow Revolution on the lines of the Green Revolution.
The government of India has taken several initiatives to promote diversification of
agriculture, remove regional bias and reduce input intensity. These include:
• Promotion of cultivation of pulses and coarse cereals under National Food Security
Mission (NFSM) and oilseeds under National Mission on Oilseeds and Oil Palm
(NMOOP)
• Crop Diversification Programme in Original Green Revolution States as a sub
scheme of Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) since 2013-14 to divert the area of
water guzzling paddy to alternate crops like pulses, oilseeds, maize, cotton and agro
forestry system. The programme has been extended to tobacco growing states to
encourage tobacco growing farmers to shift to alternate crops/cropping system
• Technology Mission for the Integrated Development of Horticulture in the
Northeastern Region. This will ameliorate the regional bias.
• National Agriculture Insurance Scheme. The scheme will cover food crops and
oilseeds and annual commercial and horticulture crops, and thus promote other
crops.
• Initiative for Nutritional Security through Intensive Millet Promotion
(INSIMP),National Horticulture Mission (NHM) and Technology Mission on
Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil Palm and Maize (ISOPOM)
• Promoting water conservation techniques like Direct Seeded Rice (DSR), System of
Rice Intensification (SRI), alternate wetting & drying method, laser land levelling,
adoption of short duration and drought tolerant varieties, etc (NFSM) through
programs like Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern India (BGREI), National Food
Security Mission (NFSM), etc.
• Promoting organic farming through various schemes/ programmes like National
Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)/ Paramparagat Krishi Vikas
Yojana(PKVY) , Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) etc.
• Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Pusa has developed new pulse variety
(PUSA Arhar – 16) with extra early maturing period.
8. Financial support to farmers through various instruments has been a crucial aspect of
agricultural policy of the government. Examine whether the proposal of moving
towards direct transfer of benefits and universal crop insurance would alleviate the
existing concerns in the current scenario.
Approach:
• In the introduction, explain the current financial support to the farmers, as
highlighted by the given statement.
• Discuss the issues with current instruments of financial support and measures
needed to address them.
• Provide a solution oriented conclusion.

Student Notes:
Answer:
To address the financial problem of farmers government came up with schemes like
Interest Subvention Scheme, loan waiver, MSP and subsidies in different sectors
(fertilizer, electricity etc.). However, there are certain issues with respect to economy
and efficiency of such approaches For example, it is seen that at least 30 to 40 per cent
of crop loans under the interest subvention scheme is getting diverted to non-
agricultural uses. Under these circumstances the need for moving towards direct
transfer of benefits and Universal crop insurance has been felt.
Direct Transfer
Benefits
• Reduce leakages, which currently hover around 30 to 40 per cent.
• Will promote equity as a subsidy package can be designed on a per-hectare basis,
with smaller landholders getting a higher per-hectare rate.
• Convergence: Directly transferred money to farmers’ accounts linked to Aadhaar for
all input subsidies like fertilizers, seeds, farm machinery and credit, will give them
freedom to choose the right mix of inputs at market prices.
• Address market distortions: Transferring input subsidies to farmers’ accounts will
let the markets for inputs be freed.
• Post-harvest losses will also be covered and Time Bound Payment of Losses will
prevent delays and further worsening of Farmers' Distress.
Challenges
• Issue of upfront payment: not all farmers can pay market prices for say, fertilisers
and wait for the subsidy to be credited to their bank accounts.
• Exclusion of sharecroppers by virtue of their not ‘owning’ land.
• Inadequate penetration of banking services.
Crop Insurance Scheme
Currently crop insurance scheme has limited penetration due multiple conditionalities,
in terms of season, crop etc. Moreover, due to significantly high premium rate,
insurance coverage is very less. Therefore, it is argued that Universal Crop Insurance
Scheme should be launched.
Benefits
• Increased penetration: It would increase the coverage of insurance scheme.
• Financial security: This would ensure financial security to distressed farmers,
reducing farmer suicide.
• Formalise agriculture: With increased penetration of insurance in farming sector, a
beginning can be made towards the formalization and taxation of agriculture.
Challenges
• Universal crop insurance scheme would need huge financial resources.
• Universal crop insurance without matching extension services might encourage
farmers to take unsustainable risks, thereby making insurance unviable.

Student Notes:
Way forward
Steps such as PM Fasal Bima Yojana, changes in land leasing laws (which allow formal
recognition of non-landowning cultivators) are the moves in good direction and could
offer solution. Thus, both direct transfer of benefits and Universal Crop Insurance, if
applied creatively and equitably, have the potential to alleviate the current concerns
and leakages.
5. Previous Year UPSC Questions

1. Food Security Bill is expected to eliminate hunger and malnutrition in India. Critically
discuss various apprehensions in its effective implementation along with the concerns it has
generated in WTO.

recording or otherwise, without prior permission of Vision IAS.

VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

PAPER III: SECURITY
ROLE OF MEDIA AND SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES IN

INTERNAL SECURITY CHALLENGES


Student Notes:
1. Media
1.1. Introduction
Any communication channel through which any kind of information, news, entertainment,
education, data, promotional messages etc. can be disseminated is called media.
Mass media refers to communication devices, which can be used to communicate and interact
with a large number of audiences in different languages. Be it the pictorial messages of the
early ages, or the high-technology media that are available today, mass media has become an
inseparable part of our lives.Media can be broadly classified as:
• Print Media (newspapers, magazines, books and Brochures, Billboards, etc.)
• Electronic Media (news websites, social networking sites, mass SMS schemes, television,
internet, radio, cinema etc.)
• New Age Media (Mobile Phones, Computers, Internet, Electronic Books)
1.2. Role of Media in India

For a country like India, the backbone of its democracy and the propagator of its national
interests remains the access to information and expression. It helps citizens to make
responsible and objective choices, to promote accountability by its officials, to provide solutions
to conflict resolution, and also to encourage diverse views of its diverse people. This access of
information has allowed the Indian media to play the role of watchdog that holds the
Government accountable in all its activities, and also functions as theonly mode of expression
for its people.
The role of media in a democracy like India, therefore, can be summed up as to:
• Inform and educate people objectively, impartially and in an unbiased manner about
security threats and challenges
• Unbiased reporting with the restraints of self regulations
• Promotion of the principles of healthy democracy
• Respect for the Constitutional Provisions
• To build a bridge between people and governments at the national level
• Uphold fairness, justice, national unity and international cooperation
• Inform, educate, entertain, publicize and most importantly correct the excesses in any
society.
• Highlight the trouble spots in the society and press the government and public to devise
suitable mechanisms to eliminate them
• Shape the perceptions of government, influence public opinion, promote democracy, good
governance as well as influence peoples’ behavior and support people- oriented policies
Following the globalization, the responsibilities of media have also widened. It has to play a role
for preserving and pursuing the national interests of the state and highlighting its perspective
along with the global issues. It has to examine the conduct of international relations and again
to highlight the trouble spot at global level in lieu of global security.
1.3. National Security& Media
The media and national security policy of a nation have a strong connection in the
contemporary environment. Television news in India, with far too many channels competes for
viewership 24/7, and with the ‘Breaking News’ sensation, sets the pace for the print media. The
distinction between facts, opinions, and speculationhas blurred into irrelevance.
The connection between the media and national security policy is both direct and indirect. In
the case of a strong administration, news is news and policy is policy. Under less certain

Student Notes:
administrations with low approval ratings and certainly administrations whose policies are
undeveloped or who do not have a solid philosophical basis of operation; are subject to greater
degrees of influence by dramatic reporting.
1.4. Where Media is Misleading? – Threat to Internal Security

• Indian media does not have a wider perspective of India’s national security issues.
• Indian media is in no mood to apply brakes or observe self-restraint on its wayward and
insensitive treatment of national security issues.
• Indian media’s (especially electronic media) analysis and over-analysis of national security
issues by groups of former diplomats, generals and academia’s arm chair strategists distort
national security perspectives. All these gentlemen can only draw on their outdated
experience and none of them are privy to latest inputs. Also in many cases, reticence is
their first casualty after retirement.
• Indian TV anchors discussing national security issues do not have the political and strategic
maturity to discuss national security issues as their Western counter-parts do.
• Indian TV debates on national security issues tend to cut out development of contrary
views and perspectives by imposing commercial breaks, or go hectoring themselves.
1.5. Existing Regulations and Restrictions

• The rights and responsibilities of the media are not directly enshrined in the written
Constitution; however, Article 19 of the Indian Constitution dealing with the freedom of
speech and expression broadly highlights the powers and functions of the media as a body
of information.
• Articles 105(2) and 194(2) allow the Indian Press to publish or report the proceedings of
the parliament and the state legislatures.
• A number of press laws such as the Press Council Act of 1978 that nominates bodies to
govern press functioning in India and the National Security Act of 1980 puts restrictions on
the Indian press while reporting on issues that may need to be confidential and whose
exposure may threaten the stability of the nation.
• The Government has been able to restrict the media during emergencies and has imposed
laws that diminish its freedom in a limited manner mainly to deal with national security
related issues. Some examples include:
o Defence of India Act, 1962 – it came into force during the Emergency declared in 1962
– the Sino India war. This Act aimed at restricting the Freedom of the Press to a large
extent and in turn empowered the Central Government to issue rules with regard to
prohibition of publication or communication which would undermine or threaten civil
defence/military operations, and also prevent prejudicial reports and prohibition of
printing or publishing any matter in any newspaper that may contain such content.
o CivilDefence Act, 1968 – It allows the Government to make rules for the prohibition of
printing and publication of any book, newspaper or other document damaging to the
civil defence of the country and its people.
o The Broadcasting Code – It was adopted by the Fourth Asian Broadcasting Conference
in 1962, highlighting major principles to be followed by the electronic media. The
Broadcast Code was set up to govern the All India Radio, but the following key
principles have also been followed by all Indian Broadcasting Organisations. The
principles include:
✓ ensuring the objective presentation of news and fair and unbiased comment, to
promote the advancement of education and culture.
✓ raising and maintain high standards of decency and decorum in all programmes.

Student Notes:
✓ providing programmes for the young which, by variety and content, will inculcate
the principles of good
“The coverage of the Mumbai terror attack by
citizenship.
the mainstream electronic media has done
✓ promoting communal harmony,
much harm to the argument that any regulatory
religious tolerance and mechanism for the media must only come from
international understanding. within”, the Supreme Court 2012
✓ treating controversial public Supreme court in its ruling after 26/11 slammed
issues in an impartial and the TV channels for live coverage of the 26/11
dispassionate manner. Mumbai terror attack. "Any attempt to justify the
✓ respecting human rights and conduct of the TV channels by citing the right to
dignity. freedom of speech and expression would be
• News Broadcasting Standards Authority totally wrong and unacceptable in such a
-It is an independent body set up by the situation. The freedom of speech and expression,
News Broadcasters Association. Its task like all other freedoms under Article 19, is
subject to reasonable restrictions.
is to consider and adjudicate upon
complaints about broadcasts. An action tending to violate another person’s
right to life guaranteed under Article 21 or
• The Indian Broadcasting Foundation has
putting the national security in jeopardy can
also released ‘Self-Regulatory Content
never be justified by taking the plea of freedom
Guidelines for Non-News and Current of speech and expression.
Affairs Television Channels’, after the
critical broadcasting of the Mumbai terror attacks in 2008 that brought in media experts
and journalists to review the coverage and revise the content of the Indian media.
1.6. Measures to tackle the threat

Considering the potential of media to harm the national security and health of a nation,
following measures shall be undertaken to tackle the national threat:
• Accuracy in reporting-
o It is the responsibility of TV news channels to keep accuracy and balance, as
precedence over speed as usually expected.
o If despite this there are errors, channels should be transparent about them. Errors must
be corrected promptly and clearly.
o Channels should also strive not to broadcast which is defamatory or libelous.

Student Notes:
• Neutrality, Impartiality and Objectivity

o Media must provide for neutrality by offering equality for all affected parties, layers and
actors in any dispute, or conflict to present their point of view.
o Though neutrality does not always come down to giving equal space to all sides news
channels must strive to ensure that allegations are not portrayed as fact and charges
are not conveyed as an act of guilt.
• To ensure crime and violence are not glorified
o News channels should exercise restraint to ensure that any report or visuals broadcast
do not induce, glorify, incite, or positively depict violence and its perpetrators,
regardless of ideology or context.
o Specific care must be taken not to broadcast visuals that can be prejudicial or
inflammatory. Equally, in the reporting of violence, the act of violence must not be
glamorized, because it may have a misleading or desensitizing impact on viewers.
o News channels must ensure that no woman or juvenile, who is a victim of sexual
violence, aggression, trauma, or has been a witness to the same is shown in television
without due effort taken to conceal the identity.
o In reporting all cases of sexual assault, or instances where the personal character or
privacy of women is concerned, their names, pictures and other details shall not be
broadcast/divulged.
• Privacy
o As a rule channels must not intrude on private lives, or personal affairs of individuals,
unless there is a clearly established larger and identifiable public interest for such a
broadcast.
o However, it is also understood that the pursuit of the truth and the news is not possible
through the predetermined principle of prior permission; hence door stepping
individuals or authorities for the purpose of newsgathering may be used only in the
larger purpose of public interest.
o Further, in the case of minors, in any broadcast that intrudes on their privacy, the
channel should attempt, where possible, to seek the consent of the parent or legal
guardian.
• National security
o In the use of any terminology or maps, that represents India and Indian strategic
interests, all news channels shall use specific terminology and maps mandated by law
and Indian governments.
o News channels shall also refrain from allowing broadcasts that encourage secessionist
groups and interests, or reveal information that endanger lives and national security.
o However, it is in the public interest to broadcast instances of breach of national security
and loopholes in national security and reporting these cannot be confused with
endangering national security.
• Superstition and occultism
o News channels shall not broadcast any material that glorifies superstition and occultism
in any manner.
o In broadcasting any news about such genre, news channels will also issue public
disclaimers to ensure that viewers are not misled into believing or emulating such
beliefs and activity.
o Therefore news channels shall not broadcast "as fact" myths about "supernatural" acts,
apparitions and ghosts, personal or social deviations or deviant behavior and
recreations of the same.
• Sting operations
o As a guiding principle, sting and under-cover operations should be a last resort of news
channels in an attempt to give the viewer comprehensive coverage of any news story.

Student Notes:
o News channels shall not allow sex and sleaze as a means to carry out sting operations,
the use of narcotics and psychotropic substances or any act of violence, intimidation, or
discrimination as a justifiable means in the recording of any sting operation.
o News channels will as a ground rule, ensure that sting operations are carried out only
as a tool for getting conclusive evidence of wrong doing or criminality, and that there is
no deliberate alteration of visuals, or editing, or interposing done with the raw footage
in a way that it also alters, or misrepresents the truth or presents only a portion of
truth.
“The internet is the largest experiment involving anarchy in history. (…) It is a source for
tremendous good and potentially dreadful evil, and we are only just beginning to witness its
impact on the world stage.”
- Eric Schmidt, Executive Chairman, Google and Jared Cohen,
Director, Google Ideas
2. Social Media
2.1. Introduction
Social media is best understood as a group of new kinds of online media, which share most or
all of the following characteristics:
• Participation: Social media encourages contributions and feedback from everyone who is
interested. It blurs the line between media and audience.
• Openness: Most social media services are open to feedback and participation. They
encourage voting, comments and the sharing of information. There are rarely any barriers
to accessing and making use of content, password-protected content is frowned on.
• Conversation: Whereas traditional media is about “broadcast” (content transmitted or
distributed to an audience) social media is better seen as a two-way conversation.
• Community: Social media allows communities to form quickly and communicate
effectively, sharing common interests.
• Connectedness: Most kinds of social media thrive on their connectedness, making use of
links to other sites, resources and people.
2.2. Social Media vs Social Networking
Social Media and Social Networks in actual terms differ as social media is a communication
channel that transmits information to a wide audience and is usually a one-way street, while
social networks facilitate the act of engagement between likeminded people, groups or
communities.
2.3. Types of Social Media
There are several kinds of social media:
• Social networks: These sites allow people to build personal web pages and then connect
with friends to share content and communication. The biggest social networks are
MySpace, Facebook.
• Blogs: a blog is an online journal where the entries are written in a personal, conversational
style. They are usually the work of an identified author or group of authors
• Wikis: These websites allow people to add content to or edit the information on them,
acting as a community document or database. Example- Wikipedia
• Forums: Areas for online discussion, often around specific topics and interests. Each
discussion in a forum is known as a ‘thread’, and many different threads can be active

Student Notes:
simultaneously. This makes forums good places to find and engage in a variety of detailed
discussions.
One major difference between forums and blogs is that the Blogs have a clear owner,
whereas a forum’s threads are started by its members.
• Content communities: They organize and share particular kinds of content. Here, you have
to register, you get a home page and then make connections with friends. The most
popular content communities tend to form around photos (Flickr), 4 bookmarked links
(del.icio.us) and videos (YouTube).
• Micro-blogging: Social networking where small amounts of content (updates) are
distributed online and through the mobile phone network. Example- Twitter
2.4. National Security & Social Media

Social Media can represent an effective opportunity to preserve national security and/or reach
the strategic interests of a state if used properly by civil institutions and, in particular, by
security services and/or information security services. Besides, these tools “can be used by
governments for content creation, external collaboration, community building, and other
applications” and that “failure to adopt these tools may reduce an organization’s relative
capabilities over time”
Security and law enforcement agencies can use social media platforms in the following ways for
internal security:
• to use data available freely on social media platforms to gauge the mood of citizens on
issues, predict patterns and possible flash points of disturbances, and prevent and react to
cyber-crimes;
• to build actionable intelligence which may support human intelligence efforts which could
be shared across agencies, with built in safeguards to ensure that there is no encroaching
upon the privacy of citizens
• Warning and Trend Prevision Tool-
o The ability to forestall future strategic and tactical contexts is of paramount importance
in order to reduce the possibilities to be caught by surprise by threats and increase the
resilience to them.
• Institutional Communication Tool-
o A state has to reach the Information Superiority, referred to as an advantage on the
adversary in IT and decision-making, if they really want to guarantee high
competitiveness and efficiency standards, protect their own strategic interests and
effectively counter threats to national security.
o Social Media can help reach this kind of competitive advantage since they increase the
agility and flexibility of the information sharing procedures and accelerate the decision-
making process.
o to inform and engage with citizens to build secure communities which share
information;
o to ensure presence to combat misuse of social platforms to spread malicious rumors
which may trigger problems for internal security and law and order, and prepare
standard operating procedures for times of emergency;
• Influence, Propaganda and Deception Tool-
o The use of Social Media allows not only to communicate, share or capture information,
analyse sociopolitical dynamics and anticipate economic-financial trend, but also to
describe events, model reality, influence the perception of a certain situation, a specific
issue or a person, and influence choices and behaviors.

Student Notes:
2.5. Threat to Internal Security

Social media poses challenge for democracies because the channels such as social networks
and blogs present powerful tools to spread information to the masses. Few examples to
remember are the Moldavian twitter riot, the London riots, the Iran elections, the WikiLeaks
disclosures, or the Arab freedom movements. The efficient use of the tools provided by the
new media is the new military power because electronic media and social media are the most
effective and powerful means of mass motivation.
For the Indian government, the internet remains the chosen platform for socio-economic
empowerment schemes, which also makes India uniquely dependent on internet platforms for
its development while, at the same time, it heightens the risks of India’s vulnerabilities.
• Terrorism:
o Social Media are more and more used by terrorist organizations as tools for ideological
radicalization, recruitment, communication and training
o The rapid expansion and development of social media can be used to cause problems
by propagating certain ideologies, mobilizing and organizing people.
• Protest Movements and Revolution:
o Social Media constitute an asset of great importance both for protest movements and
for revolutions. Rebels and revolutionary groups turn to such tools to better organize
and spur masses to action, to arrange protest or struggle activities and manage their
tactical and operational aspects.
o It has a potential for disrupting public order, either involuntarily through the
unchecked spread of rumors, or deliberately through the propagation of
misinformation with the intent of creating enmity between groups.
• Criminality:
o Criminal organizations use Social Media as support, communication and coordination
tools to conduct their illicit activities.
o This kind of illicit activities can be either purely information ones (i.e. spreading child
pornography with fee, “virtual” identity thefts, phishing, spread of viruses, trojans,
worms, etc.), or
o “traditional” ones (i.e. drug smuggling, human trafficking, money-laundering, transfer
of documents from industrial espionage)
• Mobile phone technology provides easy and instant digital camera and video facilities, and
this can be used maliciously.
• Cases of cyber bullying, misuse and corruption of personal information, the posting of
material about an individual by third parties, often of a malicious nature, and publishing of
material involving others, without their consent, which can be embarrassing or worse.
• War:
o According to a recent NATO provisional study, future conflicts will occur in more and
more connected environments, which will be characterized by the use of new
communication and information technologies, Social Media included.
o The media networks are regularly hacked by enemy countries to spread false
information and to recover classified data. Recently hacking of New York Times and
Twitter servers by Syrian agencies was in news. Similarly, the US and China continue to
exchange blows in the field of hacking.

Student Notes:
Silent circle's applications: A threat

• Silent Phone: Encrypted voice and video calls on mobile devices. it can be used with Wi-Fi,
EDGE, 3G or 4G cellular anywhere in the world.
• Silent Text: Encrypted text messaging with 'burn notice' feature for permanently deleting
messages from device registries.
2.6. Available Checks and Balances: Regulations

The way in which the internet allows data to be produced, collected, combined, shared, stored,
and analyzed is constantly changing. Police projects like Social Media Labs depend entirely on
information available on public platforms and hence authorities must anticipate contestations
to what constitutes public data in times ahead.
The government is working on a policy which is aimed at keeping a hawk's eye vigil on the social
media to check if it is being "misused" to conspire against India and spread anti-national
propaganda- a regulatory framework for social media and online content. At present, there is
only a set of "do's and don'ts" for the social media which needs to be graduated to a full-
fledged guidelines that should be adopted on such a network.
Supreme Court has also expressed its concern for uncharitable comments, trolls and aggressive
reactions on social media platforms on almost every issue, including judges and judicial
proceedings. As use of social media evolves, for security and law enforcement agencies,
questions regarding ‘relevancy’ of such data, and its ‘admissibility’ etc. will also be raised.
Under the existing legal frameworks, Sections 69 and 69(a) of IT Act 2000 empowers the
government of India to:
• issue directions for blocking of information for public access and to issue directions for
interception or monitoring or decryption of information through any computer resource
when circumstances threaten public order, defence, security, sovereignty and integrity of
India, or friendly relations with other states or to prevent incitement to the commission of
any cognizable offence relating to the above circumstances.
• Article 69 (b) of the IT Act 2000 empowers agencies of the government of India, in this case
the Dept. of Electronics and Information Technology, “to authorise to monitor and collect
traffic data or information through any computer resource for cyber security” for cyber
incidents and breaches.
Safeguards: Rules under 69 (a) of IT act 2000 (rule 7), authorizes Secretary, DeitY as a
competent authority to issue directions for blocking of information for public access after
examining recommendations of a committee comprising of designated officer of DeitY, Joint
Secretaries of MHA, Ministry of Law and Justice, Information and Broadcasting and ICERT.
2.7. Measures to Tackle the Threat
The nature of the medium is such that it has raised valid questions as to whether regulation is
possible without infringing on the fundamental rights of the citizen relating to freedom of
speech and privacy. Due to its characteristics, its constituents, its contents and its evolving
power, Social Media cannot be controlled, censored or shut down. Social media has to be
understood and adopted.
• The authorities can use the same medium to provide correct information and nip rumors in
the bud. Existing technologies and laws provide sufficient leeway to the authorities to
effectively monitor internet traffic, including social media, in real-time, but are under-
utilized for a variety of reasons, largely to do with coordination.

Student Notes:
• Social media analysis generated intelligence or SOCMINT is being developed as a successful

model in many countries abroad to isolate hotspots or subjects that go viral and is used as
a predictive tool. India too is looking at these models, but is still at the stage of
experimentation, trial and error.
• The Mumbai Police has launched a project called “Social Media Lab”, the first of its kind in
the country. The lab would monitor relevant information from Facebook, YouTube, Twitter,
as well as all other open sources in the public domain. About 20 specially-trained officers
are supposed to work in shifts.
• We need many more such pilot projects across the country to develop a truly credible data
base and this will require huge investments in terms of both infrastructure and human
resource. We also need to work on network availability constraints, language barriers and,
most importantly, organizational adaptability in terms of this new medium.
• We need to make people aware that the internet is not, in reality, a private place. The
citizens should be guided of the advantages and of the risks of social networking sites, and
provided an overall awareness, particularly to the young and vulnerable, about the need to
be cautious in what they do online.
• From a corporate perspective, a revised security model which takes into account the
sharing of information across social networks is necessary. There are risks in the use of and
social networking software, though these are often not well recognized.
• A strengthening of legislation designed to protect personal information.
• Working to define and then to protect data ownership rights in a web-based environment.
Along the matrix of cyber security challenges, social media pales in comparison to other
challenges, such as securing critical infrastructure and countering cyber espionage, which are
much more pressing and can have greater negative consequences.
The unique way that the internet continually improves in response to user experience is driving
innovation on an unprecedented scale. Social media is developing in response to the appetite
for new ways to communicate and to the increasingly flexible ways to go online. Its future
direction is impossible to predict. What is beyond doubt is that social media – however it may
be referred to in the future – is a genie that will not be disappearing back in to its bottle.

1. The Supreme Court of India on the reckless media coverage of the 26/11 attacks
noted that - “By covering the attack live, the Indian TV channels were not serving any
national interest or social cause. On the contrary, they were acting in their own
commercial interests, putting national security in jeopardy.” In the light of the above
observation, mention the principles and concerns that mass media should keep in
mind while reporting sensitive and dangerous issues.
Approach:
The concerns indicated should be comprehensive, covering the aspects of impartiality,
objectivity, sensitivity, privacy and national security. There is no need to go into a
criticism of media in Mumbai terror attacks. The statement is only to highlight the
importance of sensitivity in media reporting.
Answer:
Media, due to its power to influence the decisions of others and its role of information,
education and communication, is considered as the fourth pillar of democracy. Hence,
it becomes necessary that media follows certain principles of self-regulation so that it
does not create, intentionally or unintentionally, problems for national security and law

Student Notes:
and order. Some important principles to be followed by the media are:

1. Impartiality and objectivity in reporting: Viewers of 24-hour news channels expect
speed but that should not be at the cost of accuracy and balanced reporting. If
errors in reporting have been made, they should be promptly admitted and
corrected.
2. Ensuring neutrality: Equal opportunity must be given to all parties and actors to
present their point of view. Neutrality does not mean giving equal space to all sides
but it must be ensured that allegations are not portrayed as facts.
3. No glorification of crime and violence: Media should exercise restraint to ensure
that any report or visual broadcast do not induce or glorify violence. Specific care
must be taken not to broadcast visuals that can be inflammatory.
4. Special care in cases pertaining to women and children: In reporting cases of
sexual assault or other cases involving privacy of women, their personal details
should not be divulged. The identity of victims of child abuse and juvenile
delinquents should be kept secret.
5. Refrain from obscenity: News channels must ensure that they do not show nudity
or use sexually selective language.
6. Respect individual privacy: Channels must not intrude into personal affairs of
individuals unless there is a clearly established larger and identifiable public
interest.
7. Should not endanger national security: News channel should refrain from allowing
broadcasts that encourage secessionist groups and interests. They should not
reveal information that endangers lives and national security.
8. Refrain from sensationalizing: Media should take care that they do not indulge in
sensationalizing news to gain more TRP. Special care is needed in instances of
communal violence and sectarian conflicts to ensure that biased and prejudicial
reporting is not done.
The Supreme Court’s observation should act as an early warning to the media, which
has been blinded by the need for greater audience and TRP. Self-regulation is the best
form of regulation, especially in case of media. Hence media should try to stick to
above principles so that its freedom remains ensured.
2. “While social networking sites have created a seamless and interconnected platform
for communication, they have also created many challenges for our internal security”.
Comment.
Approach:
Justify the statement in the question in brief, citing how social media has broken down
barriers of communication in modern era. Thereafter, one should highlight some of the
challenges posed by misuse of social media to internal security. End the answer with a
brief description of challenges and steps that should be taken by the government with
regards to this problem.
The biggest positive of the social networking sites is that anybody can freely access
them and use them for self-expression. Social networking site have reduced the
communication barriers among the people. Many organisations are known to use social
media strategies to reach out to customers and peers quite successfully. Even the
governments have been using social media for broadcasting information about
schemes and programmes to a great effect.

Student Notes:
While at the same time the biggest danger lies in the possibilities of misuse of these
sites from within or across the borders by anyone, either individually or through
organized means. These sites are a store house of personal information and mass
dispersion of information both; hence, there misuse can pose major security threats.
Social security sites posed major internal security threats in past
1. Misuse of social media sites to ignite communal passions: Intelligence bureau

Chief Asif Ibrahim in 2013 pointed out that misuse of social media to fan communal
tensions was the biggest threat to internal security, giving the example of a video
that was circulated to incite communal violence in Muzzaffarnagar. Hand of Indian
Mujjahidden was suspected in the same.
2. It can cause mass panic, confusion and spontaneous reactions through
misinformation: The unprecedented cyber terrorism unleashed against people
from North-East triggered big exodus within the country, with the north-eastern
people fleeing major areas in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra. All the sites
were found hosting inflammatory and hateful content against people from north
east inciting violence against them.
Why have these sites been able to pose a threat to internal security? The Problems:
• Proxy servers and virtual private network services which conceal the user identity
operating from a number of countries appear to have been used for inciting
passions and spreading misinformation.
• Google, you-tube, Twitter and Blogspot.com, do not show willingness to share the
IP addresses of the users and their information directly who indulge in cyber
terrorism. They request the governments to approach them through US
government as they function under US IT laws, although India has a mutual legal
assistance treaty with them.
• Google was more cooperative and any content which could incite violence was
already blocked on it, but other sites like twitter refused to remove a major chunk
of the inflammatory content, siting that inflammatory content was outside the
jurisdiction of the country.
The government finds itself in a new information battlefield with no contingency plan,
for the moment. Impulsive reaction was an immediate crackdown but, India has
become second highest user of facebook., this is an audience that the government
should reach out to, along with keeping a track that no population become victims of
cyber-attacks.
3. While social media is being increasingly used to instigate communal riots and create
social tensions, any effective strategy to check its misuse must balance security
concerns and individual rights. Discuss in the context of recent developments in India.
Approach:
• Introduce answer with commentary on use of social media for creating tension in
society.
• Discuss the restriction imposed by government.
• Comment on the Supreme Court judgment on Section 66A of IT Act.
• Suggest measure to balance the individual right and public order.

Student Notes:
Answer:
In recent years, the social media has been increasingly used (in India) to instigate
communal and social tensions. Law enforcement agencies have witnessed a worrying
trend in last few years where social media posts and circulation of doctored audio-
visual material over social networking site led to communal incidence.
• Riots in Muzaffarnagar, exodus of people from North-East from southern states are
some of the events that highlight the threat from social networking sites.
Circulation of inflammatory audio-visual material was the prime factor in these
incidences.
• In response there is tendency among law enforcement agencies to impose
additional restrictions on what is said and propagated on the social media. Any
strategy to check the misuse of potential threats from the social networking site
may lead to curtailment of fundamental rights guaranteed in constitution. Indian
government amended the Information Technology Act (IT Act 2000) in 2009 to
include section 66A aimed at checking misuse.
• However, its blatant misuse led to denying rights essential for healthy democracy.
The Supreme Court of India recently passed a judgment declaring the section as
unconstitutional. The case highlights the importance of a proper balance between
civil liberties, individual human rights, and the responsibility of the state to
maintain peace and order.
• It is not a simple case of misuse of law. In fact, the law suffers from the vice of non-
application of mind. A bare reading of the section reveals how vaguely worded it is.
It prescribes a maximum punishment of a prison term of 3 years with fine for
sending information that is "grossly offensive" or has "menacing character" and for
sending e mails causing "annoyance or "inconvenience" to the recipient.
• However, information technology has been recurrently exploited to harass or create
public disorder cannot be denied. Section 66A has proved to be a useful remedy,
particularly in situations of sensitive nature concerning religious and communal
sentiment; for instance the episode of the exodus of north-east students from
Bangalore where the Police Authorities were forced to take recourse to section to
avoid spreading of rumours to incite violence against persons of the North Eastern
community.
• Such instances where religious and communal harmony have been disrupted by
publishing/transmitting inflammatory content in the form of texts, mails, posts, etc.
have to undoubtedly be deemed as “grossly offensive”.
• A multi-racial, multi-cultural country like India, where free speech is susceptible to
misuse on sensitive grounds of communal, political and religious bias, needs
reasonable restrictions to check misuse. Best way to address the concerns is to
come with amendments to the scraped section so that it reduces the discretion in
the hands of frontline officers.
We need non-legal initiatives by the government, the media, schools, not-for-profit

organizations, religious and caste associations and a slew of other groups to further
empower users to deploy such strategies to fight abuse and hate speech over the
internet.

Student Notes:

1. What are social networking sites and what security implications do these sites present?
(2013)
2. “The diverse nature of India as a multi-religious and multi-ethnic society is not immune to
the impact of radicalism which is seen in her neighbourhood? Discuss along with strategies
to be adopted to counter this environment. (2014)
3. Religious indoctrination via social media has resulted in Indian youth joining the ISIS. What
is ISIS and its mission? How can ISIS be dangerous to the internal security of our country?
(2015)
4. Use of internet and social media by non-state actors for subversive activities is a major
security concern. How have these been misused in the recent past? Suggest effective
guidelines to curb the above threat. (2016)
5. Mob violence is emerging as a serious law and order problem in India. By giving suitable
examples, analyze the causes and consequences of such violence. (2017)


VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

TECHNOLOGY MISSIONS


Student Notes:
1. Introduction
Technology Missions are mission-mode projects aiming towards rejuvenating agriculture sector
& its sub-sectors via technological enhancements. Techniques adopted for such purposes are
generally scientific and mechanized, and support is provided by the Government to procure
such advancements by ways of subsidy, promotion, credit-linked subsidy, soft loans, etc.
2. Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH)

• The mission was approved in 2013
• It was targeted to achieve a growth rate of 7.2% in the horticulture in Twelfth Plan.
• MIDH is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme for the holistic growth of the horticulture sector
covering fruits, vegetables, root & tuber crops, mushrooms, spices, flowers, aromatic
plants, coconut, cashew, cocoa and bamboo.
• While Government of India (GOI) contributes 85% of total outlay for developmental
programmes in all the states except the states in North East and Himalayas, 15% share is
contributed by state governments. In the case of North Eastern States and Himalayan
States, GoI contribution is 100%.
• Similarly, for development of bamboo and programmes of National Horticulture Board
(NHB), Coconut Development Board (CDB), Central Institute for Horticulture (CIH), Nagaland
and the National Level Agencies (NLA), GoI contribution is 100%.
The strategy of the MIDH will be on production of quality seeds and planting material,
production enhancement through productivity improvement measures along with support for
creation of infrastructure to reduce post harvest losses and improved marketing of produce
with active participation of all stake holders, particularly farmer groups and farmer producer
organisations. The interventions under MIDH will have a blend of technological adaptation
supported with fiscal incentives for attracting farmers as well as entrepreneurs involved in the
horticulture sector. It has subsumed 6 ongoing schemes:
1. National Horticulture Mission (NHM): applied in all states and UTs except NE and
Himalayan Region. It targets small and marginal farmer.
2. Horticulture Mission in NE and Himalayan Region (HMNEH): Targets small and marginal
farmers of NE and other Himalayan states.
3. National Bamboo Mission: applied in all states and UTs to address developmental issues of
Bamboo. It mainly emphasized on propagation and cultivation of bamboo, with limited
efforts on processing, product development and value addition. There was weak linkage
between the producers (farmers) and the industry.
• Restructured National Bamboo Mission: The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs
(chaired by the Prime Minister) approved Centrally Sponsored Scheme of National
Bamboo Mission (NBM) under National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) for
remaining period of Fourteenth Finance Commission (2018-19 & 2019-20).
• An outlay of Rs. 1290 crore (with Rs. 950 crore as Central share) is provisioned for
implementation of the Mission.
The restructured NBM strives:
• To increase the area under bamboo plantation in non-forest Government and private lands
to supplement farm income and contribute towards resilience to climate change.
• To improve post-harvest management through establishment of innovative primary
processing units, treatment and seasoning plants, primary treatment and seasoning plants,
preservation technologies and market infrastructure.
• To promote product development at micro, small and medium levels and feed bigger
industry.

Student Notes:
• To rejuvenate the under developed bamboo industry in India.

• To promote skill development, capacity building, awareness generation for development of
bamboo sector.
4. National Horticulture Board (NHB) schemes: will address developmental issues on
commercial horticulture through entrepreneurs involving institutional financing. Applied in all
States and UTs
5. Coconut Development Board (CDB) schemes: applied in States and UTs producing Coconut
6. Central Institute of Horticulture (CIH), Nagaland schemes: in NE states, focusing on HRD and
capacity building
MIDH works closely with National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) and also
provides technical advice and administrative support to the Saffron Mission, and other
horticulture related activities like Vegetable Initiative for Urban Clusters (VIUC) funded by
RKVY/NMSA. It encourages aggregation of farmers into farmer groups like FIGs/FPOs (Farmer
Interest Groups/Farmer Producer Organisations) and FPCs (Farmer Producer Companies) to
bring economy of scale and scope. The overall objective of the scheme is to strengthen
nutritional security through enhanced horticulture production and augmenting farmers’
income.
3. National Mission on Agriculture Extension and Technology (NMAET)
The mission was approved in 2014 to be implemented during Twelfth Plan Period. It includes
four Sub Missions:
1. Sub Mission on Agriculture Extension (SMAE):
• It focuses on Awareness Creation and enhanced use of appropriate technologies in
agriculture & allied sectors.
• Personnel are trained under ACABC (Agri-clinic and Agri-Business Centres schemes) and
DAESI (Diploma in Agriculture Extension Services for input dealers).
• Convergence in the schemes is brought by ATMA (Agriculture technology management
agency) and BTTs (Block Technology teams).
2. Sub Mission on Seed and Planting Material (SMSP):
• development of quality seeds
• protection of rights of farmers and plant breeders and
• to encourage development of new varieties of plants.
3. Sub Mission on Agricultural Mechanisation (SMAM): it will mainly cater the needs of small
and marginal farmers through institutional arrangements such as Custom hiring,
mechanisation of selected villages, subsidy for procurement of machines and equipments,
etc.
4. Sub Mission on Plant Protection and Plant Quarantine (SMPP): keeping the crops disease
free using scientific and environment friendly techniques through promotion of Integrated
Pest management.
Farmers’ skill trainings and field extension as contained in all 4 sub missions will be converged
with similar farmer related activities going on through ATMA (Agriculture technology
management agency).
4. National Mission on Oilseeds and Oil Palm (NMOOP)

The mission was approved in 2014 and has been revised in 2017. Contribution of Centre and
State is 75:25. The strategy involves
• increasing seed replacement ratio

Student Notes:
• irrigation coverage and

• use of wastelands and watersheds.
The mission includes three mini missions:
• Mini Mission I: to increase production and productivity of oilseeds
• Mini Mission II: bringing an additional area of 1.25 Lakh hectare under Oil Palm cultivation
by the end of 2016-17 and production of Fresh fruit bunches.
• Mini Mission III: aims at enhancing seed collection of Tree Born Oil
Earlier, only 25 hectare area was provided assistance, but in April, 2017 the restriction has
been relaxed to attract corporate bodies towards oil palm and derive maximum benefits of
100% FDI.
5. National Saffron Mission
The mission was approved in 2010 to bring economic revival of saffron in Jammu and Kashmir.
• Its objective is:
o to increase overall production of saffron
o enhancing quality of saffron
o research and extension capability enhancement and
o to develop appropriate system for organised marketing.
• The scheme also extends support for creation of irrigation facilities through tube wells and
sprinklers.
• A Quality control lab and a Saffron Park is established at Pampore, Pulwama under this
mission with involvement of NHB.
• Saffron Mission comes under the umbrella of Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) now.
6. Technology Mission on Citrus

The mission was announced in 2006 for Vidarbha region.
• It was later extended to Marathwada and Chhindwara as well.
• The objective of the mission is:
o Production of disease free planting material of citrus
o Human Resource Development through training of horticulture officers on campus and
training of citrus growers at their villages
o Demonstration of NRCC (National Research Centre for Citrus, Nagpur) technologies on
citrus grower’s orchard for quality fruit production through scientific method of
management
o Rejuvenation of declining citrus orchards
7. Technology Mission on Coconut

This mission was launched in 2001. It has 4 major components i.e.
• Development and adoption of technologies for management of pests and diseases affecting
coconut gardens.
• Development and adoption of technologies for processing and product diversification
• Market research and Promotion.
• Technical support, external evaluation and Emergent requirements.
Financial assistance is provided in development, demonstration and adoption of technologies,
as well as for market research and promotion upto 100% depending upon the cost of project
and beneficiary.

Student Notes:
8. Technology Mission on Oilseeds, Pulses and Maize (TMOP)

• The technology mission on oilseeds was launched in 1986, and later pulses and maize were
added to it.
• The schemes included under TMOP are
o Oilseeds Production Program (OPP)
o National Pulses Development Program (NPDP)
o Accelerated Maize Development Program (AMDP)
o Post Harvest Technology (PHT)
o Oilpalm Development Program (OPDP)
o National Oilseeds and Vegetable Oils Development Board (NOVOD).
• In 2004, during 10th Plan period, OPP, OPDP, AMDP and NPDP were merged into Centrally
Sponsored Integrated Schemes of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil Palm and Maize (ISOPOM)
• The special feature of this program is that flexibility has been provided to states in terms of
fund utilisation and plan formulation, keeping regional diversity in mind.
o States can introduce innovative measures as well to the extent of 10% of financial
allocation
o Private sector has also been involved
o Fund diversion of up to 20% has been allowed from seed to non-seed component.
9. Jute Technology Mission

• This mission was launched in Eleventh Plan period (2006-07 to 2011-12, later extended to
2012-13) as a major initiative for overall development of Jute industry.
• The mission involves 4 mini missions.
o Mini Mission I to improve yield and quality by agricultural research and development in
Jute sector. It is under Ministry of Agriculture.
o Mini Mission II to transfer improved technology and practices in production and post
harvesting phase. It is under Ministry of Agriculture.
o Mini Mission III for providing market linkage of raw jute in all jute growing states. It is
under Ministry of Textiles.
o Mini Missions IV to modernise jute industry, up gradation of skills and market
promotion. It is under Ministry of Textiles.
Minimum Support price of raw jute is fixed every year, and Jute Corporation of India is the
nodal agency which procures jute. West Bengal, Bihar and Assam are the three major jute
producing states in India.
10. Technology Mission on Cotton (TMC)

The mission was launched in 2000 with the objectives of improving the yield and quality of
cotton through development of better cotton varieties and improved seeds, integrated water,
nutrient and pest management technologies
• to increase the income of cotton growers by reducing cost of cultivation and increasing
yield per hectare through transfer of technology, and
• to improve the quality of processing cotton by improving infrastructure and by modernising
the factories and setting up new units.
TMC had four mini missions under it.
• Mini Mission I deals with cotton research and technology development
• Mini Mission II deals with transfer of technology and development. This mission has been
subsumed under National Food Security Mission-Commercial Crops (NFSM-CC) from
2014-15 in major cotton growing states.

Student Notes:
• Mini Mission III and IV deal with development of market infrastructure and
modernisation/setting up of new ginning and pressing factories respectively.
• Mini missions III and IV stand terminated from December 2010.
11. Sugar Technology Mission

• This mission was launched in 1994 with an objective to improve and upgrade the
technology for Indian sugar Industry. It is a joint initiative of Directorate of Sugar & Edible
Oils (Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution) and Department of Science &
Technology.
• The purpose is to use latest environment friendly, cost effective technologies for achieving
efficient sugar production through improvement in plant efficiencies, energy saving and
reduced inputs.
• The mission has provided financial support to a number of new technologies and has
successfully commercialised and replicated them to yield benefits in sugar recovery,
improvement in quality etc. such as Ethanol from secondary juices, low pressure extraction,
planetary gear box etc.
12. National Mission on Bio Diesel
• This mission was approved in 2009 with Department of Land Resource, Ministry of Rural
Development as nodal agency.
• The mission was to be implemented in 2 phases i.e. Phase I as Demonstration Project and
Phase II as Self Sustaining Expansion of Bio diesel program.
o The Demonstration Phase (2006-07) has been taken under Mission Mode as a Centrally
Sponsored Scheme, implemented by State Governments. 3lakh hectare plantations of
bio diesel producing non edible oilseeds species (Jatropha or Ratanjot and Pongamia or
Karanji) on degraded forest land and waste land was to be assessed by TERI and then
only the mission was to be finally approved.
• The ultimate aim of the mission was supplementation of petroleum by bio diesel fuel to the
extent of 20% by the end of phase II program (2011-12).
• The target was not achieved due to lack of sufficient Jatropha seeds to produce bio diesel.
• The target of 20% bio fuel blending has been set to be achieved by 2017 which is yet to be
achieved.
13. National Mission on Food Processing
• This mission was launched in 2012 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme to cater different
aspects of this industry viz. modernisation of food processing industries, establishing of
mega food parks, integrated cold chains and preservation and modernisation of abattoirs.
• Flexibility was allowed to State/UTs in implementing the scheme based on local needs.
• This scheme was delinked from Central Government support in 2015 after 14th Finance
Commission devolved more funds to States.
• In 2017 Central Government has come up with a new Central Sector Scheme Kisan
Sampada Yojana for the period 2016-20 with Mega food Parks, integrated cold chain, agro-
processing clusters etc as components.
14. National Food Security Mission

The mission was launched in 2007 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (Ministry of Agriculture &
Farmers Welfare) with a target to improve Rice production by 10 million tonnes, Wheat by 8 MT
and Pulses by 2 MT.

Student Notes:
• During Twelfth Five year plan the mission was continued with a new target of additional
production of 25 million tonnes of food grains comprising 10 MT Rice, 8 MT wheat, 4 MT
pulses, and 3 MT of coarse cereals.
• NFSM during this period had 5 components i.e.
o NFSM-Rice
o NFSM-Wheat
o NFSM-Pulses
o NFSM-Coarse Cereals
o NFSM-Commercial crops (Sugarcane, Jute, Cotton)
• In NFSM during 2016-17, new initiatives to enhance production and productivity has been
adopted such as free of cost distribution of seed mini kits of newer varieties of pulses,
creation of seed hubs, bio fertilisers and bio agent labs, technological demonstration by
KVKs etc.
• The commercial crops component focuses on Cropping System Approach for transfer of
technology in approved states.
• Training of farmers (4 sessions- before and during each seasons i.e. Kharif and Rabi) is also
provided.
15. National Mission on Medicinal Plants

• The mission is implemented by National Medicinal Plant Board (Ministry of AYUSH) from
2008-09 and was later continued in Twelfth Five year Plan.
• This Centrally Sponsored Scheme is primarily aimed at supporting cultivation of medicinal
plants on Private land with backward linkages, for establishment of nurseries for supply of
quality planting material etc. and forward linkages for postharvest management, marketing
infrastructure, certification, etc.
• From Year 2015-16, the National Mission on Medicinal Plants has been merged with
National AYUSH Mission as a component viz. “Medicinal Plants” and is continuing with the
same activities.
16. National Mission on Micro-Irrigation

• It was a Centrally sponsored scheme in which 40% cost of the MI system was borne by
Central Government, 10% by State Government and remaining by the beneficiary herself.
• An additional 10% cost was borne by Central Government in respect of small and marginal
farmers.
• Also, the assistance was limited to a maximum area of 5 hectare per beneficiary.
• This scheme was subsumed under National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) and
implemented as “On Farm Water Management” during 2014-15.
• The same is now implemented as “Per Drop More Crop” component under PMKSY from
2015-16 onwards.
17. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)

• This is one of the eight mission under NAPCC (National Action Plan for Climate Change).
• NMSA as a programmatic intervention is operational from 2014-15. It aims at making
agriculture more productive, sustainable, and remunerative and climate resilient by
o promoting location specific integrated farming system
o soil and moisture conservation measures
o comprehensive soil health management
o efficient water management practices and
o mainstreaming rainfed technologies.
• Rain-fed Area Development and Soil Health Management are its two components.

Student Notes:
18. Green Revolution – Krishonnati Yojana

It is an umbrella agricultural programme encompassing 11 schemes under it. It was launched
during 12th Five Year Plan.
Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs recently approved the continuation of this Umbrella
Scheme from 2017-18 to 2019-20.
It aims to bring together 11 agricultural schemes besides their effective monitoring.
The schemes are:
• Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH)
• National Food Security Mission (NFSM)
• National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
• Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanisation (SMAM)
• Integrated Scheme on Agricultural Marketing (ISAM).
• Submission on Agriculture Extension (SMAE)
• Sub Mission on Seeds and Planting Material (SMSP)
• Sub Mission on Plant Protection and Plant Quarantine (SMPPQ)
• Integrated Scheme on Agriculture Census, Economics and Statistics (ISACES)
• Integrated Scheme on Agricultural Cooperation (ISAC)
• National e-Governance Plan – Agriculture (NeGP-A).
These schemes look to develop the agriculture and allied sector in a holistic and scientific
manner to increase the income of farmers by enhancing production, productivity and better
returns on produce.
These schemes are aimed at creating and strengthening of infrastructure for production,
reducing production cost and marketing of agriculture and allied products.
19. Previous Year Vision IAS GS Mains Test Series Questions

1. Enumerate some of the technology missions launched by Government of India and
assess their impact on Indian Agriculture. What are the aims and objectives of
National Mission on Agricultural Extension and Technology (NMAET)?2014-426
Answer:
As India is agriculture based economy with huge diversity in agro-climatic zones, the
major objective behind launching various technology missions is to reduce the yield gap
in laboratory and on field. So through these missions farmers are demonstrated new
input methods along with credit incentives to encourage them to adopt new crops and
technologies.
Some of the major missions are as follows:
1. The National Food Security Mission (2007) aims to bridge the yield gap in respect
of paddy, wheat, pulses, millet and fodder. The Mission is being continued during
12th Five Year Plan with new targets of additional production of food grains of 25
million tons of food grains comprising of 10 million tons rice, 8 million tons of
wheat, 4 million tons of pulses and 3 million tons of coarse cereals. The ongoing
Integrated Development of Pulses Villages, Promotion of Nutri-cereals and
Accelerated Fodder Development Programme were also merged in this Mission.
2. National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (2013) including Micro Irrigation is
being taken up as a part of the National Action Plan on climate change. The Rainfed
Area Development Programme is merged in this Mission. Mission seeks to

Student Notes:
transform Indian agriculture into a climate resilient production system through

suitable adaptation and mitigation measures in domains of both crops and animal
husbandry.
3. The National Mission on Oilseeds and Oil Palm (2013) was aimed at increasing
production and productivity of oilseeds and oil palm. This would help in enhancing
production of oilseeds by 6.58 million tonnes.
4. The National Horticulture Mission (2005-06) is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme
(Centre – 85% & State- 15%) with a view to promote holistic growth of the
horticulture sector through an area based regionally differentiated strategies, which
include research, technology promotion, extension, post-harvest management,
processing and marketing, in consonance with comparative advantage of each
State/region and its diverse agro-climatic feature. In addition, mission is expected
to promote horticulture diversification including an initiative on saffron.
5. The food processing sector has been growing at an average rate of over 8 per cent
over the past 5 years. In order to have a better outreach and to provide more
flexibility to suit local needs, a new centrally sponsored scheme “National Mission
on Food Processing” was launched in cooperation with the State Governments in
2012-13.
Aims and Objectives of NMAET
The mission – approved in April, 2014 – under Agricultural Technology Management
Agency (ATMA) aims,
• To restructure & strengthen agricultural extension to enable delivery of appropriate
technology and improved agronomic practices to the farmers through interactive
methods of information dissemination, use of ICT, capacity building & institution
strengthening;
• To improve reach of farm mechanization to small and marginal farmers by various
means including promotion of custom hiring centers;
• To make available quality seeds and increase Seed Replacement Ratio and
• To promote Integrated Pest Management and plant protection measures.
Uniquely, Public-Private-Partnership is encouraged in the Extension and Training
components of the Mission.
The main objective of the mission is to focus on adoption of appropriate technologies
by farmers for improving productivity and efficiency in farm operations.
2. Explain the role of agricultural extension in boosting agricultural productivity. Also,

discuss in brief the importance of National Mission on Agricultural Extension &
Technology.
Approach:
• Introduce by defining Agriculture extension.
• In brief explain its different types.
• Discuss Agriculture Extension can boost agricultural productivity.
• Highlight the importance of National Mission on Agricultural Extension &
Technology.

Student Notes:
Answer:
Agricultural extension can be defined as the “delivery of information inputs to farmers
to increase agricultural productivity”. It is the application of scientific research and
knowledge to agricultural practices through farmer education.
Agriculture Extension services are of 3 types:
Technology transfer – the traditional model of the transfer of advice, knowledge and
information.
Advisory – the use by farmers of experts as a source of advice in relation to specific
problems faced by them.
Facilitation – the aim is to help farmers to define their own problems and develop their
own solutions.
Thus, different types of extension services help increase the agricultural productivity:
• By replacing traditional farming mechanisms by modern and advantageous systems
• By enabling pooling of resources to achieve economy of scale
• Changing attitude of farmers towards new and productive farming approaches
• Efficient utilisation of resources such as water, soil, pesticides, weedicides etc.
Even the UN High-Level Panel of Experts (HLPE) on food security and nutrition argues
that the extension systems need full attention and investments from governments and
the donor community.
Keeping in mind the benefits of agricultural extension services, the government
launched National Mission on Agricultural Extension & Technology. To ensure easy
availability of seeds, pesticide and machinery at reasonable prices, there are subject
specific three Sub-Missions as well.
This mission also focuses on:
• Sustainable farm agriculture especially in rainfed areas, through integrated farming
systems approach which incorporates natural resource management, minimizing
external cost and maximizing return through value addition in crops, horticulture,
livestock, fisheries etc.
• Capacity building of farmers, extension functionaries, institutions and other
stakeholders is provided through knowledge centres.
• Partnering with knowledge generators public - private, formal and informal to
collect and disseminate the knowledge through all channels.
• Development of difficult areas and disadvantage group of farmers need high
priority as low yield in these areas results in low macro yield.
• The power of ICT has been fully leveraged for linking the mission from national to
field level through farmers portal, Kisan call centres etc.
• Employment generation for youths on and off farm services through various
interventions and programs. “Jai Kisan”- mobilization for farmers’ empowerment.
• Agrarian distress and conflicts, farmers’ agitations, indebtedness and other
concerns also looked through action research project and linkages with other
institutions.

Student Notes:
3. Discuss the potential of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to improve

the livelihood of farmers in India. What are the initiatives taken by the government
under 'National e-Governance Plan in Agriculture (NeGP-A)' in this regard?
Approach:
• The introduction should include link between ICT and agriculture or farmers.
• Then potential role should be enumerated in ICT in various areas associated with
agriculture which in turn would improve livelihood of farmers.
• Finally, initiatives under NEGP-A should be enumerated.
Answer:
Agriculture is an information intensive sector where farmers should be well versed in
the latest farming technologies and business techniques. ICT plays an important role in
addressing the challenges faced in management of natural resources & production of
commodities.
The potential role of ICT in agriculture
• Information dissemination throughout crop-cycle - through technologies (like
Satellite Communication, Geographic Information System (GIS), computer network,
video and mobile phones) regarding weather conditions, input requirements like
soil health, fertilizers etc. Example – DD kisan.
• Increasing productivity – by precision farming, popular in developed countries,
which extensively uses IT to make direct contribution to agricultural productivity.
• Agriculture marketing - Awareness of up-to date information on prices for
commodities, inputs and consumer trends help improve farmer’s livelihood. For
example National agriculture market is possible only due to ICT
• Collectivization of producers – to facilitate appropriate alliances and overcoming
the barrier of small landholdings and achieving economies of scale. Example –
farmer producer organizations.
• New employment opportunities - in rural sector- eg:- information kiosks .This will
reduce the disguised unemployment.
• Effective monitoring and analysis – of agricultural performance through ICT to
reduce losses at various levels of supply chain
• Countering adverse effect of globalization – by reducing the information
asymmetry among farmers of different countries
• Increasing effectiveness of government service delivery – in quick estimation and
timely compensation to farmers in wake of disaster. It ensures sowing area is not
reduced in the next season.
• Insurance: PMKSY aims to assess the damage to crops for insurance purposes
through satellite and Drone imagery. This will improve accuracy and compensation.
Started during 11th FYP, NeGP-A aims to achieve rapid development of agriculture in
India through ICT enabled multiple delivery channels such as Internet, Government
Offices, Touch Screen Kiosks, Krishi Vigyan Kendras , Kisan Call Centres, Agri-Clinics,
Common Service Centers, Mobile Phones (Broadcast, IVRS, interactive messaging using
unstructured Supplementary Service Data and Voice Recognition for ensuring timely
access to agriculture related information for the farmers of the country.
Considering the potential of ICT in this sector government has taken many initiatives
under NeGP-A. Some of which are as follows:-

Student Notes:
• Agricultural services like Pesticide registration, Display on the Web of Seed Testing
Results, Prices and arrival details, District level Agro-met advisories, Information on
fertilizers/seeds/pesticides etc.
• Mobile applications for increasing awareness by providing information – Example:
Kisan Suvidha, Pusha Krishi, India weather etc.
• Development of web portals - Farmers’ Portal where a farmer can get
information on a range of topics, mKisan Portal where officials and scientists can
send targeted advisories to farmers, Crop Insurance Portal for complete
information related to Crop Insurance scheme
• e-Mandi: has been launched to make procurement of agricultural products
smoother and provide competitive remuneration, especially for small and marginal
farmers.
• Modernisation of land records - Many States have computerized their land records
and are providing computerized copies of Records of Rights on demand. These
states have also placed their land records data in public domain
Thus, ICT can play a major role in facilitating the process of transformation of rural India
provided the existing bottlenecks are addressed soon.
4. Write short note on National Horticulture Mission.
National Horticulture Mission is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme to promote holistic

growth of the horticulture sector through an area based regionally differentiated
strategy. Presently, India is the 2nd largest producer of fruits & vegetables in the world.
It aims to further enhance horticulture production, improve nutritional security and
income support to farm households. Its objectives also includes promotion,
development and dissemination of technologies, through a seamless blend of
traditional wisdom and modern scientific knowledge and to create opportunities for
employment generation for skilled and unskilled persons, especially unemployed youth.


VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

PAPER III: SECURITY
SECURITY CHALLENGES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT IN

BORDER AREAS


Student Notes:
SECURITY CHALLENGES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

IN BORDER AREAS
Contents
1. Introduction ...........................................................................................................................3
1.1. What is Border Management...........................................................................................3
2. Indo-China Border ..................................................................................................................4
2.1. Challenges Along the China Border ..................................................................................4
2.2. Initiatives Taken for Effective Border Management ..........................................................5
2.3. Way Forward ...................................................................................................................6
3. Indo-Pakistan .........................................................................................................................6
3.1. Challenges Along the Border............................................................................................6
3.2. Initiatives Taken by Government......................................................................................9
4. Indo-Nepal ...........................................................................................................................10
4.1. Challenges Along the Border..........................................................................................10
4.2. Initiatives Taken for Effective Border Management ........................................................10
4.3. Way Forward .................................................................................................................10
5. Indo-Bhutan .........................................................................................................................10
5.1. Challenges Along the Border..........................................................................................11
5.1.1. Border Dispute........................................................................................................11
5.1.2. Other Issues............................................................................................................11
5.2. Initiatives Taken.............................................................................................................11
6. Indo-Bangladesh ..................................................................................................................11
6.1. Initiatives Taken .............................................................................................................12
7. Indo-Myanmar .....................................................................................................................13
7.1. Challenges at Indo-Myanmar border .............................................................................13
7.1.1. Recent Dispute: Border Fencing between BP No.79 and 81 in Moreh ......................14

Student Notes:
1. Introduction
India has 15,106.7 km of land border and a coastline of 7,516.6 km including island territories.
Securing the country’s borders against interests hostile to the country and putting in place
systems that are able to interdict such elements while facilitating legitimate trade and
commerce are among the principal objectives of border management. The proper management
of borders, which is vitally important for national security, presents many challenges and
includes coordination and concerted action by administrative, diplomatic, security, intelligence,
legal, regulatory and economic agencies of the country to secure the frontiers and subserve its
best interests.
1.1. What is Border Management

While Border Security Approach deals only with defending the borders, the Border
management is a broader term which involves not only defending the borders but also the
protections of interests of the country on aligning borders.
The Department of Border Management in the Ministry of Home Affairs focuses on
management of the international land & coastal borders, strengthening of border policing &
guarding, creation of infrastructure such as roads, fencing & flood lighting of the borders and
implementation of the Border Area Development Programme (BADP).
Some problems currently afflicting the management of our borders including maritime
boundaries are:
• Hostile elements have access to latest technology, unprecedented use of money power,
organisational strength, maneuverability, wide choice available for selecting theatre of
action for surprise strikes and strategic alliances with other like-minded groups.
• No proper demarcation of maritime and land borders at many places leading to conflicts.
• Artificial boundaries having difficult terrains like deserts, swampy marshes etc. which are
not based on natural features thus making them extremely porous and easy to infiltrate.
• Multiplicity of forces on the same borders leading to problems of coordination, command
and control.
• Border Guarding Forces like Border Security Force etc. lack infrastructure. They need to be
appropriately strengthened both in terms of equipment and manpower.
• Problems faced by local people due to tough measures taken during anti-terrorism and
anti-insurgency operations generate discontent which should be addressed prudently
otherwise hostile elements try to leverage this discontent to their benefit.
• Cross-border terrorism targeted to destabilise India
• Illegal migration in eastern region causing socio-economic stress as well as demographic
changes
• Sporadic aggression on China border
• Cross border safe houses for insurgent in north eastern neighbours
• Smuggling of arms and explosives, narcotics and counterfeit currency
• Enhanced instances of smuggling, piracy, breach of coastal security
In light of above stated problems, there is need of utmost vigilance on the borders and
strengthening the border guarding forces. However, it should also be taken care that the
security of borders does not impede cross-border interactions and is beneficial to mutual
economic and cultural relationship. A detailed discussion on border management with

Student Notes:
2. Indo-China Border
India and China share a 3,488 km long boundary that runs along the states of Jammu &
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. Unfortunately, the
entire boundary, called the McMahon line, is disputed. The Indo-Tibetan Border Police Force
(ITBP) guards Indo-China border. India and China had never shared a common boundary till
China “liberated” or occupied Tibet in 1950. It was then that the hitherto India Tibet boundary
was transformed into India-China boundary. Since 1954, China started claiming large tracts of
territory along the entire border such as Aksai Chin in Jammu and Kashmir, some areas in
Uttrakhand and the entire Arunachal Pradesh.
2.1. Challenges Along the China Border

• Smuggling : Large scale smuggling of Chinese electronic and other consumer goods take
place through these border points.
• Inadequate infrastructure: The area is characterized by high altitude terrain and thick
habitation. While China has built massive rail road linkage on its side, Indian side of border
almost has no Infrastructure.
• Border Disputes:
➢ Western Sector - Aksai Chin
In 1865, Johnson line which put Aksai Chin in Jammu and Kashmir but China at that
time did not control Xinjiang so it was not presented to them. By 1890, China
reestablished control over
Xinjiang and claimed Aksai
Chin. Then, Macartney-
Macdonald line was agreed
to by the British government
on the proposal by Chinese.
However, Chinese
government did not respond
to the note to this effect in
1899and the British took
that as Chinese
acquiescence.
After 1947, India used the
Johnson Line as the basis for
its official boundary but in
1950s China built a road falling south of this line in the Aksai Chin region. Intermittent
clashes along the border culminated into Indo-China war in 1962 which resulted into
existing line which is known as Line of Actual Control (LAC). The region also witnessed
stand-off between India and China in Daulat Beg Oldie sector in 2013.
➢ Eastern Sector - Arunachal Pradesh
In Shimla Accord (1913-14), boundary between Tibet and British India was defined by
negotiations between British India, China and Tibet. This boundary named as
MacMohan Line is disputed by China. However, interestingly, China accepts MacMohan
line as its boundary with Myanmar provided by the same agreement.
• Indian side of border is being guarded by different agencies which include ITBP, Special
Frontier Forces, Assam Rifles, Indian Army and proposed Sikkim Scouts leading to lack of
coordination among these agencies. On the other hand, on the Tibetan side, the entire LAC
is managed by Border Guards divisions of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) under
a single PLA commander of the Tibet Autonomous Region.

Student Notes:
• China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC): China’s CPEC passes through parts of Jammu &
Kashmir illegally occupied by Pakistan. China can use CPEC to mobilize troops in case of
conflict and also will provide some cushion against choking of Strait of Malacca by India in
case of conflict.
Water disputes: China recently cut off the flow of a tributary of the Brahmaputra River, the
lifeline of Bangladesh and northern India, to build a dam as part of a major hydroelectric
project in Tibet. And the country is working to dam another Brahmaputra tributary, in order to
create a series of artificial lakes.
China has also built six mega-dams on the Mekong River, which flows into Southeast Asia,
where the downstream impact is already visible. Yet, instead of curbing its dam-building, China
is building several more Mekong dams.
2.2. Initiatives Taken for Effective Border Management

• Border talks:
o The rapprochement in 1976 after 1962 war between the two countries led to initiation
of High Level border talks in 1981 which broke down in 1987.
o In 1988, following PM Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China, the Joint Working Group (JWG) was
set up to look into border problem.
o In 1993, the Agreement on the Maintenance of Peace and Tranquility along the Line of
Actual Control (LAC) was signed and the
Confidence Building Measures
India-China Expert Group of Diplomatic and
• regular interaction between the
Military Officers was set up to assist the JWG.
Army Headquarters and Field
o In 1996, the Agreement on Confidence
Commands of the two sides
Building Measures (CBMs) in the Military • additional border personnel
Field along the LAC was signed. meeting points
o In 2003, two special representatives (one • more telecommunication linkages
each from India and China) were appointed between their forward posts at
to find a political solution to the border mutually agreed locations.
dispute.
o Till 2009, these two special representatives had held 17 rounds of talks, but it seems
they have not made much headway.
o Recently, NSA Ajit Doval was appointed as Special Envoy for talks.
Unfortunately, despite several rounds of talks, disagreement on actual border continues and
both the sides regularly send patrols to LAC as per their perception and leave markers in the
form of burjis (piles of stones), biscuit, cigarette packets etc. to lay stake to territory and assert
their claim. These patrols often lead to physical confrontation.
• Construction of roads along India-China border
To redress the situation arising out of poor road connectivity which has hampered the
operational capability of the border guarding forces deployed along the India-China
border, the Government had decided to undertake phase-wise construction of 27 roads
totalling 804 km in the border areas along States of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. Present status as on 30-04-2017 is
that 672.46 Kms of formation work and 409.53 Kms of surfacing work has been completed.
• Spy Cam Project - Putting up cameras with 20-25 km range at 50 locations in Himachal
Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim and Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh after 21-day face-
off with the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) of China at Depsang Valley in the Ladakh region
in 2013. But project failed since weather is not favourable there as high-velocity winds and
frost tend to blur the images.

Student Notes:
2.3. Way Forward

The settlement of the India-China border dispute appears most unlikely in the foreseeable
future. So, we should ensure following:
• Our troops should be battle ready which could well entail delivering massive artillery fire in
a minimal time-span should the security needs at the local level so require
• There should be a well-established logistics organisation that can effectively support the
existing deployments and any tactical operations that we may need to undertake in the
areas.
• The responsibility for the security and surveillance of the IB and the defence of the border
zones along the entire length of the India-China border needs to be transferred to the
Ministry of Defence which should be designated as the ‘nodal-agency’ and the
responsibilities in the field thence be assumed by the army.
• ITBP, a force specifically trained for border guarding duties on the India-China border,
should not be used by the home Ministry for internal security duties in the naxalite-infested
areas of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Orissa. This diversion leads to
disturbing the balance and coherence in our deployments
3. Indo-Pakistan
India shares 3323 km long boundary with Pakistan. Indo-Pakistan border is spread across
extreme climatic conditions as the boundary runs from the hot Thar Desert in Rajasthan to the
cold Himalayas in Jammu and Kashmir. Thus, the India-Pakistan boundary can be categorized
under three different heads
• First - It is 2308 km long and stretches from Gujarat to parts of Jammu district in Jammu
and Kashmir. It is known as the ‘Radcliff line’.
• Second – It is 776 km long, and runs along the districts of Jammu (some parts), Rajouri,
Poonch, Baramula, Kupwara, Kargil and some portions of Leh. It is the line of control (LoC),
or the Cease Fire Line, which came into existence after the 1948 and 1971 wars between
India and Pakistan.
Third – It is 110 km long and extends from NJ 9842 to Indira Col in the North (Siachin Glacier). It
is the actual ground position line (AGPL).
3.1. Challenges Along the Border

Border Disputes
➢ Sir Creek
Sir Creek is a 96 km tidal
estuary which opens up
into the Arabian Sea and
divides the Gujarat state of
India from the Sindh
province of Pakistan. The
Sir Creek got its name
from the British
representative who
negotiated the original
dispute between the local
rulers.

Student Notes:
Timeline of Sir Creek Dispute:

• 1908: Dispute arises between the Rao (ruler) of Kutch and the Sindh government over
the collection of firewood from the creek area.
• 1914: The government of Bombay Province took up the resolution and gave award.
Paragraph 9 of the 1914 resolution indicates that the boundary in Sir Creek is the green
band on the eastern bank of the Creek.
• However, paragraph 10 of the same resolution talks about the centre of the
navigable channel being the boundary, incidentally as per the internationally
accepted 'Rule of Thalweg'.
• 1925: The land boundary in the horizontal sector was demarcated by Sindh and Kutch
in 1924-25 through a placement of 67 pillars.
• 1968: India-Pakistan Tribunal on Kutch border gives its award which upholds 90% of
India’s claim but it does not cover Sir Creek. The tribunal award relates to the area to
the east of sir creek.
Significance of Sir Creek
• EEZ - Accepting Pakistan's premise on the "green line" would mean loss of about 250
square miles of EEZ for India.
• Energy resource - Much of the region is rich in oil and gas below the sea bed.Fisherman
misery: The Sir Creek area is also a great fishing destination for hundreds of fishermen
from both India and Pakistan.
• Drug syndicate / Smuggling: Over the year this region has become main route to
smuggle drugs, arms and petroleum product to India.
• Terror design: Terrorists are using disputed area to cross over Indian side. In 26/11
terror attack, terrorists captured an Indian fishing vessel, Kuber, off Sir Creek to enter
Mumbai.
Way Forward
It may be designated as a zone of disengagement or a jointly administered maritime park.
Alternatively, given the creek's ecological sensitivity, both countries could designate the
area a maritime sensitive zone.
➢ Siachen Dispute
Siachen is a triangular bit of
land between Pakistan
occupied Kashmir and the part
ceded by Pakistan to China.
Reason of Dispute:
Ambiguous wording that exists
in the Karanchi ceasefire
agreement of 1949 following
1947-48 war. The Agreement
did not delineate beyond grid
reference NJ 9842, which falls
south of the Siachen glacier and indicated that the border from NJ9842 runs “thence North
to the glaciers”.
Pakistan argues that this means that the line should go from NJ 9842 straight to the
Karakoram pass on the Sino-Indian border. India, however, insists that the line should
proceed north from NJ 9842 along the Saltoro range to the border with China.

Student Notes:
Operation Meghdoot
Significance of Siachen • In 1983, Pakistan tried to use its
Siachen sits at a very strategic location with troops to lay claim to Siachen.
Pakistan on the left and China on the right. So • To pre-empt Pakistan’s attempt ,
Pakistan re-interpreted the Ceasefire agreement to India launched Operation
claim the area beyond the Saltoro Ridge and Meghdoot and occupied the
hight points of the glacier.
beyond Siachen as its own. This would give
• India currently controls the
Pakistan direct connectivity to China as well as a
whole glacier and all three main
strategic oversight over the Ladakh region and on passes of the Saltoro Ridge
to the crucial Leh-Srinagar highway posing a namely- Sia La,Bilafond La and
serious threat to India. Gyond La.
River dispute
➢ Kishanganga Hydroelectric Plant
The Kishanganga Hydroelectric Plant is a run-of-the-river project designed to divert water
from the Kishanganga river to a power plant in the Jhelum River basin. In 2010, Pakistan
appealed to the Hague's Permanent Court of Arbitration (CoA) against the project under
the Indus Water Treaty.
The International Court of Arbitration in its "final award" in 2013 allowed India to complete
construction of the Kishanganga dam with condition that 9 m3/s of natural flow of water
must be maintained in Kishanganga river at all times to maintain the environment
downstream.
About Indus Water Treaty -1960

The Indus Waters Treaty is a water-distribution treaty between India and Pakistan, brokered by the World
Bank. The treaty was signed in Karachi on September 19, 1960 by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru
and President of Pakistan Ayub Khan. It provided for:
• control over the three "eastern" rivers-the Beas, Ravi and Sutlej-was given to India and the three
"western" rivers-the Indus, Chenab and Jhelum-to Pakistan
• exchange of data and co-operation in matters related to its provisions. For this, it establishes a
Permanent Indus Commission (PIC) with each country having one commissioner in it
Review of Indus Water Treaty
In the wake of the Uri attack, several experts have demanded that India withdraw from the Indus Waters
Treaty whose terms are considered generous to Pakistan. However, officials made it clear that the IWT
will hold, at least for the moment. Instead, the Centre drew up a list of measures to optimize use of the
Indus waters that India has so far failed to do. Thus, following decisions were taken by the government
• set up an inter-ministerial committee to study India’s further options
• build more run-of-the-river hydropower projects on western rivers, to exploit the full potential of
18,600 MW (current projects come to 11,406 MW)
• review restarting the Tulbul navigation project that India had suspended after Pakistan’s objections in
1987
Revoking is not the right way forward as it may threaten regional stability and India’s credibility globally.
Stopping the waters of the Indus rivers can be counterproductive also. India has water-sharing
arrangements with other neighbours and not honouring the Indus Treaty would make them uneasy and
distrustful. India would would lose her voice if China, decides to do something similar.

Student Notes:
Other issues along the border

• Cross border firing, border skirmishes and constant tension
• Repeated Infiltration by Pakistan Challenges faced by border population
supported terrorists into India as a way of • dearth of jobs
proxy war • lack of proper healthcare services
• Illegal activities like smuggling, drugs and • damage to crops in large tracts by
arm trafficking, infiltration due to porous waterlogging
borders which runs through diverse terrain • sometimes border infrastructure violates
including deserts, marshes, plains, snow- privacy or hampers their normal life
clad mountains, and winds its way through • legal and litigation issues of land
villages, houses and agricultural lands. acquisition while setting up security
infrastructure
3.2. Initiatives Taken by Government
• Fencing - By 2011, almost all of the border– along J&K, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat – was
double-row fenced on the LoC.
• Use of technology-In January 2016, the Centre approved a five-layer elaborate plan to stop
infiltration on the 2,900-km western border with Pakistan. Close Circuit Television cameras,
thermal imagers and NVDs, BFSRs, underground monitoring sensors, and laser barriers will
be placed along the border to track all movement from the other side. The integrated setup
will ensure that in the event of a transgression, if one device fails to work, another will alert
the control room. Laser barriers will cover 130 unfenced sections, including riverine and
mountain terrain from Jammu and Kashmir to Gujarat, which are often used by infiltrators.
The border has been electrified, connected to a range of sensors and strewn with
landmines. The entire border is also lit up with strong floodlights installed on more than
50,000 poles. As a result, the Indo-Pak border can actually be seen from space at night.
• Outposts - There are about 700 border out posts, one Integrated Check post is there at
Attari, Amritsar.
• A program for Optimal Utilization of Waters of Eastern Rivers of Indus River System has
also been started.
Way Forward
• Prompt and appropriate compensation to border population to stem dissatisfaction among
local people
• Study the pattern of illegal activities like money laundering and checking them
• The government also established a Task Force on border management under the
Chairmanship of Madhav Godbole. The report observed that the country’s borders could
not be effectively managed because of certain inherent problems such as their disputed
status, artificiality, porosity etc. which give rise to multiple other problems including illegal
migration, smuggling, drugs trafficking, and trans-border movement of insurgents.
Its recommendations are:
• Pending border disputes with neighbouring countries should be resolved.
• The border-guarding force should not be deployed for other internal security duties.
• A Marine police force should be established along with the strengthening of the Indian
Coast Guard and setting up of an apex institution for coordinating various maritime issues.
• Accelerated development of infrastructure along the border should be taken up, especially
to wean the border population from illegal activities.

Student Notes:
4. Indo-Nepal
India shares a 1751 Km long border with Nepal. Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal
and Sikkim are the States, which share the border with Nepal. Bihar shares the largest border
and Sikkim the smallest with Nepal.
The border with Nepal is an open border and was virtually unattended till very recently as
Nepalese citizens have free access to live and working India under a 1950 treaty between the
two countries. Nepal is a landlocked country and its closest access to the sea is through India.
As a result, most of its imports pass through India. Keeping this in consideration, India has
granted Nepal 15 transit and 22 trading points along the border.
• Pakistan is using the open borders to carry out anti-India activities including pushing of
terrorists and fake Indian currency.
• Fear of spread of Maoist insurgency and links with Maoists groups in India
• Issue of land grabbing - Allegations of excesses such as intimidation, and forcible grabbing
of land by either side along the disputed border also surface from time to time.
• Easy escape & illegal activities - Insurgents, terrorists, many hard-core criminals pursued by
Indian and Nepalese security forces escape across the open border.
4.2. Initiatives Taken for Effective Border Management

• 25 batallions of Shashastra Seema Bal under Ministry of Home Affairs have been deployed
• Bilateral talks - Bilateral mechanisms in the form of Home Secretary-level talks and
Joint Working Group at the level of Joint Secretaries exist between the two countries.
• Border District Coordination Committee - at the level of district officials of the two
countries- has been established as platforms for discussing issues of mutual concern
• Construction of Indo-Nepal border roads - The Government of India has approved
construction of 1377 km of roads along Nepal border in the States of Uttarakhand, Uttar
Pradesh & Bihar.
4.3. Way Forward
Security agencies of both countries should coordinate more closely and effectively for better
monitoring of the border. An increased use of technology in monitoring border movement can
also help to secure the open border.
5. Indo-Bhutan
Indo-Bhutan border is demarcated except along the tri-junction with China. The process of
demarcation of the India-Bhutan border started in 1961 and was completed in 2006. This
border is defined by foothills, unlike the complex topography of dense forests, rivers and
populations that defines India’s borders with Nepal and Bangladesh.
India has a Friendship treaty with Bhutan which was re-negotiated in 2007 under which India
has a huge stake in safeguarding interests of Bhutan.
The two countries share warm bilateral ties and strong border coordination For Bhutan, issues
of hydropower and trade within the region impinge on its border cooperation. Other issues
such as rupee trade and banking facilities on both sides of the border are also important.

Student Notes:

5.1.1. Border Dispute
The border is not demarcated in tri-junction area. Thus, the conflict arises such as recent
Doklam issue.
5.1.1.1. Doklam Issue
Doklam plateau is a part of Bhutan disputed by China which can provide China leverage to
choke India’s “Chicken Neck” - the narrow Siliguri corridor which links the north-east with the
rest of India. In 2017, India successfully deployed its troops to counter Chinese design to build a
road in Doklam which could have serious implication for India’s security and would have also
signaled to Bhutan that India can no longer protest its interests. So, Indian troops intervened to
block the path of Chinese People’s Liberation Army soldiers engaged in building road-works on
this plateau. This is the first time that India used troops to protect Bhutan’s territorial interests.
5.1.2. Other Issues
• ‘Operation All Clear’ by Royal Bhutanese Army drove out the Bodo and ULFA insurgents
from its territory some years ago, the border has been relatively quiet. But still fears are
persistent about criminal and militant activity.
• Smuggling - Chinese made goods, Bhutanese cannabis, liquor and forest products are major
items smuggled into India. Livestock, grocery items and fruits are smuggled out of India to
Bhutan.
• Free movement of people & vehicles – Bhutan’s wants free movement of its citizens and
vehicles once they enter Indian territory. During the Gorkhaland movement in West Bengal
vehicles belonging to Bhutanese nationals were destroyed.
• Migration –As areas bordering Bhutan are largely underdeveloped, many Indians work as
manual labour in construction sites in that country, where they manage to earn more
decent wages. This migration has provoked concerns of altering demographies in both
countries.
• Environmental concerns - Migrants and infiltrators are also accused of deforestation,
poaching, and wildlife smuggling.
5.2. Initiatives Taken
• Deployment of forces - Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB) is the main boarder guarding force with
some help from BSF.
• Bilateral cooperation - A Secretary level bilateral mechanism in the shape of an India-
Bhutan Group on Border Management and Security is in existence. This mechanism
has proved to be very useful in assessing threat perception of the two countries
from groups attempting to take advantage of this open border and in discussing ways of
improving the security environment in border areas.
• Road construction - The Government of India has approved construction of 313 km. road
in Assam along Indo-Bhutan border.
6. Indo-Bangladesh
The Indian side of the Indo-Bangladesh border passes through 5 Indian states- West Bengal,
Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and MIzorom. The entire stretch consists of plains, riverine belts,
hills and jungles. The area is heavily populated and is cultivated right upto the border. India and
Bangladesh share 54 trans-boundary rivers.

Student Notes:
India and Bangladesh have been able to solve some contentious issues through negotiations
which experts consider as the best example of border management such as:
• India and Bangladesh successfully resolved issue of enclaves through mutual agreement
and India enacting 100th Constitutional Amendment Act to this effect.
• Sharing of Ganga water through a 1996 Agreement between the two countries. However,
Bangladesh has expressed concerns over Farakka Barrage which diverts water to the
Hooghly river claiming that it does not get a fair share in dry season and gets flooded when
India releases water.
• Maritime disputes: In 2009, Bangladesh instituted arbitral proceedings for the delimitation
of the maritime boundary with India under UNCLOS, the verdict of which settled the
dispute in 2014.
Outstanding Issues between the two neighbours
• Teesta River Water Dispute: After a long time, in 2011 two sides had agreed to share the
river’s water 50:50 as the river is important for both India and Bangladesh for its
agricultural use. However, this agreement was not signed due to opposition from chief
minister of West Bengal.
• Tipaimukh Hydro-Electric Power Project on the Barak River- Bangladesh is opposing the
project as it says that the dam will disrupt the seasonal rhythm of the river and have an
adverse effect on downstream agriculture, fisheries and ecology of the region. Indian
government has assured Bangladesh that it will not take any unilateral decision on the
Project which may adversely affect Bangladesh.
• Due to high degree of porosity of Indo-Bangladesh Border, millions of Bangladeshi
immigrant mostly illegal have poured into India.
• Border fencing issue - There have been some problems in construction of fencing in certain
stretches on this border due to
o Riverine/ low-lying areas,
o Population residing within 150 yards of the border,
o Pending land acquisition cases and
o Protests by border population, which has led to delay in completion of the project.
• Unauthorised cross-border trade in goods such as jamdani sarees, rice, salt and diesel has
flourished, despite the presence of strict trade regulations and barriers. Although India and
Bangladesh officially trade goods worth $7 billion, illegal trade between the two countries is
estimated to be double the figure.
• Cattle smuggling and killing of smugglers -Cattle confiscated on border alone are around
one lakh annually thus a loss of revenue of around 10000 crore annually for the
government. A large number of Bangladeshi nationals who are caught smuggling cattle
across the border are killed. While the number of recorded deaths has reduced significantly
after India introduced a new policy of having only non-lethal weapons for BSF’s use, the
measure has emboldened criminals and led to an increase in attacks on BSF personnel.

• Deployment of force – BSF guards the border with Bangladesh.
• Fencing - India has constructed a barbed-wire fence and improved lighting along the border
to prevent illegal immigrant and other anti-national activities.
• Road construction - In addition, 3,585.53 kms of border patrol roads have been constructed
out of a sanctioned length of 4,407.11 km. A border management department has also
been setup to oversee developmental work in the bordering areas and upgraded
infrastructure at major entry and exit points.

Student Notes:
• Strengthening vigilance and regulation - Steps have been taken to strengthen border vigil
through enhancement of border guards. India is also establishing integrated check posts
(ICP) at its land borders which will house, under one roof all regulatory activities such as
immigration, security and customs.
• Bilateral cooperation - India and Bangladesh have both signed a border management plan
that envisions joint patrols and information-sharing. India and Bangladesh have also
established border haats to deal with illegal or unauthorised trade. Two MoUs - one on
Bilateral Cooperation for Prevention of Human Trafficking, Smuggling and Circulation of
Fake Currency Notes and second on cooperation between the Coast Guards of India and
Bangladesh: to prevent crimes at sea – have been signed. Border forces of two countries
also undertake joint exercise such as Sundarban Moitry’ (Sundarbans Alliance)
7. Indo-Myanmar
India shares 1,643 km long border with Myanmar. Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and
Mizoram are the four States, which share the border with Myanmar. India and Myanmar permit
a Free Movement Regime (FMR) for tribes residing along the border to travel upto 16 km across
the border.
While the FMR has helped the tribes continue maintain their age old ties, it has also become a
cause of concern for the security establishment. The insurgents have been taking advantage of
the FMR and have been crossing over to Myanmar to receive training in arms, establish safe
havens and re-enter India to carry out subversive attacks.
7.1. Challenges at Indo-Myanmar border
Though the boundary is properly demarcated, there are a few pockets that are disputed. The
major issues along the border are as follows:
• Rugged terrain – It makes movement and the overall development of the area difficult.
• Weak vigilance - There is practically no physical barrier along the border either in the form
of fences or border outposts and roads to ensure strict vigil.
• Insurgency - Insurgents make use of the poorly guarded border and flee across when
pursued by Indian security forces. Close ethnic ties among the tribes such as Nagas, Kukis,
Chin, etc., who live astride the border help these insurgents in finding safe haven in
Myanmar. These cross-border ethnic ties have facilitated in creation of safe havens for
various northeast insurgent groups in Myanmar.
• Drugs menace- The location of the boundary at the edge of the “Drugs golden triangle”
facilitates the unrestricted illegal flows of drugs into Indian territory. Heroin is the main
item of drug trafficking. The bulk of heroin enters India through the border town of Moreh
in Manipur. It is reported that the local insurgent groups are actively involved in drugs and
arms trafficking. Smuggling of ephedrine and pseudo-ephedrine and trafficking of women
and children from the Northeast to Myanmar and further to Southeast Asia are also
rampant along the border.
• Boundary dispute - Even though the international boundary between the two countries
had been formally delimited and demarcated following the 1967 Boundary agreement, the
boundary has not crystallised on the ground as lines separating two sovereign countries.
• Lack of attention - the policymakers in Delhi have not given adequate attention to the
India-Myanmar border and as a result it continues to be poorly managed
• Lack of support from military Junta govt in Myanmar : India’s patchy engagement with the
military junta in Myanmar and its initial support to the democratic movement in that
country have been largely responsible for Myanmar’s reluctance to cooperate with India.

Student Notes:
7.1.1. Recent Dispute: Border Fencing between BP No.79 and 81 in Moreh

In order to check the problem of increased militant activities in the Indo-Myanmar border area,
the Government of India sanctioned an action in early 2013 to fence the area between BP No.
79 to 81 on the Indo-Myanmar Border (approx. 10 km). This initiative has recently led to various
protests in Manipur as protesters claim that the 10-km fence is being constructed several
metres inside the Indian territory because of Myanmar’s objections and this would result in
Manipur loosing substantial portions of its territory to Myanmar. They demanded that the
Central government should first resolve the border dispute with Myanmar and conduct a joint
survey of the border before constructing the fence.
However, despite protests, the Central government has decided to go ahead with the
construction of fencing as experiment along the India-Pakistan and India-Bangladesh borders
has also been successful in checking infiltration and illegal migration to a large extent.
7.2. Steps taken by government

• Deployment of force – Assam Rifles mans this border since 2002 with some help from
Indian Army. However, Assam Rifles has deployed 31 of its 46 battalions for counter
insurgency operations and only 15 battalions for guarding the borderthus functioning more
like a counter insurgency force rather than a border guarding force.
• Panel to study free movement regime – to stop insurgents like NSCN-K from misusing FMR
for receiving training in arms, establish safe havens and re-enter India to carry out
subversive attacks.
7.3. Way Ahead
Given that the vulnerability of the India-Myanmar border is posing a serious challenge to the
internal security of the country, the Government of India should pay immediate attention to
effectively manage this border.
• It should first strengthen the security of the border by either giving the Assam Rifles the
single mandate of guarding the border or deploying another border guarding force such as
the Border Security Force (BSF).
• It should initiate a revision of the FMR and reduce the permitted distance of unrestricted
travel.
• The construction of the ICP along with other infrastructure should be expedited.
• Finally, India should endeavour to meaningfully engage with Myanmar and solicit its
cooperation in resolving all outstanding issues and better manage their mutual border.
8. Indo-Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka shares maritime border with India and is a very important country strategically placed
in Indian ocean for India’s security.
8.1. Challenges along the border

8.1.1. Katchatheevu Island
India ceded the uninhabited island to its southern neighbour in 1974 under a conditional
accord. However, Indian fishermen considered it to be their traditional fishing area. Thus, wants
Katchatheevu to be used as fishing grounds for India as well.

Student Notes:
8.1.2. Fishermen Issue

Trespassing by Indian fisher men in Sri Lankan waters takes place regularly. Here, the issue is
not of an unsettled maritime boundary but the refusal of Indian fisher men to recognise the
maritime boundary between India and Sri Lanka, especially in the Palk Bay. The Palk Bay has
traditionally been a common fishing ground for fishermen on both the sides. However, the
delineation of the maritime boundary has divided the Palk Bay, and stipulates that Indian fisher
men cannot fish beyond the international boundary.
Fishing in each other’ s waters by the fisher men of India and Sri Lanka has strained bilateral
ties. Every time an Indian fisherman is arrested by Sri Lankan authorities, Tamil Nadu puts
pressure on the Indian government to lodge a formal protest with the Sri Lankan government.

Regarding fishermen issue
Steps have been taken to ensure the safety of fishermen, and to prevent the undetected entry
of any fishing trawler in the coastal waters. For this purpose, all big fishing trawlers (20 metres
and above) are being installed with AIS transponders. As for small fishing vessels, a proposal to
fit them with the Radio Frequency Identification Device (RFID) is under consideration. Besides,
all fishing vessels are also being registered under a uniform registration system, and the data is
being updated online. Colour codes are being assigned to them for easy identification at sea.
The colour codes are different for different coastal states. Furthermore, Distress Alert
Transmitters (DATs) are being provided to fisher men so that they can alert the ICG if they are in
distress at sea. For the safety of fisher men at sea, the government has implemented a scheme
of providing a subsidised kit to the fisher men which includes a Global Positioning System (GPS),
communication equipment, echo-sounder and a search and rescue beacon. Coastal security
helpline numbers 1554 (ICG) and 1093 (Marine Police) have also been operationalized for
fishermen to communicate any information to these agencies.
8.3. Way Forward

The following steps can be considered to resolve the disputes and challenges between the two
countries:
• Sustainable fishing and alternate livelihood – It will address the underlying cause. There is
a glaring need for institutionalisation of fishing in Indian waters by the government of India
so that alternative means of livelihood are provided. Government will have to mark up a
comprehensive plan to reduce the dependence of Indian fishermen on catch from Palk Bay
and the use of bottom trawlers from Tamil Nadu, India. For this deep-sea fishing, and inland
alternatives need to be promoted, else India’s fishermen will be locked in a conflict with
their Sri Lankan counterparts as well as with a hostile Sri Lankan Navy.
• Institutional mechanism - Last year, the two countries agreed on establishing a Joint
Working Group (JWG) on fisheries to help resolve the dispute, setting up a hotline between
the Coast Guards of India and Sri Lanka, convening of the JWG once in three months, and
meetings of the fisheries ministers every half-year were the components of the mechanism
to be put in place.
• Indian Navy or Coast Guard should join the Sri Lankan Navy in jointly patrolling the
international boundary to prevent trespassing.

Student Notes:
9. General Recommendations for Better Border Management

Despite several Para-military forces guarding borders, the army’s commitment for border
management amounts to six divisions along the LAC, the LoC and the AGPL in J&K and five
divisions along the LAC and the Myanmar border in the eastern sector. This is a massive
commitment that is costly in terms of manpower as well as funds. According to the availability
of funds for modernization, the following steps may be considered:
• Use of advanced technology for surveillance particularly satellite and aerial imagery, can
help to maintain a constant vigil along the LAC and make it possible to reduce physical
deployment.
• Aerial surveillance through a larger number of helicopter units will enhance the quality and
the ability to move troops to quickly occupy defensive positions when it becomes
necessary.
Other general recommendations for border management are:
• The BSF should be responsible for all settled borders while the responsibility for unsettled
and disputed borders, such as the LoC in J&K and the LAC on the Indo-Tibetan border,
should be that of the Indian Army.
• Effective control - The principle of ‘single point control’ or one-force-one-border principle
must be followed.
• There should be comprehensive long term planning for deployment of central police
organizations (CPOs) which is currently characterized by ad-hoc decisions and knee-jerk
reactions to emerging threats and challenges. Security strategies should be designed for a
‘fire prevention’ or proactive approach rather than ‘fire fighting’ approach.
• Enhancing operational effectiveness by making all Para-military forces managing unsettled
borders operate directly under the control of the army.
10. General Government Initiatives for Border Management

10.1. Border Area Development Programme
The Department of Border Management, Ministry of Home Affairs has been implementing a
Border Area Development Programme (BADP) through the State Governments as part of a
comprehensive approach to Border Management. Its aim is to meet the special developmental
needs of the people living in remote and inaccessible areas situated near the international
border and to saturate the border areas with essential infrastructure through convergence of
Central/State/ BADP/ Local schemes and participatory approach and to promote a sense of
security and well-being among the border population.
• BADP covers all the villages which are located within the 0-10 Km of the International
Border.
• Funds are provided to the States as a non-lapsable Special Central Assistance (SCA) for
execution of projects relating to infrastructure, livelihood, education, health, agriculture
and allied sectors.
o BADP covers specific planned socioeconomic and infrastructure development in areas
such as:Road connectivity, Water and Power supply, Social Infrastructure including
Health & Education, Sports activities, Agriculture & allied sectors, Skill development etc.

Student Notes:
10.2. Development of Integrated Check Posts (ICPs)

Border Out Posts (BOPs) are designated entry and exit points on the international border of the
country through which cross border movement of persons, goods and traffic takes place. Inter-
alia, the BOPs are meant to provide appropriate show of force to deter trans-border criminals,
infiltrators and the hostile elements from indulging in the activities of intrusion / encroachment
and border violations. Each BOP is provided with the necessary infrastructure for
accommodation, logistic supports and combat functions. It also facilitates trade & commerce.
Existing infrastructure available with Customs, Immigration and other regulatory agencies at
these points on our land borders needs to be upgraded. Support facilities like warehouses,
parking lots, banks, hotels, etc. needs to be increased in numbers.
A Statutory Authority called ‘Land Ports Authority of India’ (LPAI) has been set up to oversee
and regulate the construction, management and maintenance of the ICPs.
The LPAI has been envisaged as a lean, oversight body aimed at providing better administration
and cohesive management of cross-border movement of people and goods. It would be vested
with powers on the lines of similar bodies like the Airports Authority of India.
11. Coastal Security

India’s coastline runs through nine States viz. Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal and four Union Territories viz. Daman &
Diu, Lakshadweep, Puducherry and Andaman & Nicobar Islands situated on the coast.
India’s 7516 km long coast line presents a variety of security concerns that include landing of
arms and explosives at isolated spots on the coast, infiltration/ex-filtration of anti-national
elements, use of the sea and off shore islands for criminal activities, smuggling of consumer and
intermediate goods through sea routes etc. Absence of physical barriers on the coast and
presence of vital industrial and defence installations near the coast also enhance the
vulnerability of the coasts to illegal cross border activities. Some instances of vulnerability of
country’s coasts being exploited are:
• The smuggling of explosives through the Raigad coast in Maharashtra and their use in the
1993 serial blasts in Mumbai, and
• The infiltration of the ten Pakistani terrorists through the sea route who carried out the
multiple coordinated attacks in Mumbai on November 26,2008
Broadly, coastal security is understood as a subset of maritime security that involves securing
the country’s coasts by guarding its maritime approaches against any threat or challenge that
originates from the sea.
11.1. Challenges
• India’s coasts are characterised by a diverse range of topography such as creeks, small bays,
back waters, rivulets, lagoons, estuaries, swamps, mudflats, as well as hills, rocky outcrops,
sandbars, beaches and small islands (inhabited as well as uninhabited).
• The physical proximity of India’s coasts to politically volatile, economically depressed and
unfriendly countries such as Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Gulf countries adds to its
vulnerability.
• Unsettled maritime boundaries not only pose serious security challenges but also hinder
offshore development such as India’s maritime boundaries with Pakistan (Sir Creek) and
Bangladesh are not delineated because of overlapping claims.

Student Notes:
11.2. Maritime Security & Threats

India faces a number of threats and challenges that originate from the sea and which are mainly
sub-conventional in nature. These threats and challenges can be categorised under five broad
categories:
1. Maritime terrorism: It is defined as ‘…the undertaking of terrorist acts and activities within
the maritime environment, using or against vessels or fixed platforms at sea or in port, or
against any one of their passengers or personnel, against coastal facilities or settlements,
including tourist resorts, port areas and port towns or cities’.
2. Piracy and armed robbery: Piracy by definition takes place on the high seas and, therefore,
does not fall under the ambit of coastal security. However, in the case of India, the shallow
waters of the Sunderbans have been witnessing ‘acts of violence and detention’ by gangs of
criminals that are akin to piracy.
3. Smuggling and trafficking: Indian coasts have been susceptible to smuggling and trafficking.
Gold, electronic goods, narcotics and arms have been smuggled through the sea for a long
time. Indian coasts have been susceptible to smuggling. Gold, electronic goods, narcotics
and arms have been smuggled through the sea for a long time.
4. Infiltration, illegal migration and refugee influx: India’s land boundaries have always been
porous to infiltration by terrorists/militants and large scale illegal migration. These large
scale influxes over the decades have resulted in widespread political turmoil in the Border
States. To prevent infiltration and large scale illegal migration, the Indian government
implemented widespread security measures, included maintaining strict vigil along the
borders, the erection offences, and the thorough checking of immigrants. The elaborate
security arrangements on land forced the terrorists and illegal migrants to look towards the
sea where security measures are comparatively lax, enabling them to ‘move, hide and
strike’ with relative ease.
5. The straying of fishermen beyond the maritime boundary: The frequent straying of
fishermen into neighbouring country waters has not only jeopardised the safety of the
fishermen but has also raised national security concerns (as discussed in Indo-SriLanka).
11.3. The Coastal Security Architecture
One of the earliest challenges to coastal security that India has had to encounter was sea-borne
smuggling. Alarmed by the rising graph of sea-borne smuggling and mindful of the inadequacies
faced by the maritime law enforcement agencies, GoI created two specialised forces within a
span of a few years: the Customs Marine Organisation and the Indian Coast Guard.
11.3.1. The Customs Marine Organisation (CMO)
CMO was created following the recommendations of the Nag Chaudhari Committee. The
objective of the committee was to suggest the optimum assets required for anti-smuggling
operations as well as recommend ways to curb smuggling through the sea. Once the Indian
Coast Guard was formed in 1977, the CMO was merged with the newly created organisation.
11.3.2. The Indian Coast Guard (ICG)
The ICG was established on February 1, 1977 in the naval headquarters, and placed under the
ministry of defence (MoD). On August 18, 1978, with the enactment of the Coast Guard Act,
the organisation formally came into being as the fourth armed force of India. The Act stipulates
that the ICG as an armed force would ensure the security of the maritime zones of India, and
protect its maritime and national interests in such zones.

Student Notes:
11.3.3. The Marine Police Force

The marine police force was created under the Coastal Security Scheme (CSS) that was
launched in 2005. The aim of the CSS was to strengthen infrastructure for patrolling and the
surveillance of the coastal areas, particularly the shallow areas close to the coast.
The marine police force was required to work closely with the ICG under the ‘hub-and-spoke’
concept, the ‘hub’ being the ICG station and the ‘spokes’ being the coastal police stations. The
marine police was mandated to patrol the territorial waters (12 nautical miles into the sea) and
pursue legal cases pertaining to their area of responsibility according to specified Acts.
11.3.4. Present Coastal Security System
There is a multi-tier arrangement for protection and maritime security of the country
involving the Indian Navy, Coast Guard and Marine Police of the coastal States and
Union Territories.
• The surveillance on the high seas is carried out along the limits of EEZ (exclusive economic
zone) by the Navy and the Coast Guard.
• In the territorial waters, the Coast Guards protect the Indian interests with vessels and
through aerial surveillance.
• Close coastal patrolling is done by State Marine Police.
The State’s jurisdiction extends up to 12 nautical miles in the shallow territorial waters.
11.4. Initiatives in Coastal Security Architecture

The mind-set that coastal security is not an essential component of national security eventually
changed post 26/11 terrorist attacks in Mumbai on November 26, 2008.
Since 2008, coastal and maritime security has been strengthened substantially by successful
implementation of technical, organisational and procedural initiatives, by all maritime security
agencies. Plugging gaps, where identified, is continuous process that is being addressed
appropriately. The Indian Navy has been the lead agency in this regard and is assisted in this
task by the Indian Coast Guard, Marine Police and other Central and state agencies. Steps taken
are:
• Coastal Security Scheme (CSS) is being implemented to strengthen security infrastructure
of Marine Police Force in coastal states/UTs. CSS seeks to strengthen patrolling of coastal
areas through Coastal Police Stations, Coastal check posts, deployment of boats, vessels,
four-wheelers and two-wheelers across all coastal regions. It aims to strengthen
Surveillance through Automatic Identification System (AIS) receivers and a chain of
overlapping coastal radars, for gapless cover along the entire coast.
• Coordination- At the apex level the National Committee for Strengthening Maritime and
Coastal Security (NCSMCS), headed by the Cabinet Secretary, coordinates all matters
related to Maritime and Coastal Security. Inter–agency coordination, between nearly 15
national and state agencies has improved dramatically, only due to regular “exercises”
conducted by the Navy in all the coastal states.
• Joint Operations Centres (JOCs)- are set up by the Navy as command and control hubs for
coastal security at Mumbai, Visakhapatnam, Kochi and Port Blair are fully operational.
These JOCs are manned 24×7 jointly by the Indian Navy, Indian Coast Guard and Marine
Police.
• Continuous surveillance- Coastal patrolling by Navy, Coast Guard and marine police has
increased sharply over the last few years. At any given time, the entire west coast is under
continuous surveillance by ships and aircraft of Navy and Coast Guard.

Student Notes:
• Modern technical measures- comprising of a chain of 74 Automatic Identification System

(AIS) receivers and complemented by a chain of overlapping 46 coastal radars in the coastal
areas. A second phase of coastal radars is also being implemented to plug the small gaps in
some places.
• National Command Control Communication and Intelligence Network (NC3I)- to enhance
Maritime Domain Awareness. It is an over-arching coastal security network which collates
data about all ships, dhows, fishing boats and all other vessels operating near our coast,
from multiple technical sources including the AIS and radar chain. These inputs are fused
and analysed at the Information Management and Analysis Centre (IMAC) at Gurgaon,
which disseminates this compiled Common Operating Picture for Coastal Security to all 51
nodes of the Navy & Coast Guard spread across the coast of India.
• Fishermen cooperation- Issue of ID cards to all fishermen with a single centralised
database, registration of over 2 lakh fishing vessels operating off India’s coast and equipping
fishing boats with suitable equipment, to facilitate vessel identification and tracking are
some of the other steps taken. Their cooperation is indispensible to India’s maritime
security.
• Training -The Navy and Coast Guard have also provided periodic maritime training to
marine police in all coastal states. In order to have a permanent police training facility,
Marine Police training institutes in Tamil Nadu and Gujarat have been approved by the
Government.
• The Indian navy is also required to raise a specialised force called the Sagar Prahari Bal for
protecting its bases and adjacent vulnerable areas and vulnerable points. Once the force is
fully raised, it would comprise 1000 naval personnel equipped with 80 interceptor boats to
patrol the approaches of the naval bases and other strategic installations.
• An informal layer of surveillance comprising the fishermen community - created following
the 1993 Mumbai serial bomb blasts - has also been formalised and activated in all coastal
states. By virtue of their role in surveillance and intelligence gathering, the fishermen
communities are referred to as the ‘ears and eyes’ of coastal security. These fisher men
groups, christened Sagar Suraksha Dal, 49 comprising of trained volunteers who monitor
the seas and coastal waters
• Electronic Surveillance to provide near gapless surveillance of the entire coastline as well
as prevent the intrusion of undetected vessels under the coastal surveillance network
project. The network comprises the Coastal Radar Chain, the Automatic Identification
System (AIS), and VTMS.
• Harbour Defense And Surveillance System - Indian Navy has installed Integrated
Underwater Harbour Defense and Surveillance (IUHDSS) at Mumbai and Vishakhapatnam
naval harbour. Designed by Israeli Aerospace Industry called ELTA, it comprise of Coastal
Surveillance Radars, High Power Underwater Sensors and Diver Detection Sonars. It is
capable of detecting, identifying, tracking and generating warnings for all types of surface
and subsurface Threats to harbor security. This integrated system (already installed at Kochi
and Visakhapatnam) will enhance the security of naval dockyard of Mumbai by providing
the comprehensive real-time images for monitoring and analysis.
11.5. Way forward

Being a coastal nation, India has been witnessing a range of maritime activities taking place
along its coasts and adjacent waters over the ages. However, activities such as the smuggling of
precious metals and items, trafficking of arms and drugs and the infiltration of terrorists have
adversely impacted the country’s economy as well as its security.
• The ICG should be designated as the single authority responsible for coastal security.
Accordingly, the charter of the ICG should be duly amended and the force strengthened and

Student Notes:
trained. The Indian navy should be eased out from coastal security responsibilities and
allowed to concentrate on developing its blue water capabilities and defending the country
during times of war.
• The ICG should be treated as a border guarding force and brought under the Ministry of
Home Affairs (MHA). This will ensure administrative cohesion and revenue flows for the ICG
to grow as an independent entity.
• The MHA should concentrate on the issue of training the marine police as its next step. It
should set up specialised marine training institutes in the country, which will provide a
comprehensive and uniform course in sea-faring, sea-policing, sea-navigation as well as
laws and regulations pertaining to crimes at sea.
12. Conclusion
The proper management of borders, which is vitally important for national security, presents
many challenges and includes coordination and concerted action by administrative, diplomatic,
security, intelligence, legal, regulatory and economic agencies of the country to secure the
frontiers and sub serve its best interests.
On the lines of many developed countries, there is a need to adopt a participative and multi-
national integrated border management system in India. People oriented measures
(Involvement of Stakeholders) should be taken such as
• Community Participative Border Management, sensitive to the varied cultures. This would
require preventing alienation of border population. Community policing and Village defence
and development committees would also go a long way in achieving secure borders.
• Community development by Border Guarding Forces (BGF). This would help earn the
goodwill of people.
• Enhancement of border trade with neighbouring countries for the benefit of the people.
Flourishing border trade will promote peaceful borders in the long run.
• Employment opportunities locally: It will prevent the pull towards illegal activities like drug
or arms trafficking.
The Madhukar Gupta Committee recommendations to strengthen border protection along
Indo-Pakistan Border also need to be considered. It suggests measures such as Replacing “linear
security” by “grid border protection”, Better coordination by BGF with local police and
Intelligence generation
The concept of Village Volunteer Forces (VVFs) helping in border management has a great deal
to commend itself and has worked with a good degree of success in areas where it has been
tried so far. India should promote it further

1. Discuss the problems of maritime security in India and the functioning of multi-tier
maritime security architecture to deal with the same.
Approach:
Straight forward question. Discuss the issues, threats and challenges of maritime
security in India and the three-tier structure of maritime security.
Answer:
India’s perception of maritime security stems from the “Freedom to use the Seas”. The
maritime security issues are complex while threats and challenges are vast and varied.

Student Notes:
• India has to defend a long coastline of 7516 km; islands on both the sides; states
and metros in coastal zones; and her major and minor ports.
• Geopolitics: There are 56 nations in the region and around one third of the world’s
population lives in this area. This number combined with the different state of
economies and governance has created an imbalance that has resulted in a number
of conflicts and the proliferation of nuclear issues. Thus India is forced to
strengthen her presence in the region to ensure safety of shipping and security of
national interest.
• Energy, Trade and Commerce: Oil and gas traversing the Indian Ocean is of great
importance to the global economy. Roughly 55 per cent of known oil reserves and
40 per cent of gas reserves are in the Indian Ocean region. It also accounts for 65%
of strategic raw material reserves. Indian Ocean ports handle about 30 per cent of
global trade and half of the word’s container traffic traverses the ocean. The Indian
Ocean has some of the world’s most important choke points, notably the Straits of
Hormuz, Malacca, and the Bab el Mandeb. As these choke points are strategically
important for global trade and energy flow, a number of extra-regional states
maintain a naval presence in the Indian Ocean.
• Communication: The protection of sea lines of communication (SLOCs), are
paralleled by increasing importance of ensuring the security of the broadband
communication connections between Asia, Europe, and the United States that are
linked by undersea cables traversing the Indian Ocean.
• Piracy and terrorism: Maritime piracy, which includes hijacking for ransom, robbery
and criminal violence, is very prevalent in the Indian Ocean. Piracy around the Horn
of Africa has increased alarmingly. It not only threatens commerce, but also peace
and regional stability, international trade and energy flows. The threat of global
terrorism, piracy and international crime coming together is very real. Mumbai
attacks are prime example of terrorism via sea affecting India.
• Gun running, human and drug trafficking are issues that also affect the maritime
security environment.
• Non-Conventional Threats: Fisheries and livelihood security, environmental
security, search and rescue, Marine Pollution.
Post 26/11, several initiatives have been taken by the Government to strengthen
security of the coastal areas. One of the most significant achievements has been the
integration of all maritime stakeholders, including several State and Central agencies
into the new coastal security mechanism. A multi-layered security mechanism has been
put in place.
• The immediate waters up to three nautical miles (nm) in the territorial sea are
under the collective charge of the Marine Police, the Coast Guard and the Customs.
• The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is looked after solely by the Coast Guard
• The Navy is responsible for surveillance and patrolling of the high seas. In addition,
Navy is also responsible for overall maritime security. It has setup four Joint
Operation Centres at Mumbai, Visakhapatnam, Kochi, Port Blair and a specialized
'Sagar Prahari Bal' to protect naval assets.

Student Notes:
2. Illegal migration is emerging as a migraine for India and threatening to alter

Northeast's demography. It is not only a burden on the state's resources but also a
breeding ground for internationally sponsored terrorism. Comment.
Approach:
Some of the key focus areas in this question are relationship of illegal immigration with
the altering demography of North East India, its impact of the state’s resources,
creating discontent among the locals and serving as a ground for terrorism in turn.
Students should try and explore each of these themes analytically in their answer.
Answer:
Although illegal migration into India both from its eastern as well as western flank has
continued since long, it is increasingly emerging as a migraine for India because as we
develop, we seek to pull out our poor from the sickening depths of poverty. But illegal
migration particularly in NE has fuelled socio-political tensions which manifest
themselves in student movements, separatism, ethnic clashes, riots etc. This leads to
diversion of attention and resources from development to the law and order.
Over the decades illegal migration has significantly altered NE’s demography due to
porous borders. This has created insecurity amongst the NE people who fear that their
Identity may be submerged and they may be reduced to minorities.
It also places enormous burden on state’s resources as well. The welfare benefits such
as food, fuel subsidies, free education, heath etc. in a resource scarce country have to
be shared with increasing number of people. It also places pressure and creates
competition for various economic resources and opportunities such as land, jobs etc.
Above factors create socio-political tensions and result in discontent which can be
harnessed by anti-national elements. Further, terrorists can enter and launch, under
the garb of migrants.
Solutions
• Finalise the LBA with Bangladesh
• Seal the borders with Bangladesh and Myanmar both
• Coordinated actions against terrorists between centre and border states as well as
amongst various security/intelligence agencies
3. An unmanaged border accentuates threats from unconventional sources by providing

easy points of ingress and egress. Discuss in the context of India's international border
along the north eastern states.
Approach:
• Give a very brief account of vulnerability to North Eastern Region to unconventional
threats.
• Second part should discuss in detail the border management in the NE region.
Answer:
The NE Region of India is vulnerable due to its
• peculiar geo-strategic location,
• hostile elements inhabiting the region, and
• porous borders with neighboring countries.

Student Notes:
The porous nature of these borders, which pass through difficult terrain of forest, rivers
and mountains, make the task of guarding all the more challenging.
The NE borders with our neighbors poses different challenge owing to varying nature of
our relations. In an increasingly interconnected world it is the unconventional sources
that present a greater threat. These threats are:
• Militancy: The presence of militant outfits in most of the North Eastern States and
their ability to indulge in hit and run operations across borders is detrimental to
both inter-state and intra-state relations.
• Drug Trafficking: Due to their proximity to the “Golden Triangle” (Drug haven in
Southeast Asia) has led to growing incidence of substance abuse and drug
trafficking in the NE states.
• Smuggling: While the issue of human, cattle smuggling and counterfeit currency in
Indo-Bangladesh border is the main threat, it is illegal arms and narcotics that
passes through porous Indo- Myanmar border and destabilize the whole region.
• Illegal Migration and human trafficking: Improperly managed borders have led to
unhindered migration from neighboring countries, severely impacting the
demography of the region. Further, there have been cases of human trafficking
from across the border.
The Indian government started fencing of Bangladesh border from 1985 onwards to
curb illegal migration. Simultaneously, efforts have been done in collaboration with the
Myanmar government to conduct joint operation for destroying safe havens and
militant training camps.
The Government has taken the following measures:
• Increased cooperation with some neighbouring countries: For example,
"Operation All Clear" of 2003 by the Bhutanese Army flushed ULFA’s cadres out and
India's borders with Bhutan are more or less secure today. The Land Boundary
Agreement with Bangladesh is another example.
• Strengthening of the Department of Border Management: The department has
been entrusted with the task of fencing of the borders in NE region on priority. The
Border Area Development Programme has been expanded to cover the border
blocks of the 8 North Eastern states as well.
• Setting up of Integrated Border Check Posts: India and Bangladesh are in the
process of setting up integrated check posts, along with the development of the
regional economy. This is expected to reduce anti-India activities.
Challenges to effective border management
• Geographical reason – Difficult terrain, marshes, rivers, etc.
• Infrastructural gap in the eastern region
• Stability of relation with neighbors is affected by the change of regimes and/or
stability with the adjoining states. For example: Bangladesh government changes,
Junta rule in Myanmar have a prominent effect on our relationship and
consequently effects border management also.
• Manpower and Funding.
• Land acquisition (in Meghalaya and Tripura) and environmental clearance
(Mizoram) delays
• Lack of economically integrated with the rest of country.
• Border demarcation especially along China border.

Student Notes:
Suggestions
• Flood light system along the fence. Floating fences across river streams.
• There is a need to settle friendly population along the fencing as a second line of
defence.
• Friendly relations with neighboring countries, as far as sound border management
is concerned, have to be vigorously pursued.
Since India's international borders in the North East present an interesting mix of both
friendly and unfriendly neighbours, a far greater effort needs to be put into the entire
strategy of border management. While India's North East stands to gain from a
cooperative framework in the region, important issues of security and development can
only be addressed through effective border management.
14. Previous Years UPSC Mains Exam Questions

1. How far are India’s internal security challenges linked with border management, particularly
in view of the long porous borders with most countries of South Asia and Myanmar?
2. In 2012, the longitudinal marking of the high-risk areas for piracy was moved from 65° East
to 78° east in the Arabian Sea by International Maritime organisation. What impact does
this have on India’s maritime security concerns?
3. How illegal transborder migration does pose a threat to India’s security? Discuss the
strategies to curb this, bring out the factors which give impetus to such migration.
4. Border management is a complex task due to difficult terrain and hostile relations with
some countries. Elucidate the challenges and strategies for effective border management.



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GS 3 COMMUNICATION-NETWORK

GS 3 CROPS AND CROPPING PATTERN

VALUE ADDITION MATERIAL – 2018

CHALLENGES TO INTERNAL SECURITY THROUGH

Copyright © by Vision IAS

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2. What is Communication Network

3. Role of Communication Network in Today’s World

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4.1. Natural Threats

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DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW

Lately, advanced persistent

5. Importance of Securing Communication Networks

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DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW

DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW

9. Previous Years Vision IAS GS Mains Test Series Questions

DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW

• Evolution of communication networks has made communication system more user-

DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW

DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW

10. Previous Years UPSC Questions

Copyright © by Vision IAS

VALUE ADDITION MATERIAL – 2018

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DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW

1.2. Cyberthreats ...................................................................................................................3

1.2.1. Cyber Crime/ Cyber Attacks ......................................................................................3

1.2.2. Cyber terrorism.........................................................................................................3

1.2.3. Cyberwarfare ............................................................................................................3

1.2.4. Cyber Espionage .......................................................................................................4

1.3. Importance of Cyberspace ...............................................................................................4

1.4. Challenges in defending cyberspace ................................................................................4

2. Cybersecurity in India .............................................................................................................5

2.1. Current situation .............................................................................................................5

2.2. Steps taken by Government in Cybersecurity ...................................................................5

2.3. Legal Framework .............................................................................................................5

2.3.1. National Cybersecurity Policy 2013 ...........................................................................5

2.3.2. Information Technology Act 2000 (As Amended in 2008) ..........................................6

2.3.3. Criticisms of the Information Technology Act ............................................................6

2.3.4. National Telecom Policy 2012....................................................................................7

2.4. Institutional Framework ..................................................................................................7

2.4.1. National Cybersecurity Coordination Centre (NCCC), .................................................7

2.4.2. India’s Computer Emergency Respose Team (CERT-In)...............................................7

2.4.3. National critical information infrastructure protection centre (NCIIPC) ......................8

2.4.5. Cyber Swachchta Kendra (CSK) ..................................................................................8

2.5. Other Measures ..............................................................................................................8

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1. Introduction to Cyber Security

1.2.1. Cyber Crime/ Cyber Attacks

1.2.2. Cyber terrorism

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1.2.4. Cyber Espionage

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• Engage infosec professionals / organizations to assist e-Governance initiatives, establish

2.3.3. Criticisms of the Information Technology Act

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2.4.3. National critical information infrastructure protection centre (NCIIPC)

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2.6. Challenges – Cybersecurity in India