&KDSWHU

7RSRJUDSKLF6XUYH\LQJDQG0DSSLQJ
7RSLFV
 1 1  ##+30
 1 1  ####

To hear audio, click on the box 

2YHUYLHZ
Topography( 
((?((<7= 
( 
@(((?3((0?#(??
#???(, 720?;?
?2?;(? 
#####
30##### topographic map2
2(( topographic survey
;##### 

2EMHFWLYHV
.03#(#?02((;;(((2A
  !;0###30( 
  !;#### 

3UHUHTXLVLWHV
9

9B !
&1)$ $7

#2((# 6 
;;## +,(((3(0
3# 


##+30##  
9
8/3(C/3(3# 

*+30 "# 
8
(A+(  9
!/3(6 +30  
4((  

!/'(+30+0 

8
+30A ( "# 
9
!2 

((A+0(  
(A+0(  8!
0  
6
./'+ 

!A*+, 
+
!A  8
!A'("  
!A "# 
 

 


9B !
&1)$ $7
)HDWXUHVRIWKLV0DQXDO
(3(2,0( 
 ';(;D(4 ;(
D;(2D 
 (0##D?;((4 .
032#?###;D#(02
### 
 3(#(D?2(4((
02(,3 

32"##(0(>
E2(; +(20 8
2?02((;,D 82
?02((;,#2
32 .03#(032?(02
32" 02" 

32"(# +(20
 82?02((;,D" 8
2?02((;,#2
32 .03#(032?(
0232" 02"
 

9B !
&1)$ $7
7232*5$3+,&6859(<,1*
(2,##302#A
 ;(;2,4((03((0(
(#<((#=
 4(3(((30
# 

7RSRJUDSKLF&RQWURO
##(2#A4((?2(
4((0D##(#?3((?2
;((3#;, (#3
2,2##(??;(?3?
(3#?( 

+RUL]RQWDO&RQWURO
/#004((#0;
#(;03?;0(?;0;; F
#?(730?0;;#0(?2;
2(0##0(#(2#?
0(#?2(2(#2
2,#0(# 
#03(;((0 8(((2
2((#3(0( +(?
?3((0?2
?#;(((?
#( 
(#((0
#(( .
(((;
3(0(
#03?
03
 23?4
((0
,03
0 ?
D#(?2
Figure 19 -1 2
;;0
20
;0 '#(?
2(0;
 (#(
#(2(((??
(?2?   )LJXUH±3ULPDU\DQG6HFRQGDU\7UDYHUVH 
#03ABCD # 82
(0(((3(?(22((;((0
#0(#2(A, A1, B, B1, C, C1, D, D 1.
9B !
&1)$ $7&
23?D#(4##
0;(((## 
((#D2, A2, B2. #2;(;0
3(<((=#03
 8(;?03(#0
(#?(0;2
#0 
'(30,Figure 19 -12
4(((3((3
 

9HUWLFDO&RQWURO
8##30?;,3(#
(3(#2(( (300;
?#;((((3;;,2
7(3( 80?#((0+?
##(0;(;,3(;( 30,
30;,##(
 F?;(4((,;
,;(3(((0((23( 
B((((0;0(3(G23?(3(
0;( ###
#*;;4(3( 
####(((#
# .;(#03((##30
7(#?#((2A
'71 1( 30(
23(( 8(
;(##
0 
+71 ( 302
3(# 
71 ( 3( 
'71 ( 3(1
0;;0(3(?303((0 
+2((;(# 
#(7(#((0
3( 'D330(?
 +30(( 
F##(;;(?D*#
##30((4((03((030
(# (<=((((
###<=##(3,
2(#;( 
##30##
##30?#?;
3?#(?3( '0?

9B !
&1)$ $7
4(;(2( 4((;
2(< !=3 
(32(3( 
((22(0(##
( 

/RFDWLQJ'HWDLOVE\7UDQVLWDQG7DSH
8#&?0(#(#
# #0(##
( 
;?3((<(3=(#;0
(3(# 4((0((;0
;; ;
"(#( !(0
?;(?2# .0(D?
;,,0((332 
'?4((4 /
(((2A
  ( 
  (2 
 2,2# 
&  ( 
  2 
!(;0#7#"0
,0(3( 02
0" '(27#<=30?(7
((;0 

/RFDWLQJ'HWDLOVE\7UDQVLWDQG6WDGLD
##30;0 "(2
0?2(( 8?
4((3(0;0
;3((;32(3(
; ((2##(D(
#2, 

6WDGLD(TXLSPHQW7HUPVDQG3ULQFLSOHV
"#?(0?##(
30 (30(?? ?0
(;2;024(
(3;(0 (??
(2#;;(;0#? !?((3( 
23?("0##?(27
(3( 
#030 ##(
,2(?;,?Surveying Theory and
Practice, ;0!3?'??,( 
9B !
&1)$ $7)
6WDGLD5RGV
.D11?3(
((#"2, ( 
+((03(00;
?111?113 +30(
 '#?3(
; 

6WDGLD+DLUV
(#<2(((?#(7;((?0(3(=
"##22<((stadia hairs=(3(
4( Figure 19-2220#32
(# 2?(;3
"(;(24(<(= F"#?
*;("((0# 










 )LJXUH±6WDGLD+DLUV


6WDGLD,QWHUYDO
.32(#?###3(
 stadia intervalstadia reading
;2###2 
!3(;0(23,
;3### 'D#(?(2
; 11,##;(2) - 
;<) -7 11=?& - 
.(?0(,;3
(73((#(0;0 

6WDGLD&RQVWDQW
/0#(<;*3=(##
((principal focus( (07(
#?2Figure 19-3 

9B !
&1)$ $7-
;2##((((focal
length (f) ( '0#((?(( !3
((;0
;2(i), 0(
stadia constant(k). 
(((
3( 
  
33(
11 +
((0#
3(;2,
"(11  

6WDGLD'LVWDQFH
##(
((
stadia distance 2
Figure 19-3?"(
(k) 
(s).

,QVWUXPHQW&RQVWDQW
 )LJXUH±/LJKWUD\VFRQYHUJHDW
(# SULQFLSDOIRFXVRIDOHQV
##(instrument
constant ;0 
0#((0;D  D((0
(#0;"(
 '((0(#?;*3(#
0;4 
3((0(# 
"##2((0(# 

6WDGLD5HGXFWLRQ)RUPXODV
+2,223(A
  4(
  3((3;2
(7 
+(3( 

6WDGLD)RUPXODIRU+RUL]RQWDO6LJKWV
((4(?4(;2
 ';0
((2A
.ks (f + c)  (
#4(24(;
((2A
9B !
&1)$ $7%
 h = ks + (f + c=
.A
h =4(3(
k =?((011
s =3(
f + c =<4((0(#?##D(0
D((0(#=
f =(((
c =(
(( D((0
2 13(?
4(2(;((2A
h = <11=<=QP1 
83(?4(((2A
P<11=<=QP1 
80((0?4
; 3((0(# +?
3(?4(#(0?2
11 '?4(11 
4(((0 F((0
 110;#; 

6WDGLD)RUPXODVIRU,QFOLQHG6LJKWV
+
2,
4(?0
((##2
22"
3(( 3(
(<k=0;
angle of elevation
angle of depression?
2Figure 19-4 .
((3
;34(?
((3 8(
;(24(?
3(((
# 
8?
((2(
4(3(
A
h = ks cos2kQ<f +c) cosk
)LJXUH±$$QJOHRIHOHYDWLRQDQG%
$QJOHRIGHSUHVVLRQ 
9B !
&1)$ $7$
 v = C ks sin Į+ (f + c) sin Į
2D#((((2
h =4(
v =3(
h =
a =3((
f + c =

Figure 19-5(((
 

)LJXUH±6WDGLDLQWHUYDO±LQFOLQHGVLJKW

'LVWDQFHDQG(OHYDWLRQIRU,QFOLQHG6LJKWV
((2D#(;((
 3(% &((3g&@?2
Figure 19-6 /; 1 

+;,23((4(0(
((2A
h=ks cos2Į + (f + c) cos Į
h = 11<% &=<1 $1&%=Q<=<1 $1&%=P)$ &
4()$ 
+;,23((3(0(
((2A
v = C ks sin Į + (f + c) sin Į
v P1<% &=<1 --=Q<=<1 &) =
v P ) %
3((7 ) % 
9B !
&1)$ $71
(3;?;7
3(<8=#
D#(Figure 19-6 88 %& 17
& 1?(3
) %7& Q %& 1P-1 $% 

)LJXUH±*URXQGHOHYDWLRQV±WHOHVFRSHUDLVHG
8((2#?7
3( ;8 "?
(3Figure 19-7?2(;A
%& 7< ) %Q& =P & 

)LJXUH±*URXQGHOHYDWLRQ±WHOHVFRSHGHSUHVVHG

6WDGLD7DEOHV
4(3(<(3;22
#=(;;0;( <Table 19-1
((2D#( =
9B !
&1)$ $7
 7DEOH±6WDGLDUHGXFWLRQWDEOHIRUPLQXWHV

3(11cos2a C<11=#73(

(# 1V 3(;((#(;0?
3(3;# 
3(;(D#(#3(0?
V##&@  ! 
11F+V&@P% % 
!  (3 
C<11=<V&@=P % ) 
3(3;
# 
'A
(f + c) = CP 11

'A
(f + c) cos ĮP1 $1

A
(f + c) sin ĮP1 & 


9B !
&1)$ $7
3((?A
hP% &<% % =Q 1$1
h P)$ &)$

vP% &< % )=Q1 & 
vP )   )

$SSUR[LPDWH)RUPVRI6WDGLD)RUPXODV
630?;##D
(#2, 
Figures 19-5?
19-619-7?0(#(;
((( '((#(;
;3;( 
30;0"((0
(0(@ ((20
(0(0(00 "(
(;3;( 
#?##
4300#?3D((0
(# 820?(((
3??;4 ##DD#4(
3(
h = ks cos2Į
v = Cks sin Į

9B !
&1)$ $7
)LHOG3URFHGXUHV
Figure 19-8((2(3;2
,2(3#,2(3
; 8Figure 19-8?<=(3P,2
(3;2P P; 
4(7(< 8 =;3#P is "(PA.
 8  8 0#((0(3( 

)LJXUH±'LIIHUHQFHLQHOHYDWLRQ

PB.
(3(DE) ;2P P1 ;D#((2A
DE = PA = BC – P1b
?DE = h.i. = BC – P1B
?(3P1 ;D#((2A
(3 P1P (3 P Q<h.i. + BC – P1B=

9B !
&1)$ $7&
92P1B = PA =   8?(((PC1P1) 
P. ';3((?;
DEPP1C1 = BC. ?(3P1 ; D#
((2A
(3 P1P (3 PQBC
##2
,2(3 8((2
"(  ;3((?((
(3(0#( 23?(;
0"(  ?0
 
8?Figure 19-8? <6=(3;22#
<PP=<E=(;22#
; 
;,,(P1 
,P2. 92(3(DE) ;22#;2
((2A
DE = P1A + AB + CD – P2D
83?;,2,P2P1, D#
DE ;2((2A
DE = CD – P2D – AB – P1A
Figure 19-92((##(;0 
(2;0;,
,(
;0;(F;* ##?(
#D1 2 8(0;(2?
D1, 2;,#A ((4((2
;,A.

9B !
&1)$ $7
 )LJXUH±1RWHVIRUORFDWLQJWRSRJUDSKLFGHWDLOVE\WUDQVLWDQGVWDGLD

8(#?,2(3D1 is   &
3(<  =#,D1 
;3D1 & % 3(2((0;0
2#(D 
62#2;*3#2( 
;?
D#(D1  2((;3 
#?(#A 
4 9D?(##4((
< 1g1@= 
'4((3#?#?
(2(#2(7,
& % <#2,,
3( =3(<
)  = 9D?(#;4(D(
& % /,3(3((
<7 1)@= 63(((0#( .(0
3((?;3D# 
2(((###30 
'3(3((?4(<
(Figure 19-11=(3<D(=
;( Table 19-22#
;(##(#Figure 19-9 


9B !
&1)$ $7)
 7DEOH±+RUL]RQWDOGLVWDQFHVDQGHOHYDWLRQVIURPVWDGLD

'#?3((R 1)@?3()   8

;( V##)@?(#(4($$ )&?
2((3 $% 8(?
4(
)  :$$ )&P)1 -<)= 
(3
)  : $%P -  
(3;# 
'2(?4(
<,(4()=1 1)
(3 ,(3 - &?
3((3<7=?(3R - &
 
8(,Figure 19-9?(3#?
#((2 '#?(3"((3
D1 <  &=(3< - &=?&$ 1 
+;(3??;3((0
#23 '#33((<# 
-0=?(3 
#D#(((D#
# .(#?(0?(3
?(3;(0;0(3( 
# 3(7((?3(
9B !
&1)$ $7-
(21V ) ?(3# "(
(3<  &=#( 8 <& %=
< )=?  ) 
8;3D#(2((0;,#A 42
 2;4D1A2,2 23?0,2
4D1A, 0(04(
D1A. +##?D#(?4D1A2)V1@ >2(
(#A 4((;)V1@ 20
0(#?4(D1 (# 
7HVW\RXU.QRZOHGJH6HOHFWWKH&RUUHFW5HVSRQVH
  .((2(#3###N

  @ 
6  @(
  7
!  ((;3

  602(#(N

  ((0
6  3(0
  66
!  8(3(

 .###"0?2
(N

  #
6  
  (3(
!  !(3(

&  .((2(0,332
2,((2,N

  4(( 
6  ;((;( 
  66
!  ( 

  7UXHRU)DOVH((#(;2,
#?11 

  
6  '(

9B !
&1)$ $7%

)  .0(?2#
(0N

 
(73((G(#(0;0 
6  (2 
  ,6#2((;( 
!  +0 

-  "(;0@02((0;02
N

  /( 
6  +(
 
33((
!  +((3(((


7232*5$3+,&0$33,1*
((22
##### ((
;030(# 

5HSUHVHQWDWLRQRI5HOLHI
F#####
#( 
( 3
3(@ >
32(;2#(
#( ?23?32
3(#(?;###32
4(#( F#0#?(
0;;0((2?2
Figure 19-10.
((7((
#((#(?
3(#;(4(3((?
((3((0 
+#(2(;0
(,
22(;;0#(((0
(3( 
#((
D#(77,#;0
(2#(((#
(# 
(3#(
;030(2( 
(("((3  
(#2 )LJXUH±0HWKRGVRI
#(3  LQGLFDWLQJUHOLHI
9B !
&1)$ $7$
7((0### 

&RQWRXU/LQHV
(3(
;3;(2
#( ;
(3(?((04
?(
#(3;3
<;(2=(3( 3(
;2*
(,2
3( +4
(3?##
230(
23( 
,2D 
#((D
?(;,
(33 
(((;2
D((
 0
22(
D((0 )LJXUH±7UDYHUVHZLWKFRQWRXUOLQHV
3(33 
D#(D2Figure 19-11.

*URXQG3RLQW6\VWHPV
(2(;0((3
;# 4(
3((#((#0 
0"(0((2A
 
 
 (#
 #(
8#?;0;30 

7UDFLQJ&RQWRXUV
80?#3#(#?
(2#(# 0;((;0
((2#(D#( 

32Figure 19-11 8?3

#((( (3A, B, C, D 
2 (#22AB2DC AD 2BC.
8D#(3( 
9B !
&1)$ $71
?7(#(?7(?17
(? 
(D#(?"#(2?
30?D#(?(3( 
(3;  3(
(3( - ,  8 
 Q -P%  
8(3(#02 17?
2(;
% R 1P)  
?#2 17AB, 
;,#A (AB (#2) 
 #2 17AD ;
20 >A #
A  17AB AD.
.((3;(AB AD, 0
#((BC CD. 92((#
(273(3( 8(#
<#;inFigure19-11=?(;
#(;0#(02(;2#"((3?2
 8(#(?(((
(?((0(
3( 

*ULG&RRUGLQDWH6\VWHP
80?
("
34?
(3#
 .(
(((3(0
(3(?3((0
(;(;0#
(3,(( 
(

3((0(
";0
#( 3
#2
(0;2 
Figure 19-12((
 
"
Figure 19-1211 1 )LJXUH±*ULGV\VWHPRIJURXQGSRLQWV
 a, b,
c #(?(11 1# >(2
)1 17( 60#?0)1 17
9B !
&1)$ $7
AD (3A  (3D )  
23?2#)1 17AD? ;
;0##("((2 
(#A D  (3% 
<) R =11 1 (3;2 )1 1
<(3=& % A #2
)1 17AD 3(x ##("A% A11P
4.8:x x P%  /0% A AD ,, 
8?0(,#2)1 17
BE, EF, EH, GH. )1 17;2#b
<(3)) =#c <(3% = ;2b c
11 1 ?0;(#;0
#*; 
>23D#(#A(;2b c 
AD, BE, EF, EH, GH. (,;0#)1 17
( 9(??(2(;;0
4(#(#(3)1 1 9??
( 

&RQWURO3RLQWV
D#(((0(0;(;0#(
(#;22#,2(3,2# 
D#((2(( 
60(#(((
#(
<?3((0?0
#2(3
((0=?#
;2;0

interpolating
;2(# 
30(0##(
2Figure
19-13 A 
(((( #
(3,?
(#B, C, D, E,  F,
2#
(( 82
&1 17 a 
(#(
(A B, #b is
#((A 
C, #c #( )LJXUH±&RQWUROSRLQWPHWKRGRI
(A D,   ORFDWLQJFRQWRXU
Figure 19-142
#(D#(2#(,;2
((#(3,( 

9B !
&1)$ $7
 )LJXUH±6NHWFKLQJFRQWRXUVE\LQWHUSRODWLRQ

&URVV3URILOHV
87#(0?
(3,(
((
(3( +
,(3(
;,?;?
(# ((
Figure 19-15 (AB 
3(2117
2 F
7(?
( 
#((
#(#<=
(3<=
#3( 8
? 
(
;(
0 
     )LJXUH±&URVVSURILOHV
.37;73((((7#(
(?(2#"((3 

9B !
&1)$ $7
&KDUDFWHULVWLFVRI&RQWRXU/LQHV
(("((3G?2(2
(3 2(2
D##23(3?3(
3(?D Figure 19-1623
( ((<=( 
D#?0#22(
2(;#22(3 
.0(0
(?(#(;((3((??(
2(;;04(#(#
(3 
(((2?2;0;
# (####((0(0
# 8(#?2
;0(2##(( 
D#(#2Figure 19-16 (,
((# 
F4((3(#(?(3((#
 ?((3?;
((3( F(#(?(
3"(3(2((;?#(((?" 

9B !
&1)$ $7&
 )LJXUH±7\SLFDOFRQWRXUIRUPDWLRQV



9B !
&1)$ $7
((0?#((# 
(3(0#2#?((#?2
Figure 19-17 















)LJXUH±8QLIRUPJHQWOHVORSH

(3(0#(?#(#?
2Figure 19-18 












  


)LJXUH±8QLIRUPVWHHSVORSH
9B !
&1)$ $7)
((?#(# (
((0##2(0#;3(#?
2Figure 19-19 















)LJXUH±&RQFDYHVORSH
(2(0#;3D(#?2Figure
19-20 















)LJXUH±&RQYH[VORSH

9B !
&1)$ $7-
#,#(#(3
##3
#;3 0#
#24?
2(20(0
#?23
??
2???
 Figures 19-21 
19-272#
,#  
2(

#  (
((
((2## 
((#((
?2
Figure 19-21 .0
((#?(#
2(( 
 )LJXUH±+LOO

((D
;(0(3(
;;0
3((0?
2Figure 19-22 
3((0((0
32 
3((0
7#
#(((*;
 (
((?
##(((
( 3
(20#
# 
2(73(#
2
((0(3(
??((
32 )LJXUH±9DOOH\DQGGUDZ
2
2 !2
"(0((3((0;2 
2B7#2#B22 


9B !
&1)$ $7%

(
((0
3(?
2Figure 19-23 
#(0(
(( ((#
##;(0
;
 
Figure 19- (2
#?2((0
(0(#(
((0*
 
#;02
(0#(((
22
 
(#(2#
(?
2Figure 19-24  )LJXUH±5LGJHDQGVSXU
((0
(2;22((#G0;#(0#;,(
2(3( 















 )LJXUH±6DGGOH


9B !
&1)$ $7$
#(2#,(((;0?
2Figure 19-25 











     



  )LJXUH±'HSUHVVLRQ

((7(2;(
(3(;0(((2(
7720?2Figure 19-26 









)


)LJXUH±&RQWRXUFXWDQGILOO

9B !
&1)$ $7 1
3(3((#
( ;#3(0?
2(#(
?
(;( 8
(?
(((0*?2
Figure 19-27 9,
,2 
,,(20#
2 


0DS6FDOHVDQG
&RQWRXU,QWHUYDOV
###((
((?(?
(((;0
((2A
 /(AP11 )LJXUH±&OLII
(
 8(A0(P11P?111
 +(((AP?111
3(32##(#
 Table 19-323(
##### 
 7DEOH±5HFRPPHQGHG&RQWRXU

0#### 9
83('

/+( '( 1 

(( 

((0 

8+( '( ?

(( 

((0 1

+((+( '( ?1

(( 11

((0 11

 1?1111

9B !
&1)$ $7 
&RQWRXU0DS&RQVWUXFWLRQ
8 #0?02((30(0
### ?##2
(;0 ,2((
(#(# ##
,((*2((;
#(
 
6((0?#
#A
  (4((2((3
2,# 
  ((?(#(
#,2(3 
##2((;
##(
( 
 (3
3( 
,#(((
3((0(;(((02
#;#((
#?2Figure 19-28?View A +
(0#(02
0((#
3((0(0?(2
( #(
3((0(?#<;0
#(=(;,0#
#(2#((?
2Figure 19-28?View B.
!2(2#
0(2 /3;,(
#3#(3 .(3
;00;2
# +#(3
(;220(3 )LJXUH±3ORWWLQJGHWDLO
;(2 DQGFRQWRXULQJ
#(( +2#(3##?
 
Figure 19-28, ViewC2#(# '2,? 
#######?
((2## 
#(;;#(7(# F
((7(#?23?0;(#;( 
0;(#?;2((# 

9B !
&1)$ $7 
!(0##0#;0
4##0;(?
2Figure 19-29 
.#(?;
(3#0(
( 
;(
(#(#
( (
((2(
;?(0
#B## '((0?;
(3
#2((
(##D( 

,QWHUSRODWLQJ&RQWRXU/LQHV
8D#(#(#3(03?
((2#(;2
2#,2(3,24(
#?;0(# 8
(#?((0(
;#(;2##?
(;(;#(
;20## (
#((2(
;72(;(0
2(;(
2((00 
'07(2?
3(##( 8
(#;2 )LJXUH±&RPPRQO\XVHG
2#,2(3  PDSV\PEROV
Figure 19-302@
(#(73(;2A B 
(3;2A B ;2 +((
@((
;2A B # 8Figure 19-301( /1
,1(# 1 1 1 ,(2((
# 1 ?(3A. (,A, 2 81,
(# 1 1? -,#
 1 1Q -?& -?
(3B. ((3((A B, 
2?2( -,B. >2#*
((((A B ;02(
###(<?&?)?=#(((( -,
B.

9B !
&1)$ $7
 )LJXUH±,QWHUSRODWLQJFRQWRXUOLQHVZLWKDVFDOH 

Figure 19-312##(( F#

?2"#(((( 9;(2
( 1(;?1?;? 3(
;2#*(#1  
Figure 19-3122
#(
(73(;2
#A #B (
#(
# -<(3
A 11 1Q -?1 -=
A, (#
) <(3B 11 1Q
 -?1) =B. >
20(
7;2A
B.
'#(#?
(2(;( 8
((?
3;(3;
#
3(?;0
(7
 #;2
#(#1   )LJXUH±*UDSKLFPHWKRGRI
A´ 6W3 LQWHUSRODWLQJFRQWRXUOLQHV
(3#A B,;
9B !
&1)$ $7 &
4(;22(#
;2# >27;2A´ 
BW;((3(2 
##(3(3;;;,2
?"((3( ;;
# 

*HQHUDO5HTXLUHPHQWVIRU7RSRJUDSKLF0DSV
(3(####
2#2((; ##((
2(;(((3(3(;;0
;(((;(7# ((2(
0#(## 
#(#(;(0?((0?(0((
?#(??? 
####(0#((3(P11
3( #(2((##
2#(3;0(?20?(?#2
(??(;(#;(?(?,(?
(,?(?2 +0?(((
;(?((?(((0(# 
###(2(2((
#0(?;((?( +(
(0P1?P&1?P1 
3(?#D#*
 6(?20#(3"
( 
((((0"(((2A
  (0?(?#(
00 
  !(?((0;02 
 +30(20? 
##(2(2((;
;( 
&  ((##0?;0?7720(2 
 
#,?(7(((3?;?
?20##3 
)  #20?D20?##3?(7((
2#((320##3 
-  +2(,2(,2022(3 
% 
(?(7((?#77((3?0
3 
$  ((??#2?(#?2?0
22(?((((3(3;D?;D?
(?(?3(32## 
9B !
&1)$ $7 
 1 /??(<((0(=(3((
 

7HVW\RXU.QRZOHGJH6HOHFWWKH&RUUHFW5HVSRQVH
%  .(##(30N

  !(3@
6  B(7@
  B(@
!  73@

$  .0#(##(3
((#(N

  
6  (3
  
!  

1  .;23(*
(N

  8D
6  3(
  8
!  (33(

  02,;20#N

  +(#
6 
(3(0(3(
  B((0
!  +((

  .0#####;0(
3(0#2#N

  B((0
6  (?(#
  +#?(#
! 


  82#,2N

  8(
6  8(3
  8##3
!  66


9B !
&1)$ $7 )
&  .0#(2;((#(
###N

  +#
6  B((#
  +#3((0
! 
3((0

  .((23(#((#(0N

  @(
6  (
  ;;;
!  ((;3


9B !
&1)$ $7 -
6XPPDU\
###0((?(?
( #(0#
###30##### 
>(####(022((
##3030;
##### 

9B !
&1)$ $7 %
5HYLHZ4XHVWLRQV6HOHFWWKH&RUUHFW5HVSRQVH
  8##30?2,(;(;0
N

  0
6  +0
  4(
!  B(

  B((((0;(;020#(3(N

  !
6  
  6
!  8

 .(0?2
((N

  #
6  
  (3(
!  !(3(

&  7UXHRU)DOVH#34(
#;;0#? !?((3( 

  
6  '(

   interval MMMMMMMM 

  ;2 
6   
  ;2##( 
!  ;2(2( 

)  +"(MMMMMMMM 

   
6  3;0 
  3( 
!  3( 

-  +4(((020N

  1 12
6  1 3 11
  
!  (#;(

9B !
&1)$ $7 $
%  20#N

  60
6  60,((20
  60
!  60#(

$  .((2(#N

  7!(
6  (
  +#2
!  ((;3

1  (220####N

  K,
6  6
 
3
! 
(

  8##30?202(
#(#(N

  #(
6  (#
  (
!  

  .2(;0(#?20(
(N

  +(
6  8#(
  3
! 
4

  823(N

  #
6  .2
  !2
!  2

&  .(#(@N

  4(#(
6  B(#(
  (
!  !#(3

9B !
&1)$ $7&1
 
  .((2(#(7(###N

  P1
6  P1
  P11
!  P?111

)  .((2#9F;#
###N

  (4((
6  ((#
  !(#
!  !2(

-  '(0((7(#?2(;(;
2N

  (
6  /(#
  /(;00;(
!  60(

%  ###2((0
23(?N

  
6  ??
  1
!  1

9B !
&1)$ $7&
7UDGH7HUPV,QWURGXFHGLQWKLV&KDSWHU
$QJOHRIGHSUHVVLRQ .(#;(2
4( 
$QJOHRIHOHYDWLRQ .((3;34( 
)RFDOOHQJWK !;2##(
( 
,QVWUXPHQWFRQVWDQW 
##( 

,QWHUSRODWLQJ #3(
,23( 

3ULQFLSDOIRFXV #2(0#(
(# 
6WDGLDFRQVWDQW ;((;03((;0
;2 
6WDGLDGLVWDQFH ##( 
6WDGLDKDLUV 4(2"
(4(2((#
( 
6WDGLDLQWHUYDO ;2###
2 
6WDGLDUHDGLQJ ;2###
2 
7RSRJUDSKLFPDS ##((
 
7RSRJUDSKLFVXUYH\ 30;
##### 
7RSRJUDSK\ (((?
((7 

9B !
&1)$ $7&
$GGLWLRQDO5HVRXUFHVDQG5HIHUHQFHV
##, ((2
2,0 #((
, 

!3?
0 ?'+ '?Z ? 2 ,(?
Surveying Theory and Practice?) ?27((?92>,$% 

9B !
&1)$ $7&
&6)(1RQUHVLGHQW7UDLQLQJ&RXUVH±8VHU8SGDWH
+' ,30,#(#77( 
.##0(## 803#3(?
0?0##(,?0+' (?
#(2(?##0 6(D
#;?#?(#??##(;( >#2((
;;(
32 ,00
 
.A +' 9-
1#+ 
?$  1
':A %1C$%71%
7(A +' M9
O30 (


MMMM9MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM


3!MMMMMMMMMM#9;MMMM9;<=MMMMMMMMMMMM

!#
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM

<F#(=
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM

<F#(=>9
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM




9B !
&1)$ $7&&