WORLD GEOMORPHOLOGYContents Preface Acknowledgements Introduction Continental drift and plate tectonics Africa The Americas Antarctica Asia Australia Europe ‘The Pacific Ocean basin ‘Geographical implications of major geomorphological features Further reading Index page vii no 166 188 241 248 257Introduction An ingestion of the globe immesintely reveals an Grace of areas of land and sca and the alent {nine aration f shape andrei ors which eh crise continental and ori areas (ure Tis the ntenton of hx bok to describe and acount forthe developenet of the lrge-sale features ofthe Fans surface, An atempt wil be made to indicate svhy thecomposton, conigrein apd strata ofthe Ennis erat eo fodmerta insert to all ogra pera narra sient Tie leelgent of geomorphology can be taced Geom nineentcentary phys eoeph, trough stody ened “Phyatpraphy’ which ae propounded by TH Hanley, tothe 2 the sinning of the present century. Davis was Tesposbl fo nrg the tre bake element a somwrphology: sructes proces and stage. Structure Emacs the neh of the Farhs surface trom ‘thick bndfrme ar produced hy the active proses {i ecahering,ernon ad sedimentation The stone ‘morph development of endfrm, wa reed {oe ctor of ime Shu which the proces ad Sorted Inthe at 20 yarepromorphelgiat have ued concentrate mich of th eneres ual inp te procemesmhich operate sndon how o mesure ‘hem Whine way decrying hs ten, this account of werd geormorpholgy attempt o roca steno nto msoe physi etures athe Farhi rent and econoese wale Tr wel appea that he ime erin to ring back we togeomerplogy wider perspective whichis ip2 Ieducton Jin he ide Word geomorphology By efiongeonor- ‘holy ected with the configuration of the Earcurtace, with ell and the way rele formate developed it the landscape of the presen da. The tnderjngsipoificance of landscaper wih etre ‘estore, that the hole of human eenomc ad Sock atity takes place upon i andi necapbly nk (Geographers requir the analysis of geomorphoiony sas shai fran understanding of ln orm deve op tentend regional synthesis, Lansorms awed ex eh- ‘Svaly by gions in mapping the dsetuton of eck ‘uteope, Sil sinters geomorphological aa ‘Sof the indsurtacemvauabe for maping the de ‘buton of the dinerent types of material and ci Aileen sts tend wo show diferent combination of the sl forming factor. Eclogts and hyrleiste Als find he sient description oflanlors 2 rll {3 an undemtanding of lndiorm evolution, 1a be ‘Sericen im their sii. Land-s planer ec ‘oginces have found a Lnowlede ofthe org, ht cer and disribution of lndforms wsefal in aiding ‘Unnecessary expense in planning urban development snd earying ou ages cil engiering pros “Acanciplanation ofthe past an presen dion ‘of eomtinents, the theory of plate tectonics providesthe tmowr coherent actunt avaiable Bee giving an planation of the fundamental eli of the Earth and ‘hy the continents are it the postions they now ‘ccupy,iteanalobeextendl to crane ongn and ‘Barhution of mountain rs, puing plateaus, deoy searches and other Major geomorphological {earresScondly, Nazar rch a carne te solani amo undom nthe dsibton bat are {elated wo the margins of ihospherie lites. Thiel, ‘he occurrence of many econamicly valuables {nd cs hasbeen shown Yo cincide wth the plate ‘vargins. Fourthly, she brak-ap and moveret of the Continental masses provides sme amners the pale of palacrtlogic and present” bopcogaphical Following this intradaction in which the gromor phological units of stacy ae described, wala the ‘elope ie sal, the itera sven athe Fath ‘considered. Thi i an ental precursor forthe understanding of the shape and disposition of the ‘tinents Im Chaper 2 the evolution f the ts or {andthe cntnentl mani cosiered, sting the ‘Scene for dicssion othe geomorphology othe mace lithospheric plates. The ener folic history of cach hone it, long bot sonata and Felted oceanic ates, described and he mane d= ‘Sion intradced in Chapters 1-9 The govarpholony ‘teach province within thse mor vison i hen ge 1 The ela imeem of remy) emmy ensee : ren Ors i Pimegee fae Moonee Jani ee presented nso ar information avaiable, Twill be "sow tothe reader ta the normaton weve i not eontent and rab, However, mith th trond wale cmployes tix penblet preset a cut Acenant ofthe man) geomarpholoil region of the ven “The geological time sea The landscape which we see around us she euline ‘sonofmany millns of ers of elo. The The esol timescale 3 fai ret of i and ways was formed by the eration of prceses whieh it aetmed ave been ‘torking in «slr manner throughout the Earth's tory, Exeabaly, Fath history i deciphered fom theevidence of ok srt and particu he din trich they fave Been depsted. The sequence of Sedimentary rocks was frst worked out in the Bris [Mer and the approseh taken then as been applied and found satnicry in ecer part ofthe werd. The Sequence of rock rata sctompanied by the eve ‘onary development of hei contained os Fauna has ‘naling orton of ok sata ara country from {ne outropwoaorhe. “The reoashialformaine and the evidence of valving rand fauna contained a only ean be ‘onvemeely divided imo four eras (Table 11) The ‘Ename perod im wich there wate sen of Iie Fors. flowed by the Pelaroziin which there tar comerbe variety f invertebrate fauna. The ‘Msn chaictersed bythe dominance of dierent forme of rpile, partic te dna, nd aly the Conan coer the ped of development of the ‘mara ander recent ae presendy ie forms (Gevlial formations ofthe Palicorsic and Meson te frequenty refered oa the Primary an Secondary tocks respectively but he much shore Juan ofthe ‘Cenavic sequal divided betmeen he Tee and {Quaternary the ler refering to only the ast 0 milion year Plestcen ad Holocere Formations Inter of the eveation of the major continents areas f the word, velopment since the Carbone tu fermion wala dow are sigan avcomaer= he rearangeent of nd ad ea has ecu since ‘hat time. When coosdenng the age of the oceanic oor, thas been fume tha tere ae few aes mich elder than ne Cretaceos: Te Query, inlod- the Peitcene has ret iit forms af many eins athe world vere ation tok place Te many other reo he Indiet effect of glaciation, rach atthe of low se Teel ean be cbered haves had proiond et i landacipe development The Fash tought Rave had is ng between fourand ie thousand milion year ago. idence rom ‘heoldet are the continents inate an age of over ‘oral wstigaphia mts of dating rade dit {alin the Pre-Cambrian by he buen palcotlo- teal remins. Aswb-divion made posible sed 004 Intructin Division frei 5S Femme fr Oe US Cole saney lithology and succession, tucked by radiative diy methods ofdsting. Four divine of Pre-Cartian time ae recoied the Katarchesn the Archean and the Lower and Upper Protas. Ther ineviem of Several phases of mountsn bulking throaghow the Pre-Camiian during which the continent nile sere added to by geosmclinal action around tt fdgex.‘This proces deed in Chapter 2. Maan tain-bulling episodes continued at intra throweh ‘ut the Earth's istry and in pr serve te ube ‘the ong pri’ of wel time. ‘Ahough the lithcogy fhe rocks more impor ‘hantheiraein the developnet of landinms ie necessary for the geororphigint to have 4 Ceat ctr nit mind of the sequen ofevensshichas Prdaced the materials upen which the petaes of Divisions of relief have unis of diferent sizes, andthe ume princple ists dexriptive peomorpaogy hers lndtormsor ‘ast diye snes ae beng deuce. I pase Canadian Shield therefore to speak of eer dferent ‘odes feet Aer the le Earthy the fist ender of reef eomorpolagist mast te ft acount the anda ‘mental isin ofthe Earths racine ocean bess md continnts. Anon at write, nate fers ‘we inescapable morphol unity and tent theane extreme the nde at or slope che het the divided continent Betneen thee two eee ittsneesary fa the geomorpologt to eae forthe comorphelorcaloqivlem ofthe highs eammon fator which wllenable the clmitstin a sacesively lower orders free features, Tn 1916 map showing the physiographic regions of the USA wis produced by acme ofthe Assca tin of Ameren Gengrphes NM. Fenneman ho ‘hired shi committee sb produced deta scant ‘the Physio of the United Staten ear “Thi major eorebution to physical geography has sod the est time and sed by Thornbury ad ‘ters a Basis. thee more recent acts the Psa geoph of the USA's put of the Now American caminet (Figure 12). The approach of Soviet geographers is brief cuined i The Geagraph ‘al Macasine volume 48, umber § (the efor Feteury 1976. ei exphine that the asessenen of the complex natural regions of the USSR i “eenti for planing decison and or constructive task on + ‘epoal or labal ake (Fgoe 13) A econ order rei tare would appear tobe he inary continental sub-division which elerrd oe {mor disown the USA and = land inthe Sot Uni Thee second ender ei xtra rege sd can only be appied to aes of sub-comtnena si. rami ae the central lowlands of Ameria or the loslnd ene European in areas oF 09000-8000 in Thethied order a re scorned the rein, 2nd the sare terms ed in both the USA an he Sve Union, Inthe USA there areal ther roe ‘ines which re salle than the whole of Egan ‘he dimensions of thee third order eure are [sae rein up wo 0000 kn Tike concep ofthe highs morphological commen ‘acorn then tstag fre, ourth order feel an te determined: she ton Anell-pownerample the ‘lak hilo Dako, which form a smucturl domed Poe Them rei on ers ge Teresa 30) ‘100 km which farther abide, wold on the vious unity of the een The major physiographic ‘sions f were Europes ened by Linton re Te is at th pine that there i = break in the slasifcaton and uncertainty ext, with vt the fs taking iy diferent approaches However, Tesh sare 8 made at the other end of the ei spectrum, withthe indivnbl ao slog, iis oie te work upwards in site to met the sequence estab Theo aA ate the indie fit or slope which imtn refered toa the eetone and pron fom sshick lndacapes are bus The ses can be atembed {nto fee nite the land wrface mhichhane sa Sy ol weace Frm and urs of ge and rg. [0 turn fceteanbessemblesintcharasterst eae ‘ons refered oa caret andi tattrs, These treo rach ize that they canbe Mend fay ‘really upon tr photograph sed wre mor aed fn resoureruresof undeveloped regan. Several yar, ‘20, Lanwn sugested the ferme stow and tt6 Inrdacion Tae 12 Order of rely Fert Soon 0 sneer “aut with fice nd recurrent landscape pattern but fis surgestens have not Seen widely seeped. The ‘order eet are ted in Table 12 Geography a modem phy, Maggte (173) ‘observes thal geographer hve to dea with obits Srhick vay grey in ie So the examples wed es rook have been allocated tone of five order: of magnitude few order-theFarthsetdowntofeaares [FL2SOD second onder 1250 downto 1250 Sx. USA or Austral thd order 1250 down t0 123 Leeteg. ase such as New Vor fourth ender 125 down ue 12 $key. and fh order features Iccthan 12 5k the present account the emphasis ‘Rineitely on ges estres consequent much ‘tthe analyse wil be of cod, hid and four ede estore, mich comprise the basic elements of wold ssomorphoony The Earth axa planet “The Earth ea here, ih atone athe pols ble pherod) which hats mean adi of 60 km, Solameat 1083 x Wanda sarace rao 510% 1 nn The area of the aamasss ie 149 10 bn? G2. ol he arh'ssrac)and the areal he crn Fe 361 10 (708%). i is dear from atonal records and clipe accounts thet mankind as been nested inthe spe, ‘Seca engin a the Fan throwphout cvs ene “Many ingenna hers hve been propane which titemptto show how the Eahar weno today ee into being, eve ofthe more widely Known beng the Saleo-Chviatian acount ofthe Creation Nese the comer wer inital Eath-cetted withthe So Plana and tar revolsingaround Ase the hid ceocury mc the Grecks mee expresingdoubu about ‘hi model and, thought wan nngeted 2 ha tne ‘by Arsarchas thatthe Each and planets evolved sound the Sun, the ides ony obiained grudging ‘nthe sieenhcentiry ‘The Eartha planet nd yet 1 the Solar Sytem, which wheres Scan of he Fan's on must been. ‘The origin of the Fart “The mun and its attendant plant, known the Sol Seem, cei a ery small part 0 the aay fa Shieh they are tated. In astronomy, distances are ‘measured ia igh-yers, the dance ight ave one {erate speedo 300000 kn per second. Onelipi- year almost 10 milion milion (10) klametres. ‘The ‘daance aru the Sola Sytem ie 4 mere II igh ture whereas the dntance arse he play ic A000 ligyears. The erest star, Provion Centar sonls ‘lghgeae any trom the Solar System and eo ‘he hundred hound milion (10) tars whch make tapthe play. The aly can beseen rom Fath as he "Milky Way" andes Marened dso gas, ds an tars sreanged int spiraling ars (Fg 15) Many thers have een proposed to account fr the 200 years. They ill int two groupe eae heres sdvoeated hot molten npn er the Earth ut eet Seas have tended to vot 4” oii. The ft Sienifcane propos san hype originally 9 fest independently by Kant (1758) and Laplace {ito0 whe stated thatthe Solar Sytem condensed from alsa nebul Tis nbola was ery hot ae ovating, nh eubueient development rating om the eleaofcotng. Ths apprach hae Been Eon ticle the-hat np for te Sle Stem ‘Other information at gradually been acquired snhich support the cold or dust oud they for he ‘sno he Esha ih ends ore the ther ‘hoor (Faure 16) Urey, the American sstrnomet ‘nh roped the dust clo Hypotbe,suports is Tes vith eidence from te dtebation of chemi tenets which ncuron Earth, compared mith thoe Town o acu o ther planets and the moon, IF ot en arg propose, then Urey argues ha the {eyes ton mineral shoud be blow ager siceom “rst which would forma suron the Fah ssurce Evidence fm Mars inlets that thas 2 wniarm ompnitiom which sop tha 8 nas ever n't IratenstaeFosecave the Fart thas been aed freaes amount of la should be proent inthe out {ayers than is known to accur. From the eeidence of impact raters onthe mn stoners in America Themen ofthe Barth 7 ave sugested that agment of nick! ion have ben fling on to ee planets seaily since thei origin ‘Nicke-ivan fgments do et around in space, and ‘when one cone into the Fath’ atmosphere plows Irigy and efered to ast metennte Ocesonliy veo hee reaches he sure and ormsa crater as hat (reurred at Meteor Crater, Arizona in North America End at Wolf Creek, Westen Australia. On the Moon, thick lacs an atmonpere, thee fragments would Ssh dietiy upon the surfice whee they ave cused fooner upto # kn long 2d with al impact sree {own amare or sca where the moon's uric as ee ered bythe ea of mp quantities mh ron ave arrived atthe srice the Fath fn this anne, then thee shouldbe ‘idence of iin the ter mule Tes hough ha this eon would radally migrate towards the centre of the Farhan did, the moment of inert of the arth would change, sling the rotation of he planet Astronomia measiemens have demonstrated that the dry length hs lengthened by one or ew thow ‘Sidhe ofa eond ovr the ast 2500 years Call ‘Ss india ha here agree in he iues and that he change in memento feria a 2 reo the irom migration could be cores Additionally, the ant ef ie movement to Frm the preset coe of ‘he Earth would ave to be im he rep of SDD one ‘et ccd rom the mateo the coe at which at tres ake ermeen 02nd 200) sion Sars re Thich begins to approsch the age of the Earth How ‘rer, the proponent ofthese doris sate that many fore becrstine and. mearutements ae Roe) Ter the es are confirmed This butabit nd elementary glimpse ome of the theors and hypothesee which have Been put Torwar 1 ainan fe the eign ofthe Solar Syaters tnd our planet, the Earth. Most sient sem t Tnyoir the condensation thor, in which cal dust ‘Goud came tether and then proceeded te contract teers ry The interior ofthe Farth To understand the geomorphology of the continents tnd cceaee it ix wcery to bin withthe Earth's ath con oni be seudied ndvecty by remote meats ale ole Verne's marinate sry it mot Fore ory cone wo ee wht Hh!8 Iran Information atthe nar of hearer as ‘ome from te wudy of erthquae shacks Thi, the sence seismology, veloped inthe nineteenth ‘ear fers Engraving Japan costiced {eft aromograph and made tps occa nd Thy the em of the mice century thie ditt typeof shock wave, hich mente fete fc peer of an earthiguake, were recognised, Primary server (P} ke the form of expansion compres.on lthoogh reacted at boumiaies of dierent layers tithin the arth they cm ase through molten mater {SL Secondary waves Shorsber wave, iets ih angles tothe distin fav fhe shock an anne prow through que because liguide have mo shear Strength Serace waves (1) only occu he wrface Inver ofthe arth crs ot exceeding «dep of 12 Am These are known as Raslegh aves when the sound has «mation ie waves in water and Lome Sates hen henson horzana and perpendicsar tothe decion of shock mae propagation, The peed travel ofeach fthene waves diferent, th scond- fry nares tveling a about wothieds of he ped of the primey waves Ther sped al ares nth ech Primary waver avel at abr Skim per seo in the sueice foes ad feach a masimurt of 135 ken pet ‘Seond at depth of 2880 kn, ers coc eine “These shack waves ae reece or related athe unde a layers nth illering composition and physi propertis, se possible 1 determine she Duh seg the Fars nein Io hm ayo Wah covered early the pret centry tat the earth posse central coe wih radia of 2040 kn The ‘is ofthe Earth 80 Lane the outer sone er Sramel S40 Kin thick, Ars rel f subsequent [Nostigstons the cre hs een sebivied nto 24 inner corey 7D fete dense mater ‘eating a3 pt body, and therefore probably si, nda ter core (2190 hm) whic aks gir anh tmhich wets more 2 gud (Pure 1.7) The comp “Shon ofthe inne core has re hght ewe ‘fom bots Gerrans have upped recat ‘hat itmy be highly compre yrogen Se noe on Theitoor ofthe Barth “The principe whereby the presence of the care wat ermine eat there exit shadow tones here let sami shack waves are experienced. Betncen 105" and 14 tum shack neser Por S-wave oan, teyond 14" the Ponaves reappear, bat comderaby ecard suggesting ranaminoon hough gui The ‘ly Semavernhich ane beyond Me those which hve beam sft around the srfaee of the arth (igore 1 ‘Guid the coe and extending slant othe face, the mail witha thickness of appeoximaely 34k km ‘The mantle thought to be compere of rae roc ich a mares ion sae i {inition project nas pot frward dil down 0 hi Inula but tha snc een read that rl Fragments of these deepseated rks ceaonall10 brdacton ecme thus upmardsand appear amongst he sae rocks ‘This hs happened in Newfoundland, 30h. ‘west Sand and a prtculary good expo appt Inthe Tondos mountain of Cpe ‘The cro lf comparatively thio skin oy the sorfce of the Earth compared with the cove and ‘man, and on the Seo the diagrams employ in ‘his bok it woul appear as les tha the thick ‘elie depen the Ears surface However i the Sisson between the mantle andthe cuts penal taken o be the Mohorovi discontinued 4h eminent Yoposay scsmolognt Examining the ‘econds ofan ethguate in Yurolnt which aera 1805 Moborewitte fund the P-tnd Saves shred two distinc rss of act from which he infeed (hat there was hallo daconrinty hich wa et Found o be shovt 32 km blow the wrface, Ths Alicominuiy (Ube Moko) ie thoght to epecsent ‘hangs ischemic compton or eal srr, father than the important change from oper, rd ‘ust the manu material beneath. Aco the hscontinty Hs at an averge depth of 52 35k low omtinens it ison about km blow te sen fers Beneath igh mountains, the Mois deposed oon (65 km below the srace A fren, ut few distin, Ascot Hee baween 10 and 25 bn beneath the ontinental sear. This dvison of the crust septs the ocean floors and decper parte ofthe contin ‘rut fom the upper cominental cael materia Ta ect, oh dscomtinty dsingstes beeaeen the ‘se stor (ima) and continental sot and the rate cominent ass (i). Ar fist mas hough that the Meho dicectinity derail the sorsce ‘material fom the mantle, but recent dcverics ave indisted that there ie lately, elle the mshe= ‘sphere, between 1D nd 20 ken blo the src, shih the significa undary (Figure 19). “The iden that rocks could Bere so hot that the enor ofthe Earth malt was rept many ‘enures ago a5 vleanicoutpurings pave visible prot ‘ot mate rok from erst Jepth. Desens inte ep ‘mips ao show am increase of temperature ith dee The interplay of tepertice and pressure with deh insite Earth mean that this es nl ary te, for a aboot 200 0280 km low the surface, the incrue bn remorse the cng pent 0 hat he racial becomes righ and capable of ansiting ee Soe hoi ee ‘epee toh gb eager cy wave Hetmcen heigl mane the ied surtace reds he presence optic one at depth of 1000 200 km vo atmos portance When the hypates of pat etnies comer “The most convincing poate the rence ofthe asthenogpher nas provide bya Chilean earthquake in 1810. "The shock war 3 lent thatthe mole earth irate andthe frequency of iran was uch tat the Sesmalgial reco could ely be interpreted by assuming the presence aso velit ze which ‘eunsmited orgonal and vertical shack anes a dierent speeds. Addon! confrmatry evnence ‘ones om the debucon of eathgurke eens tt of whichliein the upper Om ofthe Eh sere Indies the rit sexe the rks, Below tL the ‘numberof shocks ecomerles, oes that he rock {is more plastic However, in crtan Seamsances ‘much deeper eathgurkes ar ecrded in asocation sith particular structure hich will bedescibe inthe allowing chapter. Evolution of the atmosphere and hydrogphere The stomphere provides minora input co go morphological este supplies moire and a> onto the tempertoe regime ofthe Fath. Water {ales putin wethring extons which break dows ‘cts the weathered prs of whichsrecried a4) Inthe vers and deport a sediment precipitate (rom water form new sell depos "The atmnephere ie ppronmately 50 Br in ep andisenmponed fT. ncugen, 209% oxygen a Sal quantie of eter ees One ofthe mer per ine miner content carbon donde, at 007%, ‘eawsc in the presence of water wil tre to ort irtonic acid) one of the aggressive fctors estherne itis doubt whether wil ever be known what th wii atmosphere or Bydeospbere ofthe Earth wee Ve bot scam be sid with cern that Both ase ‘hanged het bean suggested hat he Each nay hate ‘er mach gen sine with maton cove and» ange ‘pacow envelope which i nberited fom i xg ‘he nl A th stage ceding amunphere domi ‘sed by hydrogen, water and carbom monovie su ‘ound the Fart. The opin stmospee was her {tipped nay and replaced fom within the Earth bys proces which ele outgassing By the time th Fancast had iid the stmespere comet cl ater pour, itogn, hydrogen, methane and abo “wie ar wel a eal garni fhe areas Hagen beng the lies pas, gradually eae! From the Earth fn space sine the pl of any whic held the denser aes ore eflctvey. Lane Tyres, methane and ammonia to have kes Pace pra the eorchment of the smephee wi) {nyren. The development of plan iin wich carbon Sime ed nthe photogs of boys, ad onyen asa by-pradt, therefore making the ae i plantin the development of he Ears sumorphere ‘ee sian ‘The amonphere swe know ito ithe eso long pv fevocon Bt iineresting oot tt sats planct tthe Salar Sytem hee ht ther Frscoue envelopes whereas the larger panes have ‘euined even the mos volatile gat The arch oe per an intermediate postion, retinog sre gs, Tring tere Hh core, and the ompention f Evulsion ofthe atmuphor and kydvrthere 14 the amosphere has changed through gel time, these changes must have influenced the esgic prcese ofthe past. ‘The orignal atmosphere lacking fn free ongen, would have tsuled in very diferent form wenhering, Evidence forthe changing tn phere cal in gelogcal time comes fom the Pre- Cimteian banded ironstone formations, nter-layered iron oxide and sie depose. The irom orden were ‘recipitated onthe ocean Alor as ferrous iron as eed to ilar rom tthe early photog: ‘etic organs ich sr tomatoes bean prada oxen ier rlable Fragment of the same peril of eolope hinlory isthe presence of pte rans ia Archean iver depote The rte would esate man nygenee atmosphere The presence af urate (UO,)in Archean sediment rock of wuthern Abia, tnd Canada indies an aacrobic atmosphere ait ‘eal combine wth onsgen 2nd lange sccm lates tay, The presence earn diode indicted by thecarbonate present ancient sient rks, Tein probable that the atmosphere hae remained selaively ons in composition through she lat 650 tilon years In geomorphological terme the deveop= ‘ment ofthe atmosphere ca Be stem a8 a9 inportane ‘aur ofthe Farts development. Withoat a atmo phere, proceseof weathering, enepor ans {ation would be very diferent fom thine which are sete ted. These mse changes in he atmoephere wer hy Tnked tothe eveludon of dhe oun Betore oxygen sccumulaed inthe atmonpher thro photosynthetic sity by pli, corde and bicarbonate were dom ‘an anions in lation nthe ocean Caley mage ‘Sum and wodium cation arederved from he prods feathering ad brought the 4a by sere The ‘Horde sion an the mater lf probit {sprite conde or a8 frodoct of te frssing procs: The content of ron im se ater is Probably up 100 ines rater than at preset. The lof heer xs was prota lowe, sand pH, {nd thecomequencof the increasing orygenconental ‘he atmenpere wat thet im became soluble and tense to be + senifant constituent, sulphate ths fppear to have been completed by che beaning tf (Cambrian me andthe cerpontion of he eae remained mich the sme sine the,