WORLD GEOMORPHOLOGYContents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Continental drift and plate tectonics
Africa
The Americas
Antarctica
Asia
Australia
Europe
‘The Pacific Ocean basin
‘Geographical implications of major
geomorphological features
Further reading
Index
page vii
no
166
188
241
248
257Introduction
An ingestion of the globe immesintely reveals an
Grace of areas of land and sca and the alent
{nine aration f shape andrei ors which eh
crise continental and ori areas (ure
Tis the ntenton of hx bok to describe and acount
forthe developenet of the lrge-sale features ofthe
Fans surface, An atempt wil be made to indicate
svhy thecomposton, conigrein apd strata ofthe
Ennis erat eo fodmerta insert to all ogra
pera narra sient
Tie leelgent of geomorphology can be taced
Geom nineentcentary phys eoeph, trough
stody ened “Phyatpraphy’ which ae propounded
by TH Hanley, tothe
2 the sinning of the present century. Davis was
Tesposbl fo nrg the tre bake element a
somwrphology: sructes proces and stage. Structure
Emacs the neh of the Farhs surface trom
‘thick bndfrme ar produced hy the active proses
{i ecahering,ernon ad sedimentation The stone
‘morph development of endfrm, wa reed
{oe ctor of ime Shu which the proces ad
Sorted Inthe at 20 yarepromorphelgiat have
ued concentrate mich of th eneres ual
inp te procemesmhich operate sndon how o mesure
‘hem Whine way decrying hs ten, this account
of werd geormorpholgy attempt o roca steno
nto msoe physi etures athe Farhi
rent and econoese wale
Tr wel appea that he ime erin to ring back we
togeomerplogy wider perspective whichis ip2 Ieducton
Jin he ide Word geomorphology By efiongeonor-
‘holy ected with the configuration of the
Earcurtace, with ell and the way rele formate
developed it the landscape of the presen da. The
tnderjngsipoificance of landscaper wih etre
‘estore, that the hole of human eenomc ad
Sock atity takes place upon i andi necapbly
nk
(Geographers requir the analysis of geomorphoiony
sas shai fran understanding of ln orm deve op
tentend regional synthesis, Lansorms awed ex eh-
‘Svaly by gions in mapping the dsetuton of eck
‘uteope, Sil sinters geomorphological aa
‘Sof the indsurtacemvauabe for maping the de
‘buton of the dinerent types of material and ci
Aileen sts tend wo show diferent combination of
the sl forming factor. Eclogts and hyrleiste
Als find he sient description oflanlors 2 rll
{3 an undemtanding of lndiorm evolution, 1a be
‘Sericen im their sii. Land-s planer ec
‘oginces have found a Lnowlede ofthe org, ht
cer and disribution of lndforms wsefal in aiding
‘Unnecessary expense in planning urban development
snd earying ou ages cil engiering pros
“Acanciplanation ofthe past an presen dion
‘of eomtinents, the theory of plate tectonics providesthe
tmowr coherent actunt avaiable Bee giving an
planation of the fundamental eli of the Earth and
‘hy the continents are it the postions they now
‘ccupy,iteanalobeextendl to crane ongn and
‘Barhution of mountain rs, puing plateaus, deoy
searches and other Major geomorphological
{earresScondly, Nazar rch a carne te
solani amo undom nthe dsibton bat are
{elated wo the margins of ihospherie lites. Thiel,
‘he occurrence of many econamicly valuables
{nd cs hasbeen shown Yo cincide wth the plate
‘vargins. Fourthly, she brak-ap and moveret of the
Continental masses provides sme amners the pale
of palacrtlogic and present” bopcogaphical
Following this intradaction in which the gromor
phological units of stacy ae described, wala the
‘elope ie sal, the itera sven athe Fath
‘considered. Thi i an ental precursor forthe
understanding of the shape and disposition of the
‘tinents Im Chaper 2 the evolution f the ts or
{andthe cntnentl mani cosiered, sting the
‘Scene for dicssion othe geomorphology othe mace
lithospheric plates. The ener folic history of
cach hone it, long bot sonata and
Felted oceanic ates, described and he mane d=
‘Sion intradced in Chapters 1-9 The govarpholony
‘teach province within thse mor vison i hen
ge 1 The ela imeem of
remy)
emmy ensee :
ren Ors i
Pimegee fae
Moonee Jani ee
presented nso ar information avaiable, Twill be
"sow tothe reader ta the normaton weve i
not eontent and rab, However, mith th
trond wale cmployes tix penblet preset a cut
Acenant ofthe man) geomarpholoil region of the
ven
“The geological time sea
The landscape which we see around us she euline
‘sonofmany millns of ers of elo. The
The esol timescale 3
fai ret of i and ways was formed by the
eration of prceses whieh it aetmed ave been
‘torking in «slr manner throughout the Earth's
tory, Exeabaly, Fath history i deciphered fom
theevidence of ok srt and particu he din
trich they fave Been depsted. The sequence of
Sedimentary rocks was frst worked out in the Bris
[Mer and the approseh taken then as been applied and
found satnicry in ecer part ofthe werd. The
Sequence of rock rata sctompanied by the eve
‘onary development of hei contained os Fauna has
‘naling orton of ok sata ara country from
{ne outropwoaorhe.
“The reoashialformaine and the evidence of
valving rand fauna contained a only ean be
‘onvemeely divided imo four eras (Table 11) The
‘Ename perod im wich there wate sen of Iie
Fors. flowed by the Pelaroziin which there
tar comerbe variety f invertebrate fauna. The
‘Msn chaictersed bythe dominance of dierent
forme of rpile, partic te dna, nd aly
the Conan coer the ped of development of the
‘mara ander recent ae presendy ie forms
(Gevlial formations ofthe Palicorsic and Meson
te frequenty refered oa the Primary an Secondary
tocks respectively but he much shore Juan ofthe
‘Cenavic sequal divided betmeen he Tee and
{Quaternary the ler refering to only the ast 0
milion year Plestcen ad Holocere Formations
Inter of the eveation of the major continents
areas f the word, velopment since the Carbone
tu fermion wala dow are sigan avcomaer=
he rearangeent of nd ad ea has ecu since
‘hat time. When coosdenng the age of the oceanic
oor, thas been fume tha tere ae few aes mich
elder than ne Cretaceos: Te Query, inlod-
the Peitcene has ret iit
forms af many eins athe world
vere ation tok place Te many other reo he
Indiet effect of glaciation, rach atthe of low se
Teel ean be cbered haves had proiond et
i landacipe development
The Fash tought Rave had is ng between
fourand ie thousand milion year ago. idence rom
‘heoldet are the continents inate an age of over
‘oral wstigaphia mts of dating rade dit
{alin the Pre-Cambrian by he buen palcotlo-
teal remins. Aswb-divion made posible sed 004 Intructin
Division frei 5S
Femme fr Oe US Cole saney
lithology and succession, tucked by radiative diy
methods ofdsting. Four divine of Pre-Cartian
time ae recoied the Katarchesn the Archean and
the Lower and Upper Protas. Ther ineviem of
Several phases of mountsn bulking throaghow the
Pre-Camiian during which the continent nile
sere added to by geosmclinal action around tt
fdgex.‘This proces deed in Chapter 2. Maan
tain-bulling episodes continued at intra throweh
‘ut the Earth's istry and in pr serve te ube
‘the ong pri’ of wel time.
‘Ahough the lithcogy fhe rocks more impor
‘hantheiraein the developnet of landinms ie
necessary for the geororphigint to have 4 Ceat
ctr nit mind of the sequen ofevensshichas
Prdaced the materials upen which the petaes of
Divisions of relief
have unis of diferent sizes, andthe ume princple
ists dexriptive peomorpaogy hers lndtormsor
‘ast diye snes ae beng deuce. I pase
Canadian Shield
therefore to speak of eer dferent ‘odes feet
Aer the le Earthy the fist ender of reef
eomorpolagist mast te ft acount the anda
‘mental isin ofthe Earths racine ocean bess
md continnts. Anon at write, nate fers
‘we inescapable morphol unity and tent
theane extreme the nde at or slope che het
the divided continent Betneen thee two eee
ittsneesary fa the geomorpologt to eae forthe
comorphelorcaloqivlem ofthe highs eammon
fator which wllenable the clmitstin a sacesively
lower orders free features,
Tn 1916 map showing the physiographic regions of
the USA wis produced by acme ofthe Assca
tin of Ameren Gengrphes NM. Fenneman ho
‘hired shi committee sb produced deta scant
‘the Physio of the United Staten ear
“Thi major eorebution to physical geography has
sod the est time and sed by Thornbury ad
‘ters a Basis. thee more recent acts the
Psa geoph of the USA's put of the Now
American caminet (Figure 12). The approach of
Soviet geographers is brief cuined i The Geagraph
‘al Macasine volume 48, umber § (the efor
Feteury 1976. ei exphine that the asessenen of
the complex natural regions of the USSR i “eenti
for planing decison and or constructive task on +
‘epoal or labal ake (Fgoe 13)
A econ order rei tare would appear tobe he
inary continental sub-division which elerrd oe
{mor disown the USA and = land inthe Sot
Uni Thee second ender ei xtra rege sd
can only be appied to aes of sub-comtnena si.
rami ae the central lowlands of Ameria or the
loslnd ene European in areas oF 09000-8000
in Thethied order a re scorned the rein,
2nd the sare terms ed in both the USA an he
Sve Union, Inthe USA there areal ther roe
‘ines which re salle than the whole of Egan
‘he dimensions of thee third order eure are
[sae rein up wo 0000 kn
Tike concep ofthe highs morphological commen
‘acorn then tstag fre, ourth order feel an
te determined: she ton Anell-pownerample the
‘lak hilo Dako, which form a smucturl domed
Poe Them rei on ers ge
Teresa 30)
‘100 km which farther abide, wold on the
vious unity of the een The major physiographic
‘sions f were Europes ened by Linton re
Te is at th pine that there i = break in the
slasifcaton and uncertainty ext, with vt the
fs taking iy diferent approaches However,
Tesh sare 8 made at the other end of the ei
spectrum, withthe indivnbl ao slog, iis oie
te work upwards in site to met the sequence estab
Theo aA ate the indie fit or slope which
imtn refered toa the eetone and pron fom
sshick lndacapes are bus The ses can be atembed
{nto fee nite the land wrface mhichhane sa
Sy ol weace Frm and urs of ge and rg. [0
turn fceteanbessemblesintcharasterst eae
‘ons refered oa caret andi tattrs, These
treo rach ize that they canbe Mend fay
‘really upon tr photograph sed wre mor aed fn
resoureruresof undeveloped regan. Several yar,
‘20, Lanwn sugested the ferme stow and tt6 Inrdacion
Tae 12 Order of rely
Fert Soon 0 sneer
“aut with fice nd recurrent landscape pattern but
fis surgestens have not Seen widely seeped. The
‘order eet are ted in Table 12
Geography a modem phy, Maggte (173)
‘observes thal geographer hve to dea with obits
Srhick vay grey in ie So the examples wed es
rook have been allocated tone of five order: of
magnitude few order-theFarthsetdowntofeaares
[FL2SOD second onder 1250 downto 1250
Sx. USA or Austral thd order 1250 down t0 123
Leeteg. ase such as New Vor fourth ender 125
down ue 12 $key. and fh order features
Iccthan 12 5k the present account the emphasis
‘Rineitely on ges estres consequent much
‘tthe analyse wil be of cod, hid and four ede
estore, mich comprise the basic elements of wold
ssomorphoony
The Earth axa planet
“The Earth ea here, ih atone athe pols
ble pherod) which hats mean adi of 60 km,
Solameat 1083 x Wanda sarace rao 510% 1
nn The area of the aamasss ie 149 10 bn?
G2. ol he arh'ssrac)and the areal he crn
Fe 361 10 (708%).
i is dear from atonal records and clipe
accounts thet mankind as been nested inthe spe,
‘Seca engin a the Fan throwphout cvs ene
“Many ingenna hers hve been propane which
titemptto show how the Eahar weno today ee
into being, eve ofthe more widely Known beng the
Saleo-Chviatian acount ofthe Creation Nese
the comer wer inital Eath-cetted withthe So
Plana and tar revolsingaround Ase the hid
ceocury mc the Grecks mee expresingdoubu about
‘hi model and, thought wan nngeted 2 ha tne
‘by Arsarchas thatthe Each and planets evolved
sound the Sun, the ides ony obiained grudging
‘nthe sieenhcentiry ‘The Eartha planet nd yet
1 the Solar Sytem, which wheres Scan of he
Fan's on must been.
‘The origin of the Fart
“The mun and its attendant plant, known the Sol
Seem, cei a ery small part 0 the aay fa
Shieh they are tated. In astronomy, distances are
‘measured ia igh-yers, the dance ight ave one
{erate speedo 300000 kn per second. Onelipi- year
almost 10 milion milion (10) klametres. ‘The
‘daance aru the Sola Sytem ie 4 mere II igh
ture whereas the dntance arse he play ic A000
ligyears. The erest star, Provion Centar sonls
‘lghgeae any trom the Solar System and eo
‘he hundred hound milion (10) tars whch make
tapthe play. The aly can beseen rom Fath as he
"Milky Way" andes Marened dso gas, ds an tars
sreanged int spiraling ars (Fg 15)
Many thers have een proposed to account fr the
200 years. They ill int two groupe eae heres
sdvoeated hot molten npn er the Earth ut eet
Seas have tended to vot 4” oii. The ft
Sienifcane propos san hype originally 9
fest independently by Kant (1758) and Laplace
{ito0 whe stated thatthe Solar Sytem condensed
from alsa nebul Tis nbola was ery hot ae
ovating, nh eubueient development rating om
the eleaofcotng. Ths apprach hae Been Eon
ticle the-hat np for te Sle Stem
‘Other information at gradually been acquired
snhich support the cold or dust oud they for he
‘sno he Esha ih ends ore the ther
‘hoor (Faure 16) Urey, the American sstrnomet
‘nh roped the dust clo Hypotbe,suports is
Tes vith eidence from te dtebation of chemi
tenets which ncuron Earth, compared mith thoe
Town o acu o ther planets and the moon, IF ot
en arg propose, then Urey argues ha the
{eyes ton mineral shoud be blow ager siceom
“rst which would forma suron the Fah ssurce
Evidence fm Mars inlets that thas 2 wniarm
ompnitiom which sop tha 8 nas ever n't
IratenstaeFosecave the Fart thas been aed
freaes amount of la should be proent inthe out
{ayers than is known to accur. From the eeidence of
impact raters onthe mn stoners in America
Themen ofthe Barth 7
ave sugested that agment of nick! ion have ben
fling on to ee planets seaily since thei origin
‘Nicke-ivan fgments do et around in space, and
‘when one cone into the Fath’ atmosphere plows
Irigy and efered to ast metennte Ocesonliy
veo hee reaches he sure and ormsa crater as hat
(reurred at Meteor Crater, Arizona in North America
End at Wolf Creek, Westen Australia. On the Moon,
thick lacs an atmonpere, thee fragments would
Ssh dietiy upon the surfice whee they ave cused
fooner upto # kn long 2d with al impact sree
{own amare or sca where the moon's uric as
ee ered bythe ea of mp
quantities mh ron ave arrived atthe srice
the Fath fn this anne, then thee shouldbe
‘idence of iin the ter mule Tes hough ha this
eon would radally migrate towards the centre of the
Farhan did, the moment of inert of the
arth would change, sling the rotation of he planet
Astronomia measiemens have demonstrated that
the dry length hs lengthened by one or ew thow
‘Sidhe ofa eond ovr the ast 2500 years Call
‘Ss india ha here agree in he iues and
that he change in memento feria a 2 reo the
irom migration could be cores Additionally, the
ant ef ie movement to Frm the preset coe of
‘he Earth would ave to be im he rep of SDD one
‘et ccd rom the mateo the coe at which at
tres ake ermeen 02nd 200) sion Sars re
Thich begins to approsch the age of the Earth How
‘rer, the proponent ofthese doris sate that many
fore becrstine and. mearutements ae Roe)
Ter the es are confirmed
This butabit nd elementary glimpse ome of
the theors and hypothesee which have Been put
Torwar 1 ainan fe the eign ofthe Solar Syaters
tnd our planet, the Earth. Most sient sem t
Tnyoir the condensation thor, in which cal dust
‘Goud came tether and then proceeded te contract
teers ry
The interior ofthe Farth
To understand the geomorphology of the continents
tnd cceaee it ix wcery to bin withthe Earth's
ath con oni be seudied ndvecty by remote meats
ale ole Verne's marinate sry it mot
Fore ory cone wo ee wht Hh!8 Iran
Information atthe nar of hearer as
‘ome from te wudy of erthquae shacks Thi,
the sence seismology, veloped inthe nineteenth
‘ear fers Engraving Japan costiced
{eft aromograph and made tps occa nd
Thy the em of the mice century thie ditt
typeof shock wave, hich mente fete fc
peer of an earthiguake, were recognised, Primary
server (P} ke the form of expansion compres.on
lthoogh reacted at boumiaies of dierent layers
tithin the arth they cm ase through molten mater
{SL Secondary waves Shorsber wave, iets ih
angles tothe distin fav fhe shock an anne
prow through que because liguide have mo shear
Strength Serace waves (1) only occu he wrface
Inver ofthe arth crs ot exceeding «dep of 12
Am These are known as Raslegh aves when the
sound has «mation ie waves in water and Lome
Sates hen henson horzana and perpendicsar
tothe decion of shock mae propagation, The peed
travel ofeach fthene waves diferent, th scond-
fry nares tveling a about wothieds of he ped of
the primey waves Ther sped al ares nth ech
Primary waver avel at abr Skim per seo in the
sueice foes ad feach a masimurt of 135 ken pet
‘Seond at depth of 2880 kn,
ers coc eine
“These shack waves ae reece or related athe
unde a layers nth illering composition and
physi propertis, se possible 1 determine she
Duh seg the Fars nein Io hm ayo Wah
covered early the pret centry tat the earth
posse central coe wih radia of 2040 kn The
‘is ofthe Earth 80 Lane the outer sone er
Sramel S40 Kin thick, Ars rel f subsequent
[Nostigstons the cre hs een sebivied nto 24
inner corey 7D fete dense mater
‘eating a3 pt body, and therefore probably si,
nda ter core (2190 hm) whic aks gir anh
tmhich wets more 2 gud (Pure 1.7) The comp
“Shon ofthe inne core has re hght ewe
‘fom bots Gerrans have upped recat
‘hat itmy be highly compre yrogen Se noe on
Theitoor ofthe Barth
“The principe whereby the presence of the care wat
ermine eat there exit shadow tones here
let sami shack waves are experienced. Betncen
105" and 14 tum shack neser Por S-wave oan,
teyond 14" the Ponaves reappear, bat comderaby
ecard suggesting ranaminoon hough gui The
‘ly Semavernhich ane beyond Me those which
hve beam sft around the srfaee of the arth
(igore 1
‘Guid the coe and extending slant othe
face, the mail witha thickness of appeoximaely
34k km ‘The mantle thought to be compere of
rae roc ich a mares ion sae i
{inition project nas pot frward dil down 0 hi
Inula but tha snc een read that rl
Fragments of these deepseated rks ceaonall10 brdacton
ecme thus upmardsand appear amongst he sae
rocks ‘This hs happened in Newfoundland, 30h.
‘west Sand and a prtculary good expo appt
Inthe Tondos mountain of Cpe
‘The cro lf comparatively thio skin oy the
sorfce of the Earth compared with the cove and
‘man, and on the Seo the diagrams employ in
‘his bok it woul appear as les tha the thick
‘elie depen the Ears surface However i the
Sisson between the mantle andthe cuts penal
taken o be the Mohorovi discontinued
4h eminent Yoposay scsmolognt Examining the
‘econds ofan ethguate in Yurolnt which aera
1805 Moborewitte fund the P-tnd Saves shred
two distinc rss of act from which he infeed
(hat there was hallo daconrinty hich wa et
Found o be shovt 32 km blow the wrface, Ths
Alicominuiy (Ube Moko) ie thoght to epecsent
‘hangs ischemic compton or eal srr,
father than the important change from oper, rd
‘ust the manu material beneath. Aco the
hscontinty Hs at an averge depth of 52 35k low
omtinens it ison about km blow te sen fers
Beneath igh mountains, the Mois deposed oon
(65 km below the srace A fren, ut few distin,
Ascot Hee baween 10 and 25 bn beneath the
ontinental sear. This dvison of the crust septs
the ocean floors and decper parte ofthe contin
‘rut fom the upper cominental cael materia Ta
ect, oh dscomtinty dsingstes beeaeen the
‘se stor (ima) and continental sot and the
rate cominent ass (i). Ar fist mas hough
that the Meho dicectinity derail the sorsce
‘material fom the mantle, but recent dcverics ave
indisted that there ie lately, elle the mshe=
‘sphere, between 1D nd 20 ken blo the src,
shih the significa undary (Figure 19).
“The iden that rocks could Bere so hot that the
enor ofthe Earth malt was rept many
‘enures ago a5 vleanicoutpurings pave visible prot
‘ot mate rok from erst Jepth. Desens inte ep
‘mips ao show am increase of temperature ith dee
The interplay of tepertice and pressure with deh
insite Earth mean that this es nl ary te,
for a aboot 200 0280 km low the surface, the
incrue bn remorse the cng pent 0 hat he
racial becomes righ and capable of ansiting
ee Soe hoi ee
‘epee toh gb eager
cy wave Hetmcen heigl mane
the ied surtace reds he presence optic
one at depth of 1000 200 km vo atmos portance
When the hypates of pat etnies comer
“The most convincing poate the rence ofthe
asthenogpher nas provide bya Chilean earthquake in
1810. "The shock war 3 lent thatthe mole earth
irate andthe frequency of iran was uch tat
the Sesmalgial reco could ely be interpreted by
assuming the presence aso velit ze which
‘eunsmited orgonal and vertical shack anes a
dierent speeds. Addon! confrmatry evnence
‘ones om the debucon of eathgurke eens
tt of whichliein the upper Om ofthe Eh sere
Indies the rit sexe the rks, Below tL the
‘numberof shocks ecomerles, oes that he rock
{is more plastic However, in crtan Seamsances
‘much deeper eathgurkes ar ecrded in asocation
sith particular structure hich will bedescibe inthe
allowing chapter.
Evolution of the atmosphere and hydrogphere
The stomphere provides minora input co go
morphological este supplies moire and a>
onto the tempertoe regime ofthe Fath. Water
{ales putin wethring extons which break dows
‘cts the weathered prs of whichsrecried a4)
Inthe vers and deport a sediment precipitate
(rom water form new sell depos
"The atmnephere ie ppronmately 50 Br in ep
andisenmponed fT. ncugen, 209% oxygen a
Sal quantie of eter ees One ofthe mer per
ine miner content carbon donde, at 007%,
‘eawsc in the presence of water wil tre to ort
irtonic acid) one of the aggressive fctors
estherne
itis doubt whether wil ever be known what th
wii atmosphere or Bydeospbere ofthe Earth wee
Ve bot scam be sid with cern that Both ase
‘hanged het bean suggested hat he Each nay hate
‘er mach gen sine with maton cove and» ange
‘pacow envelope which i nberited fom i xg
‘he nl A th stage ceding amunphere domi
‘sed by hydrogen, water and carbom monovie su
‘ound the Fart. The opin stmospee was her
{tipped nay and replaced fom within the Earth bys
proces which ele outgassing By the time th
Fancast had iid the stmespere comet cl
ater pour, itogn, hydrogen, methane and abo
“wie ar wel a eal garni fhe areas
Hagen beng the lies pas, gradually eae!
From the Earth fn space sine the pl of any
whic held the denser aes ore eflctvey. Lane
Tyres, methane and ammonia to have kes
Pace pra the eorchment of the smephee wi)
{nyren. The development of plan iin wich carbon
Sime ed nthe photogs of boys,
ad onyen asa by-pradt, therefore making the ae
i plantin the development of he Ears sumorphere
‘ee sian
‘The amonphere swe know ito ithe eso
long pv fevocon Bt iineresting oot tt
sats planct tthe Salar Sytem hee ht ther
Frscoue envelopes whereas the larger panes have
‘euined even the mos volatile gat The arch oe
per an intermediate postion, retinog sre gs,
Tring tere Hh core, and the ompention f
Evulsion ofthe atmuphor and kydvrthere 14
the amosphere has changed through gel time,
these changes must have influenced the esgic
prcese ofthe past. ‘The orignal atmosphere lacking
fn free ongen, would have tsuled in very diferent
form wenhering, Evidence forthe changing tn
phere cal in gelogcal time comes fom the Pre-
Cimteian banded ironstone formations, nter-layered
iron oxide and sie depose. The irom orden were
‘recipitated onthe ocean Alor as ferrous iron as
eed to ilar rom tthe early photog:
‘etic organs ich sr tomatoes bean prada
oxen
ier rlable Fragment of the same peril of
eolope hinlory isthe presence of pte rans ia
Archean iver depote The rte would esate
man nygenee atmosphere The presence af urate
(UO,)in Archean sediment rock of wuthern Abia,
tnd Canada indies an aacrobic atmosphere ait
‘eal combine wth onsgen 2nd lange sccm
lates tay, The presence earn diode indicted
by thecarbonate present ancient sient rks,
Tein probable that the atmosphere hae remained
selaively ons in composition through she lat 650
tilon years In geomorphological terme the deveop=
‘ment ofthe atmosphere ca Be stem a8 a9 inportane
‘aur ofthe Farts development. Withoat a atmo
phere, proceseof weathering, enepor ans
{ation would be very diferent fom thine which are
sete ted.
These mse changes in he atmoephere wer hy
Tnked tothe eveludon of dhe oun Betore oxygen
sccumulaed inthe atmonpher thro photosynthetic
sity by pli, corde and bicarbonate were dom
‘an anions in lation nthe ocean Caley mage
‘Sum and wodium cation arederved from he prods
feathering ad brought the 4a by sere The
‘Horde sion an the mater lf probit
{sprite conde or a8 frodoct of te
frssing procs: The content of ron im se ater is
Probably up 100 ines rater than at preset. The
lof heer xs was prota lowe, sand pH,
{nd thecomequencof the increasing orygenconental
‘he atmenpere wat thet im became soluble and
tense to be + senifant constituent, sulphate ths
fppear to have been completed by che beaning tf
(Cambrian me andthe cerpontion of he eae
remained mich the sme sine the,