Example 10.1 Consider a fiber that has the atenu- Solution: (a) From Eq. (10.1) the optical bandwidth ation characteristic shown in Fig. 10.2. Whatarethe usable is Av= 14 THz for a usable spectral band AA = 100 spectral bands (a) in the O-band centered at 1420 nm: (6) nm covering the O-band with a 1420-nm center im the combined S- and C-bands with a 1520-nm center wavelength. wavelength? (6) Similarly, Av = 14 THz for a usable spectral band ‘AA= 108 nmin the low-loss region covering the S- and C-bands with a 1520-nm center wavelength ‘The operational frequency band allocated to a particular light source normally ranges from 25 to 100 GHz (or equivalently, a spectral band of 0.25 to 0.8 nm at a 1550-nm wavelength). The exact width of the frequency or spectral band that is selected needs to take into account possible drifts in the peak wavelength -mitted by the laser and temporal variations in the wavelength response of other link components. These parameter changes can result from effects such as component aging or temperature variations. Depending on the frequency bands chosen for the optical transmission link, many operational regions are available in the various spectral bands. The engineering challenge for using such a large number of light sources, each of which is emitting at a different wavelength, is to ensure that each source is spaced sufficiently far from its neighbors so as not to create interference. This means that highly stabilized optical (ransmitters are needed so that the integrities of the independent message streams from each soure maintained for subsequent conversion back to electrical signals at the receiving end. Example 10.2 Consider.a spectral band of 08 nm = Solsetion: (a) Since the C-band ranges from 1530 (or equivalently, a mean frequency spacing of 100 GHz at to 1565 nm, one can have N= (35 mm)(0.8 am per a 1550-nm wavelength) within which lasers with narrow channel) = 40 independent signal channels. linewidths are transmitting. How many of such signal (6) Since the combined S- and C-bands cover the 1460- channels fit into (a) the C band, and (b) the combined to-1565 nm range, one can have N= (105 nm)(0.8 am $- and C-bands? per channel) = 123 independent signal channels.Example 10,3 The coupling coefficient « is a complex parameter that depends on a variety of factors, such as the wavelength, the refractive indices of the fibers, the fiber radius a, and the axes spacing d between the two coupled fibers. A simplified and accurate empirical expression for «in a directional coupler made from two identical step-index fibers is given by? = Besoin Br + Cr )] 2789 ~ 3.663V + 0,3841V? 0.7769 + 1,2252V ~0.0152V? ~ 00175 — 0.0064 —0,0000V2 with Vdefined by Eq. (2.27). Consider two fibers for which = 1.4532, My = 1.4500, and @= 5,0 jm. If the spacing between the centers of the fibers is d= 12,um, what is the coupling coefficient x at a 1300-1m wavelength? Solution: Using Eq, (2.27) we find that V= 2.329, From the above equation we then find x= 20.8 expl-(-1.1693 + 1.9945x~ 0.03732)] = 0.694 mm! for X= 12/5 = 2.4.Example 10.4 2 «2 biconical tapered fiber coupler has an input optical power level of P, = 200 jaW. The output powers ai the other three ports are P, = 90 wW, P, = 85 uWW, and P, = 6.3 nW. What are the coupling ratio, excess loss, insertion losses, and retum loss for this coupler? Solution: From Eq. 10.4, the coupling ratio is Coupling ratio = ( }. 100% = 48.6% +85 From Eq. 10.5, the excess loss is 200__) = 0.58 4B 85 Excess loss = 10 | ‘sing Eq. 10.6, the insertion losses are 200 Insertion loss (port 0 to port 1) = 10 ws( 22) = 347dB 200 ra 2dB Insertion loss (port 0 to port 2) = te ‘The return loss is given by Eq. 10.7 as 4 Ren = 10g S218 ) -45dB Exaneple 10.5 To monitor the light signal level or quality in a link, one can use a 2 x 2 device that has a coupling fraction of around 1 to 5 percent, which is selected and fixed during fabrication, This is known as a tap coupler. Nominally the tap coupler is packaged as a three-port device with one arm of the 2 x 2 coupler being terminated inside the package. Figure 10.7 shows a typical package for such a tap coupler and Table 10.2 lists some representative specifications. ei } Tap coupler body ‘Throughput fiylead| 5.5mm flylead 35 mmn——> Fig. 10.7 Typical configuration o package dimensions fore | coupler Table 10.2 Representative specifications for a 2x 2 tap coupler Parameter Unit Specification Tap ratio percent 1toS Insertion loss (throughput) dB. os Retum loss 4B 55 Power handling mW 1000 Flylead length m 1 Size (diameter length) mm 55x35Example 10.6 Assume we have a 3-dB coupler, so that half of the input power gets coupled to the second fiber. What are the output powers Pyy atid Pay 2? Solution: Since the input power is divided evenly, ‘€= 0.5 and the output field intensities E,.,, and By. can be found from the input intensities E, and &,,, and the scattering matrix in Eq, (10.6 FY Fin 1] Eas Letting Ey. = 0, we have E, =(1/¥2)E,, and Bogs = IN2)E hie cure greece thon ahve by = EnasEous = Similarly, Raa aE = te =te 2m =3% so that half the input power appears at each output of the coupler.“Adeviceengineer wantsto construct. Solution: 1n this case there will be 16 coupler 2.32 x 32 coupler from a cascade of 2 x2 3-dB single- elements in the vertical direction. From Eq. (10.26), we ‘mode fiber couplers. How many 2 2elementsarenceded find how many 2 x2 elements are needed: for this? ee N, £2 log? If the fraction of power traversing cach 3-B coupler element is Fy, with 0 < Fy< | (ie. fraction 1 — F,of power is lost in each 2 x 2 element), then the excess Joss in decibels is tologi F*") 0 The splitting loss for this star is, again, given by Eq. (10.24). Thus the total loss experienced by a signal as it passes through the log, N stages of the Nx N star and gets divided into N outputs is, in decibels, Excess loss = bp, Total loss = splitting loss + excess loss = — io 4 } N log Nog F, 1 PRE og w}- 10 (1 = 3.322 log F;) log NW (10.28) log This shows that the loss increases logarithmically with N. Consider commercially available Solution: From Eq, (10:27), the exces os 32:32 single-mode coupler made fom acascade of 3-48 a; fised-fiber 2 x 2 couplers, where $ percent of the power Excens Koes ==10 tog (09a lost in each clement. What ae the excess and splitting and, from Ea. (1024), the spliting loss i losses for this coupler? naeente Splitting loss =—1010g:32 = 1 Hence, the total loss is 16.1 db.Example 10.9 Consider a commercially available Solution: From Eq, (10.27), the excess loss is 32x32 single-mode coupler made froma cascade of 3-4B fusedsfiber 2 x2 couplers, where 5 percent of the power Faces foes = <10 tog (0.950>te) = ct is lost in each element, What are the excess and splitting and, from Eq. (10.24), the spliting loss is losses for this coupler? Splitting loss = 101 og 32 = 1SdB Hence, the total loss is 16.1 db.Hence, the length difference in the interferometer arms should be 1 roa = a= —o (10.41) “ [-(i 2, ) Rg dv where AV is the frequency separation of the two wavelengths. (a) Assume that the input aba 3X 10'm's ‘wavelengths of a2 x 2 silicon MZI are separated by “RAO 10 Gtz (ue, AA = 0.08 nm at 1550 mm). With Mey = 1.5 ina silicon waveguide, we have from (Eq. 10.41) thatthe (6) If the frequency separation is 130 GHz waveguide length difference must be 11m), then AL, = 0.77 mm, Using basic 2 x 2 MZls, any size Nx N multiplexer (with N= 2”) can be constructed. Figure 10.16 gives an example for a 4 x 4 multiplexer. Here the inputs to MZI, are Vand v + 2Av (which we will call A, and 23, respectively), and the inputs to MZE, are v + Av and V+ 3Av (Az and Ay, respectively). Since the signals in both interferometers of the first stage are separated by 2AV, the path differences satisfy the conditionSuppose that the maximum index change of a particular DBR laser operating at 1550 nm is 0,63 percent. Then, the tuning range is an, =i oe = OO = (1550 nm) (0.0065) = 10 nm If the source spectral width AA,, 2.5.Gibs signal, then using Egs, 10,68 and 10,69 the number of channels that can operate in this tuning range is N= AA, wae. A. \ ronnel 101m is 0.02 nm for a = 70(0.02 am ~ °°Consider an InGaAsP SOA with w= Sum and d= 0.5 um. Given that Vj = 2 x 108 mis, if a 1.0-p0W optical signal at 1550 nm enters the device, what is the photon density? Example 11.2 Consider the following parameters for a 1300-nm InGaAsP SOA: ‘Symbol Parameter Value w Active area width 3 yum a ‘Active area thickness 0.3 jim qe Amplifier length 500 jams a Confinement factor 03 + Time constant Ins a Gain coefficient 2x 107m? Ty, ‘Threshold density 1.0% 104m? () What is the pumping rate for the SOA? (b) What is the zero-signal gain’? Solution; From Bq, (11.4) the photon density is Ny=— ax tots) tow 155 = 1.86% 10" pphotens’m? Solution: 7 Seo (6626 1044543 10m / Msimio.S pm) (a) [fa 100-mA bias current is applied to the device, then, from Eq. (11.2), the pumping rate is * (6 x 10°C 0.3 pemyG3 jem)(500 pm) 39 LO" (electrons/m’y/s: OLA (b) From Eq. (11.70), the zero-signal gain is 9p = 0.2.0 107" m?) (Ins) x{ra9% 10%m™s - = 2340 m- =23.4cmt 1.0.x 10%m=* 10ns d