Challenge and Thrill of Pre-College Mathematics (SECOND EDITION) (In two colour) V Krishnamurthy Former Professor Department of Mathematics and Director, K K Birla Academy New Delhi C R Pranesachar Former Professor SDGS College, Hindupur Andhra Pradesh K N Ranganathan Former Professor Department of Mathematics Rama Krishna Mission Vivekananda College Mylapore, Madras B J Venkatachala Former Professor Kuvempu University Karnataka aking Globally NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS i lore * Chennui * Cochin + Guwahati al * Kolkata * Lucknow * Mumbai Visit us at www.newagepublishers.comPREFACE TO THE First EDITION The germination of this book goes back to the experience of the National Board for Higher Mathematics (NBHM) in conducting the training programmes for the successive International Mathematical Olympiads in which India has been participating since 1989, June 1990 saw the birth of the Project for writing an enrichment text for nurturing mathematical talent in the country. This book is one of the outcomes of this effort. ‘The book is intended for students of the ninth, tenth and eleventh standards, especially for the top half or the more gifted of the population. It is to be studied mostly by the student on his own, parallel to or in advance of the routine coverage of the subject in school. In one sense it is self-contained since it treats every topic from scratch. But it quickly ventures into concepts, ideas, proofs and problems which the school syllabus usually shies away from, not because they are above the syllabus but because the audience aimed at is the whole population. Catering to the large spectrum that ranges from first generation learners to the talented ones, the school treatment necessarily errs by staying at the average level. We concur with the view of Jamshedji Tata, the farsighted pioneer and visionary of scientific research and development in India, when he says that “What advances a natian or community is not so much to prop up its weakest and most helpless members as to lift up the best and most gifted so as to make them of the greatest service to thé country. I prefer this constructive philanthropy which seeks to educate and develop the faculties of the best of our young men”. As such the book aims high at the larger objective of motivating the student to recognise and enjoy the pleasures of a mathematical pursuit. It emphasises principles and exploits the challenge of problem-solving. It makes. the fundamenials of mathematics secure for the student so that he does not have to unlearn anything when he reaches the tertiary level of education. The purpose is not to stuff the student with more bare matter, but to broaden the base so that in due time he can see deeper tilings more comfortably. An attempt has therefore been made to avoid the mystification of doling out forbidding formulae without even a heuristic justification, at the same time also avoiding a fetish of rigour which comes in the way of effective communication. The evolution of general concepts is done from concrete examples and special cases, thereby making the transition to abstraction smooth and natural. The mutual enrichment of abstraction and concretion is a dominant part of the culture of mathematics. The younger the student is while he is first introduced to this culture, the more convincing will be his acceptance of the logical nuances of Higher Mathematics when he enters viiviii CHALLENGE AND THRILL OF Pre-Couear MarHeuanice that royal mansion. Naturally we do not hesitate to use ideas from different branches of Mathematics. The consequent cross-fertilisation and the habit of looking at Mathematics as an integrated discipline result as every Mathematician knows, in an enjoyable perception of Mathematics. Except for Calculus and Statistics — which two topics the book does not touch — it starts from the ninth standard level but reaches even far beyond the twelfth standard level in its sophistication under each topic — thus bridging a much-lamented gap between school mathematics and university mathematics. Not less than 300 problems have been worked out with detailed explanations regarding strategy, modelling, manipulation, abstraction and notation. Accordingly, the active participation of the learner is required in the understanding of the book — which, we hope, is assured, because of the nature of the clientele for which it has been written. In some chapters where the learning of mathematics is more by ideation than a routine exposure to drill problems, we have ventured to save space for the more creative type of problems. It is hoped that those who will use this book intensively on their own will be the large majority of higher secondary level students who want to relearn their mathematics in order to develop a stronger interest and a better appreciation of what they are already expected to know. Actually these students are advised to keep this book with them as a constant companion throughout their higher studies at college level. In fact, the book can bé effectively used by all long-distance learners and students of the various wings of non-formal education in the country. We are extremely grateful to the NBHM and to its chairman Prof M.S. Raghunathan for suggesting this book-writing project and for their sustained support in carrying out the project. But we the authors, hold the academic responsibility for the book and, so, for all the errors in the book. Acknowledgements and appreciation are due to (i several colleagues for various constructive suggestions; (ii) Students’ Xerox, Madras, for the first typing of the entire script; (iii) New Age Internatioral Ltd., for the publication; (iv) Mrs. Dr. Usha Ranganathan, [IT Madras and Ms. Radha, K.K. Birla Academy. New Delhi for help in proof correction and preparation of answers; and (v) Professor Phoolan Prasad, Member, NBHM, for his valuable encouragement throughout. We shall welcome all suggestions for the improvement of the book. V. KRISHNAMURTHY C.R. PRANESACHAR K.N. RANGANATHAN B.J. VENKATACHALAA PROLOGUE FOR THE STUDENT—READER Mathematics is essentially an abstracting science of concrete situations. Today it is the only language of precise communication and technical understanding of almost every field of human endeavour. At the first dawn of civilization, it all started with numbers and forms. The study of the former gave rise to arithmetic and algebra; the study of the latter initiated the discipline of geometry. In this book we shall study these basic branches of mathematics in such a way that what we study would become a sure and strong foundation for everything that follows in Mathematics at higher levels. In this sense, for the student, the topics covered in this book would be the starting point of a life long venture into the labyrinths of Higher Mathematics, ultimately leading him to the comprehension and application of the subtlety, the beauty and the culture of a mathematical way of thinking. Reader, a brief bird’s eye-view of what is in store for you as a student, would be in order here. In the first chapter you will be introduced to the different classes of numbers with which you are probably intuitively familiar. During the long history of Mathematics, these number systems together constituted the motivation and the spring board for mathematicians, for diving deep into the ocean of mathematics. Chapter 2 gives the elementary properties of integers with plenty of illustrations and applications. Chapters 3 and 4 tell you elaborately everything that is basic in the geometry of straight lines and circles. Here you will have a refreshing training in the tight-rope walking on the delicate bridges of mathematical logic - that gives mathematics its unique culture of a precise reasoning from cause to effect. You will meet with several illuminating problems and geometric constructions in this chapter. Chapter 5 begins the study of algebraic equations of the second degree and thereby introduces you to geometric curves other than the circle. Chapter 6 opens up a new vista of mathematics by introducing you to what are called Trigonometrical ratios. In every branch of scientific study, you would find that these trigonometrical ratios (or circular functions, as they are also called) would be as common in your investigations as numbers and arithmetic are in one’s daily life. Chapter 7 connects algebra and geometry in an ingenious way which has created history. Here was born what may be called modern mathematics. You are introduced for the first time to the strategy of using algebraic methods in geometry. In fact geometry transforms into algebra by these methods. From here onwards there should be no hesitation for you to look at Mathematics as an integrated discipline — not as arithmetic, algebra and geometry separately. In Chapter 8 this strategy is effectively used by investigating a ixsystem of several equations of the first degree, using the convenience of a geometrical visualisation. By this time, student reader, you would see how powerful mathematical methods could be and here in this chapter you would get a glimpse of why abstraction in mathematics is so effective an instrument in the hands of the modern user of mathematics. Chapter 9 introduces you to certain intricacies in the very counting process, which one has learnt even from childhood. You are advised not to under-estimate the mathematics of this chapter; for, the ‘simplicity’ of the counting process can be very deceptive. If you master the methods of this chapter, you would discover that your power to count has increased multifold. Chapter 10 now takes you to the next higher step in Mathematics by showing how, instead of just numbers and symbols, you can now play and manipulate with ‘polynomials’. This introduction would be your grand entry into the technical mansion of mathematics. It is recommended that you spend a considerable time in mastering the foundation laid in this chapter - because here for the first time you are led into the subject of Higher Algebra proper. Chapter 11 familiarizes you with a major technique of mathematical manipulation and estimation, namely, Inequalities. Chapter 12, 13 and 14 are the bare beginnings of three important branches of Mathematics:- the first, being a foundation for one of the most applicable areas called Combinatorics; and the second, being the starting point of a vast area of mathematics called Probability Theory that has penetrated into every science not merely as a tool but as the only operational way of handling the particular topic of that science. Chapter 14 lays the foundation for Number Theory which contains several unsurpassed gems in Mathematics. Chapter 15 serves as a connecting link between the finite operations of Mathematics dealt with in this book and the infinite operations that are a characteristic of a large part of advanced mathematics, that follows at University level. In conclusion, Chapter 16 opens the door for the fascinating algebra of Complex Numbers. Dear Reader, throughout, you will find that mathematics has a special purpose, namely, it solves problems. In equipping you for problem solving it takes you into the most original creations of the human mind, together called, Mathematics, the kingpin of scientific thinking. Authors ContentsCONTENTS Publishers’ Note o Preface to the First Edition (vii) A Prologue for the Student-Reader (ix) 1. Number Systems. 1 2. Arithmetic of Integers 14 2.1. The Principle of Induction 14 2.2 Divisibility 18 2.3 Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic 27 Problems 34 3. Geometry—Straight Lines and Triangles 36 3.1 Straight Lines 36 3.2 Congruence of Triangles 42 3.3 Parallel Straight Lines 50 3.4 Some Properties of a Triangle 58 3.5 Similar Triangles 61 3.6 Congruence and Collinearity 14 Problems 81 4, Geometry-Circles 86 4.1 Circles-Preliminaries 86 4.2 Tangents 91 4.3. Cyclic Quadrilaterals 99 4.4 Triangles Revisited 105 4.5 Constructions 132 4.6 Some Geometric Gems 155 Problems 171 xi5. Quadratic Equations and Expressions 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Solution of Quadratic Equations by Factorization 5.3. Method of Completing the Square 5.4 Relation Between Roots and Coefficients 5.5 Problems Leading to Quadratic Equations 5.6 Behaviour of Quadratic Expressions Problems Trigonometry 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Trigonometric Functions or Ratios 6.3 Trigonometrical Ratios of 90° + 6, etc. 6.4 Functions and Their Graphs 6.5 A: Ratios of Compound Angles 6.5 B: Conversion Formulae (Products into Sums) 6.5 C: Conversion Formulae (Sums into Products) 6.5 D:: Ratios of Multiple Angles 6.5 E: Ratios of 18° and 36° 6.6 Trigonometrical Identities 6.7 Inverse Circular Functions 6.8 Trigonometrical Equations 6.9 Properties of Triangles 6.10 Heights and Distances 6.11 Elimination Problems Co-ordinate Geometry of Straight Lines and Circles 7.1 Introduction 7.2. Straight Lines 7.3 Circles Problems Systems of Linear Equations 8.1 | Two and Three Unknowns 8.2 Introduction to Determinants and Matrices Problems Permutations and Combinations 9.1 Permutations " CHALLENGE ANO THRILL oF PRE-COLLEGE MATHEMATICS 177 177 181 183 188 192 194 199 202 202 203 206 209 217 218 219 220 222 226 229 234 240 258 262 265 267 277 302 314 317 317 328 351 354 355" Conrenrs 10. 11. 12. 13. 14, 15. 9.2 Combinations 9.3. Binomial Theorem Problems Factorisation of Polynomials 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Addition and Multiplication of Polynomials 10.3 Division of Polynomials 10.4 Remainder Theorem and Factorisation 10.5 GCD and LCM of Polynomials 10.6 Euclid’s Algorithm Problems Inequalities 11.1 Introduction 11.2. Some Basic Inequalities 11.3. AM-GM Inequality 11.4. Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality Problems Elementary Combinatorics 12.1 The Inclusion and Exclusion Principle (IEP) 12.2 The Pigeon-hole Principle (PHP) Problems Beginnings of Probability Theory Problems Beginnings of Number Theory 14.1 Congruences 14.2. Theorems of Fermat and Wilson Problems Finite Series 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Sum of an Arithmetic Progression 15.3 Sum of a Geometric Progression 15.4 Some Special Finite Series 15.5 Summation of Finite Trigonometrical Series 15.6 Summation Involving Binomial Coefficients Problems xiii" 367 382 387 389 389 390 392 398 404 407 414 418 418 418 429 433 436 436 445 454 456 470 472 472 476 481 484 484 488 491 492 498 506 .16. De Moivre’s Theorem and Its Applications 16.1 De Moivre’s Theorem 16.2 n'* Roots of a Complex Number Problems Miscellaneous Problems ANSWERS (to selected Questions) INDEX Chapter | Number Systeme Page | 509 509 ae 516 518 529 543Numer SYSTEMS : N, Z, Q, R, AND C- AN OUTLINE The natural numbers 1, 2,3, 4, ... n, ... have been with each one of us since childhood. Almost all the important properties of this number set, which we shall call N, have been accepted by us intuitively from experience. These properties may be listed now as follows. We add a few comments where necessary. 1, The set N is an endless set, That is, there is no last number. The sequence of natural numbers goes on and on. .. There is a built-in order in the set in the way we write it: 1,2,.3, 4 os as on 5 If b appears later in the sequence than a then b is said to be greater than a. We write this: b > a; or, what is the same thing, a < 8, i.e., a is less than b. Every number has a successor number and, except for 1, every number has a predecessor number. Any two numbers in the set can be ‘added’ to produce another number in the set. Recall that after one learns to count, the next thing that is learnt is to ‘add’. Whether one adds a to 6 or b to ait is the same thing—in the sense the result is the same. In other words, addition ‘+’ is a commutative process; i.e., atb=b+a foralla,be N a) Repeated addition of the same number to itself is known as ‘multiplication’. Thus, for instance, 4 added to itself 5 times is nothing but 4 x 5, that is, 20. ‘This multiplication is also commutative. That is, axb=bxa foralla,be N Q) Both-the operations, addition and multiplication, have another property, called ‘associativity’. This theans : a + b added to c and a added to b +c are both the same. Symbolically, v ee - u a Sa (a+b)+c=at(b+c) foralla,b,ceN (3) In the same way, we have, for multiplication, (axb)xc=ax(bxc) foralla,b,ceN (4) there is a ‘compatibility’ between the two processes ‘addition’ and ication’; namely, ax(b+c)=(axb)+(axc) axc)+(bxc) for alla,b,ce N (5)2 (CHALLENGE AND THRILL OF Pre-Couece MATHEMATICS: This property is called ‘distributivity’ of multiplication with respect to addition. These nine properties of the set N shall now be assumed without any further justification. Higher mathematics may require the construction of natural numbers from scratch and the derivation of these properties thereof. We do not have either the luxury of time or the necessity of logic to get into all that now, at this level. One of the first things that we learn as we grow learning mathematics is that the system N of natural numbers has several deficiencies. For instance, we can solve for x, the equation: 2 +.x = 3 within the system N. The answer is x = 1. Whereas, an equation = 2 is not solvable in N. In other words, there is no value of x in N satisfying We know the answer is — 1 but - 1 is not a natural number. Thus the system N of natural numbers does not have solutions of the equation a+.x=bi.e., this equation has no solution for x in N unless a a. Z={...-3,-2,-1,0, 1, 2, 3, ...} ‘There are several points we have to note about this enlargement of N to Z. In enlarging Nto Z we have been able to ‘protect’ or ‘preserve’ as many properties of N as possible. Precisely we mean the following: 1. Z is an infinite (= endless) sequence as N was (and is !). 2. The built-in order in N is still preserved. It has in fact been extended to Z. In other words ‘a > b’ has a meaning in Z for every a and b in Z and further, if a>binN for two elements a, b € N, it is so in Z, even as elements of Z. » . Every number in Z has a successor and a predecessor. Recall that in N the number 1 does not have a predecessor. Also any number in N whether considered as a member in N or a member in Z has the same successor. Similarly, any number # 1 in N has the same predecessor in N or Z. We express this by saying that the ‘successor-predecessor’ concept has been extended to Z without damage to the concept already existing in N.