Teaching Discourse: Unit 8

Unit 8
Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems
Teaching Discourse
Index
Scheme 3
Key Ideas 4
8.1. What is discourse analysis in the TEFL classroom?
4
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)
8.2. Coherence and Cohesion 12

8.3. Lexical cohesion and modality. Register and
textual pattern 15
8.4. Bibliographic References 22
In Depth 23
Test 25
Te a c h i n g D i s c o u r s e
Discourse Analysis
Linguistics Coherence and cohesion
Text linguistics Macro level Micro level
- Presuppositions.
Pragmatics - Face and politeness.
- Reference.
Cohesive devices
Grice’s Cooperative Principle - Ellipsis.

- Substitution.
- Indirect. - Conjunction.
Speech Acts - Direct.
- Reference.
Conversation interaction - Turn-taking.

Scheme
Unit 8. Scheme
3
Key Ideas
8.1. What is discourse analysis in the TEFL

classroom?
Discourse Analysis (DA) studies language in communication taking into account the
social context and how the meaning of a sentence affects. According to Teun Van Dijk
(1998), “discourse usually refers to a form of language use, public speeches or more
generally to spoken language or ways of speaking.” Discourse analysis grew up in
different disciplines: Linguistics, semiotics, philosophy, anthropology and sociology.
In the field of linguistics, Harris published a paper in 1952 where he focuses on the
links between the texts and the social situations. The emergence of semiotics through
Dell Hymes in 1964, gave a sociological perspective, more focused on the study of
language as a social act, later developed by Austin and Searle reflected in speech act
theory. This gave into the emergence of pragmatics. Some years after, grammarians
like Van Dijk, and Halliday and Hassan made a significant impact because the focus
was on written texts.
Van Dijk (1998) distinguishes three main dimensions of discourse:
 Language use involves written texts and spoken language.

 The communication of beliefs (cognition). Shared knowledge about sociocultural
beliefs and ideologies. Van Dijk mentions the importance of sociocultural
cognition in discourse analysis.

 Interaction in social situations like greeting, agreeing, disagreeing, taking turn and
other types of interactions.

4
Unit 8. Key ideas
Linguistics
We will now analyze discourse analysis in the field of linguistics, which is mainly
concerned with the study of grammar as small units of meaning composed of sounds
(phonetics and phonology), parts of words (morphology), meaning (semantics) and
the order of words in the sentence (syntax).
A subdivision of linguistic DA is the study of stylistic variation and registers. Language

does not only depend on the social position but adapts to the different situations.
Halliday and Hassan (1976, p. 11) views register as “configuration of the semantic
resource which members of a culture associate with a situation type which
correspond to the configuration of features in the context of situation.” The analysis
of the situational contexts is divided into:
 Mode. What role is language playing? That includes the channel, which can either
be oral or written and rhetorical which involves persuasion, exposition, etc.
 Tenor. Who is taking part? If the discourse takes place between a mother and a
child or a teacher and a student.
 Field. What is actually taking place? Having to do with particular domains like
science, religion, literature, etc.
The following template will be useful to deconstruct the text and analyze the mode,
tenor and field.

5
Unit 8. Key ideas
Figure 1. Deconstructing and analyzing text.
Retrieved from: https://aliceleung.net/2016/06/17/field-tenor-and-mode-a-literacy-framework-for-all-
subjects/
Another subdicipline of DA is text linguistics, where we analyze how sentences

interconnect. Applied to a written format we find different types of texts that are
reduced into five categories:
 Argumentative texts.
 Narrative texts.
 Descriptive texts.
 Expository texts.
 Instructive texts.
Pragmatics
As a subdiscipline of DA, we find pragmatics that can be defined as the relation

between language use and the language user in a context.

6
Unit 8. Key ideas
One of the first themes were speech acts, which have a more philosophical base; but
other thematic strands have been added more related to the field of sociology:
Presuppositions
Are related to implicit meaning dimensions that include meanings entailed in a given
structure. In the following paragraph we can find an example of a "taken for granted"
meaning.
Figure 2. Presupposition - an example analysis.

Retrieved from: http://www.english.ugent.be/node/92
For example in the sentence "The UK will not join during the lifetime of this
parliament," you are presupposing that Britain may join the parliament in the future.
Added to the negative utterance at the beginning, which highlights the opposite
ideas.
Face and politeness phenomena

Pragmatics mainly focuses on indirect speech acts where social interactions have the
main goal of exchanging information.

7
Unit 8. Key ideas
Reference
Reference focuses on how speakers link utterances and elements in a situational

context. Also known as deictic elements, they are words or phrases (this, that, these,
those, now, then, here, there, etc.) to specify time, place and a situation. In the
following sentence, “Have you every been to this country?” the deictic element is this
which refers to a country that has been previously mentioned and should be known
by the speaker and the listener.
Grice's Cooperative Principles
As we have previously seen, many factors keep conversation flowing. We will now
present Grice's Cooperative Principles to keep conversation going (Grice, 1975):
 Maxim of quality. Where the speaker has to tell the truth or something that is
provable by adequate evidence.
 Maxim of quantity. We should not say more or less, we should be as informative
as required.
 Maxim of relation. Our response is expected to be relevant for the topic of
discussion.
 Maxim of manner. We should avoid ambiguity and be direct and straightforward.
Speech Acts
One of the main difficulties about language is the enormous variation between what
people say and do in different circumstances. When a speaker utters a sentence,
he/she performs a speech act. John R. Searle (1999, p.18) stated: “The speech act or
acts performed in the utterance of a sentence are in general a function of the

meaning of the sentence.

8
Unit 8. Key ideas
The meaning of a sentence does not in all cases uniquely determine what speech act
is performed in a given utterance of that sentence, for a speaker may mean more
than what he actually says, but it is always in principle possible for him to say exactly
what he means.”
We will now see the direct correspondence between a basic speech act and a clause
type.
Speech Acts Clause Types
Statement Declarative
Question Interrogative
Directive Imperative
Exclamation Exclamative
Table 1. Direct correspondence between Speech Acts and Clause Types.
The following sentences have a direct correspondence between clause types

(grammatical category) and speech acts (semantic-pragmatic category).
I love this beautiful garden. – Statement/Declarative
Do you feel like having ice cream? - Question/Interrogative
Go and grab that chair. - Directive/ imperative
What a lovely day! - Exclamation/Exclamative
However due to language complexity there is not always a direct correspondence as

we can see in the following table.
Clause Type Speech Acts Examples

Question So, you feel tired, don’t you?
Command You come here.
Offer I’ll give this to him.
Declarative Exclamation There’s a 50 euro bill on the floor!
Command Will you wait for me?

Interrogative Request Could you hold this for me?
Warning about an action Do that again and you’ll pay for it.
Imperative Offer Eat an apple if you feel like it.
Table 2. Indirect correspondence between Speech Act and Clause Types.

9
Unit 8. Key ideas
Conversation interaction
Another subdiscipline of DA, associated to sociology, is Conversation interaction. It

is an activity where two or more people take turns to speak. Generally speaking, one
person speaks at a time and silence is avoided however in some cultures speakers
tend to interrupt each other.
We can find different ways to indicate that a turn is going to change:
 Formal method. Selecting another speaker by the name or with the hand.
 Adjacency pairs. A question requires an answer.
 Gestures. Changing the gaze or sitting position.
 Gaze direction.
Here we find a dialogue that has been transcribed:
A: I was… was comin’ out out of the shop when-

B: Before I saw-
A: [pause] Yeah, I was comin’ out the shop when you called-
B: Ha, yeah.
A: But it weren’t what you-
B: I know! I know!
A: Yeah, you didn’t-
Through turn taking we find responses called minimal because rather than
interrupting, expressions like mmm, yeah, ok are used. These are also very commonly
used in phone conversation to state that the listener is following the conversation
and agrees with everything.
In the following figure, we find seven strategies that will foster conversation
interaction.

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Unit 8. Key ideas
Figure 3. Seven turn-taking strategies.
Retrieved from: https://busyteacher.org/20571-7-turn-taking-strategies-boost-student-speaking.html
To conclude, in the following figure we can find the different approaches of DA.
Figure 4. Approaches to Discourse Analysis.

Retrieved from: https://www.allassignmenthelp.co.uk/blog/discourse-analysis/

11
Unit 8. Key ideas
8.2. Coherence and Cohesion
Coherence is a key concept that exists between people not specifically in language.
Language is adapted to the speakers’ way of interpreting the world around them and
their experience.
According to Van Dijk (1998, p. 9) coherence is “how do the meanings of sentences-

that is, propositions- in a discourse ‘hang together.’” The discourse is divided into:
 Macro level of analysis: The meaning as a whole.

 Micro level of analysis: Coherence relations for sentences that immediately follow
each other.
This device takes place in a written format where the reader tries to find meaningful
connections, which are not actually expressed in the text, and also in casual
conversations.
In day-to-day conversations, due to speed, much of what is meant is not actually said.
Here we can find an example by Widdowson (1978):
Her: That’s the telephone
Him: I’m in the bath
Her: O.K.
This dialogue lacks of cohesive ties, however speakers need to derive to speech acts
to interpret the information. We now describe the corresponding speech acts for the
previous example:
 She makes a request to perform an action.

 He explains why he cannot perform the action.

 She undertakes to perform the action.
In Cohesion in English, first published in 1976, Halliday and Hassan regard the text as
a “semantic unit: a unit not of form but of meaning.” For them, “a text does not

12
Unit 8. Key ideas
consist of sentences; it is realized by, or encoded in sentences” (2013, p. 2). They
focus on four main cohesive devices that provide the unity of a text:
 Reference. The speaker uses a word to help the listener identify the referent.
Those books are mine. (The demonstrative those refers to the location of the
books.)
 Ellipsis. The absence of a linguistic element.

My two sisters play the piano. Both are very talented.
 Substitution. An element can be replaced by another in the text.

A. I will go the party on Saturday.
B. So will I. (Clausal substitution. The auxiliary verb will substitutes the A
clause.)
 Conjunction. Marks the relationship between segments of the text.

I am studying English, because I would like to find a better job.
Discourse competence is treated by the CEFR as pragmatic and defined by the Council
of Europe (2001) as "the ability of a user/learner to arrange sentences in sequence
so as to produce coherent stretches of language" (123). At lower levels simple
connectors are expected, at A2 level and A2 +. At higher levels learners are expected
to use more cohesive devices. At B2+ they should use a "variety of linking words"
whereas below B2+ they should only know a "limited number of cohesive devices."
At this point, a clear discrimination should be made.
In the following table, we can see the importance of coherence as one of the items
in the qualitative aspects of spoken language:

13
Unit 8. Key ideas
Figure 5. Approaches to Discourse Analysis.
Retrieved from: https://rm.coe.int/168045b15e

14
Unit 8. Key ideas
8.3. Lexical cohesion and modality. Register and
textual pattern
We will first introduce activities to work cohesion through different devices like
sentence patterns, substitution and ellipsis.
In order to work cohesion and coherence we propose an activity focused on sentence

order, addressed to B2 students. They should write the numbers in the provided
boxes.
Figure 6. Example of activities to work cohesion.
In the following activity, students will have to find the proposed cohesive devices.
They should identify substitution and ellipsis in the text. This activity is addressed to
B2 students.
This conflict between tariff reformers and free traders was to lead to the
“agreement to differ” convention in January 1932, and the resignation of the
Liberals from the government in September 1932; but until they resigned, the
National Government was a genuine coalition in the sense in which that term
is used on the continent: a government comprising independent yet conflicting
elements allied together, a government within which party conflict was not
superseded but rather contained- in short a power-sharing government, albeit
a seriously unbalanced (UEFAP, 2020).

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Unit 8. Key ideas
Modality is related to the speaker or writer’s attitude about the world. Through the
use of modal verbs or expressions, many different functions can be expressed:
Certainty, possibility, probability, ability, obligation, permission, etc. The main modal
verbs are can, could, will, would, must, should, may, might but there are a number of
expressions that can also express these functions as we can find in the table below.
Modal form Phonetic transcription of key word
Noun There is a chance/possibility that the weather gets better.
Adjective It is clear that I will not pass this exam
Adverb I am certainly tired of all this stress.
Table 3. Modality through different expressions.
We will now present an activity to work on the function of the different modal verbs
through quotes. The teacher will write some quotes of famous writers, singers,
philosophers and students should guess whether they express probability, possibility,
permission, obligation, prediction…
Figure 7. Function of the different modal verbs.

Retrieved from: https://flipmemes.com/2019/11/02/change-your-attitudes-dont-look-for-suiting-quotes/

16
Unit 8. Key ideas
Once students are familiarized with the different functions through specific
examples, we could introduce some sentences and they will have to change the
function for example, from prediction to obligation or from ability to inability.
My son is not very good at language, he is not able to pass any language
subjects. (This sentence expresses a lack of ability through a semi-modal be able
to).
The teacher will ask students to turn this sentence into a positive form, expressing
ability. Students will be expected to say:
My son is not very good at language, however he was able to pass/he could
pass some language subjects.
As we saw in unit 4, different registers can be found in oral and written language and
the mastery of a language, also, depends on attaching to the right register according
to the situation. We will now propose some activities where students should identify
whether it is a formal or an informal register. The teacher will give students a
sentence
“As the price of five dollars was reasonable, I decided to purchase it.”
Students are expected to know this is formal register due to words like reasonable,
purchase, also lack of contractions, and sentence structure.
Now, the teacher will ask students with at least a B2 level of English to turn this
sentence into an informal register. A possible answer could be:
“It was like 5 bucks, but it was OK.”
We are conveying the same message, but some features characteristic of informal
language can be found: Bucks referring to dollars, OK replacing decided. Another
feature inherent to informal language are shorter sentences. Also, the adverb of

17
Unit 8. Key ideas
manner like is a filler which does not add any specific meaning, but it is typical of
informal language.
Another activity to work different registers could be to introduce two written texts
with an informal and a formal register, respectively. Students should identify the
different vocabulary and grammatical features of each register.
Example 1
Good afternoon, ladies and gentlemen. We are gathered here today to discuss
some minor matters relating to the company's operation.
The first point on the agenda relates to the remote log-in system for our
company's computer network. Pleased be informed that from the coming
Monday, you must use the new security number on the card with which you
have recently been issued. Failure to use the card correctly will result in an
inability to log in. So please be reminded to carry your card with you at all times.
Example 2
Hi everybody, and thanks for giving up your time to come. I know you're all very
busy. There are a just a few things we need to discuss so I'll try not to take up
too much of your time.
First of all, I'd like to tell you about the changes we've made to the remote log
in system for the computer network. If you're logging in at home or away from
the office, from Monday you'll need to key in your new security number – that's
the one on the plastic card you should have been given this week. So do make
sure you keep that card with you, otherwise you won't be able to log in (ELT
Base, n. d.).
Students should get in pairs and fill in the different columns regarding formal and
informal register.

18
Unit 8. Key ideas
Phrases used in Words more
Long sentences formal language formal Examples
1
2
3
Table 4. Formal language.
Improvised speech Every day phrases,

Short sentences (typical oral language) contractions Examples
1
2
3
Table 5. Informal language.
We will now analyze the different text patterns followed by some activities to exploit
the different types of texts.
E.g., This book will explain

This text structure features a everything you need to know
Description detailed description. about marine mammals.
The text presents the casual
relation between a specific event E.g., All this snow is the result of
or idea and the concept, idea or a storm with very low
Cause and effect event that follows. temperatures.
This type of text examines the E.g., This novel will describe the
differences and similarities way men and women lived
between two or more things, differently during the Victorian
Comparison/contrast people, and circumstances. Era.
E.g., First the play introduces the
The text follows the main characters and after the
Order/sequence chronological order or events. protagonist dies.

E.g., The patient who was
The text presents a problem and feeling really sick was given a
Problem-solution gives a solution. very effective medicine.
Table 6. Different text structures with their corresponding examples.

19
Unit 8. Key ideas
We will now present some activities to work the different textual patterns. The
teacher will introduce a text, see example below, and students will have to infer what
type of text it is justifying their answer.
Figure 8. Example of a description text structure. Retrieved from:

https://www.tes.com/lessons/XH4OJ9zLYxiKEQ/teaching-text-structures-with-movies
Students who have an intermediate/advanced level of English are supposed to

deduce it is a descriptive text that explains the rules of soccer.
Another activity also focused to intermediate+ students is introducing this text (see
image below) and ask students to work in pairs on the causes and effects. Once they
infer it from the text, they write the answers down on the board.

20
Unit 8. Key ideas
Figure 9. Cause-effect text structure. Retrieved from:
https://www.tes.com/lessons/XH4OJ9zLYxiKEQ/teaching-text-structures-with-movies
Video. Different types of registers according to the different types of discourse.

Access to the video through the virtual campus

21
Unit 8. Key ideas
8.4. Bibliographic References
Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages:

Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, U.K: Press Syndicate of the University of
Cambridge. Retrieved from: https://rm.coe.int/168045b15e
ELT Base. (N. d.). Formal and informal language - making announcements [online].
Retrieved from: https://www.eltbase.com/worksheet-531-formal-and-informal-
language-making-announcements
Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (eds.) Studies in
Syntax and Semantics III: Speech Acts, New York: Academic Press, pp. 183-98.
Halliday, M. A. K., Hassan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Routledge.
Hymes, D. H. (Ed.). (1964). Language in culture and society: A reader in linguistics and
anthropology. New York: Harper & Row.
Searle, J. R. (1999). Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.
Van Dijk, T. A. (1998). The Study of Discourse. In Teun A Van Dijk (Ed.), Discourse as
Structure and Process. Discourse Studies: A Multidisciplinary Introduction (Vol. 1, pp.
1-34). London: Sage Publications.
Widdowson, H. G. (1978). Teaching Language as Communication. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.
UEFAP. [2020]. Writing paragraphs. Retrieved from:

http://www.uefap.com/writing/exercise/parag/refer.htm

22
Unit 8. Key ideas
In Depth
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages:

Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, U.K: Press Syndicate of the University of
Cambridge. Retrieved from: https://rm.coe.int/168045b15e
Throughout this official document, we will see the importance of Discourse Analysis
according to the European policy applied to the four skills and all levels. It is very
useful to analyze the different cohesive devices that should be mastered at different
levels.
Teaching Text Structures with Movies
Mungin, E. (N. d.). Teaching Text Structures with Movies. Blendspace. Retrieved February
27, 2020, from: https://www.tes.com/lessons/XH4OJ9zLYxiKEQ/teaching-text-
structures-with-movies
This website helps students to learn text structures in a more dynamic way, through
well-known movies. Since it is a visually-appealing tool students will also feel
motivated to use images and not just words to sequence events.

23
Unit 8. In Depth
What is meant by discourse analysis?
Universiteit Gent. (N. d.). What is meant by discourse analysis? Retrieved Febraury 27,
2020, from: http://www.english.ugent.be/da
This resource is very useful to see the different subdisciplines of DA: Philosophy,
anthropology, sociology, linguistics and to deepen on the difficulty of communication
exchanges and language attached to a situational context. The different described
features will help conversation process flow.
Bibliography
Dickson, S. V., Simmons, D. C. and Kameenui, E. J. (1995). Text organization and its
relation to reading comprehension: A synthesis of research. Eugene, OR: National
Center to Improve the Tools of Educators. Retrieved March 26, 2008, from
http://idea.uoregon.edu/~ncite/documents/techrep/tech17.html
Yule, G. (2008). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
TKI. (May 7, 2009). Turn taking [Blog post]. Retrieved from:

https://englishonline.tki.org.nz/English-Online/Planning-for-my-students-
needs/Exploring-language/The-Language-of-Conversation/Turn-Taking

24
Unit 8. In Depth
Test
1. Who quoted the following statement “configuration of the semantic resource
which members of a culture associate with a situation type which correspond to
the configuration of features in the context of situation”:
A. Halliday.
B. Van Dijk.
C. Grice.
2. The following sentence “Could you bring me my coat?” is a ………………………….. act.

A. Direct Speech.
B. Indirect Speech.
C. None of the previous answers is correct.
3. What cohesive device can you find in the following sentence? “I like eating soup
because it is very healthy”:
A. Conjunction.
B. Conjunction and ellipsis.
C. Conjunction and substitution.
4. Some pragmatic elements are:

A. Politeness and face, referents and speech acts.
B. Politeness and referents.
C. Referents and speech acts.
5. What text pattern is the following sentence? “In this play we can find more men
than women”:
A. Comparison/contrast.
B. Problem/solution.
C. Description.

25
Unit 8. Test
6. The seven turn-taking strategies are:
A. Fluency, speak then ask, use conjunctions, phrases for agreeing and disagreeing,
asking and giving opinions, fillers for pauses and interruptions.
B. Lack of fluency, speak then ask, use conjunctions, phrases for agreeing and
disagreeing, asking and giving opinions, fillers for pauses and avoid interruptions.
C. Fluency, speak then ask, use conjunctions, phrases for agreeing and disagreeing,
asking and giving opinions, fillers for pauses and avoid interruptions.
7. In the following sentence: “I love reading Shakespeare’s books. These are the best
plays every written,” What is the element these?
A. Demonstrative referents.
B. Deictic elements expressing time.
C. Deictic elements expressing place.
8. What modality can we find in the following sentence? “He might arrive home a bit
late because his car had a puncture.”
A. The verb might is modal and expresses lack of ability.
B. The verb might is modal and expresses a prediction.
C. The verb might is modal and expresses a possibility.
9. The mode to analyze a situation is:

A. The role that language is playing, whether the channel is oral or written.
B. What is actually taking place?
C. Who is talking part in the discourse?
10. Long sentences and the use of phrasal verbs are some features of…………..register.
A. Formal.
B. Informal.
C None of the previous answers is correct.

26
Unit 8. Test

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Unit 8

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

8.2. Coherence and Cohesion 12

Linguistics Coherence and cohesion

Text linguistics Macro level Micro level

Grice’s Cooperative Principle - Ellipsis.

Conversation interaction - Turn-taking.

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

8.1. What is discourse analysis in the TEFL

Van Dijk (1998) distinguishes three main dimensions of discourse:

 Language use involves written texts and spoken language.

cognition in discourse analysis.

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

A subdivision of linguistic DA is the study of stylistic variation and registers. Language

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

Another subdicipline of DA is text linguistics, where we analyze how sentences

As a subdiscipline of DA, we find pragmatics that can be defined as the relation

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

Figure 2. Presupposition - an example analysis.

Face and politeness phenomena

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

Reference focuses on how speakers link utterances and elements in a situational

Grice's Cooperative Principles

acts performed in the utterance of a sentence are in general a function of the

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

Table 1. Direct correspondence between Speech Acts and Clause Types.

The following sentences have a direct correspondence between clause types

However due to language complexity there is not always a direct correspondence as

Clause Type Speech Acts Examples

Command Will you wait for me?

Table 2. Indirect correspondence between Speech Act and Clause Types.

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

Another subdiscipline of DA, associated to sociology, is Conversation interaction. It

We can find different ways to indicate that a turn is going to change:

Here we find a dialogue that has been transcribed:

A: I was… was comin’ out out of the shop when-

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

Figure 4. Approaches to Discourse Analysis.

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

According to Van Dijk (1998, p. 9) coherence is “how do the meanings of sentences-

 Macro level of analysis: The meaning as a whole.

 She makes a request to perform an action.

 He explains why he cannot perform the action.

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

 Ellipsis. The absence of a linguistic element.

 Substitution. An element can be replaced by another in the text.

 Conjunction. Marks the relationship between segments of the text.

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

In order to work cohesion and coherence we propose an activity focused on sentence

Figure 6. Example of activities to work cohesion.

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

Modal form Phonetic transcription of key word

Noun There is a chance/possibility that the weather gets better.

Adjective It is clear that I will not pass this exam

Adverb I am certainly tired of all this stress.

Table 3. Modality through different expressions.

Figure 7. Function of the different modal verbs.

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

“It was like 5 bucks, but it was OK.”

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

Methods for Teaching EFL: Systems

Table 4. Formal language.