REGULATIONS - 2017

YEAR/SEM: III/VI SUBJECT CODE & NAME: EC8004 – WIRELESS NETWORKS

HANDOUT
UNIT I – WIRELESS LAN

Responsibilities of MAC management sublayer 802.11

• The MAC layer management sublayer is responsible for roaming in ESS,power management
and association, dissociation and reassociation processesfor registration connection
management.

Functions of physical layer IEEE 802.11

• Encoding/Decoding of signals
• Preamble generation/removal
• Bit transmission/reception
• Includes specification of the transmission medium.

Wimax features
Wimax-Worldwide Inter-operability for Microwave access.
Features:
• Service area range 50km
• Very high spectrum utilization;3.8 bit/Hz
• Upto 280 Mbps per BS.
HIPERLAN-2 protocols
• Radio Link Control(RLC) Protocol
• DLC connection Protocol
• Radio Resource Protocol (RRP)
• Association Control Function (ACF)

Logical channels in Bluetooth.

• Link Control (LC)
• Link Manager(LM)
• User Asynchronous (UA)
• User Isochronous (UI)
• User Synchronous (US)

Responsibilities of MAC sub layer IEEE 8021.11

• MAC Sub Layer→Fragmentation and reassembly of packets

Hidden terminal and exposed terminal problem

• Hidden terminal problem→if 2 nodes send data to same destinator simultaneously
• Exposed terminal problem→while a node sending data at a time if it rx data same time
By using RTS/CTS,can avoid the above.

Page | 1
 Spread spectrum technique
• Spread spectrum techniques spread information over a very large bandwidth specifically, a
bandwidth that is much larger than the inverse of the data rate.

IR transmission Vs UHF

INFRARED UHF Narrowband

light based Txn using 900nm wavelength RF based transmission

Requires direct LOS for good Tx Not required LOS

cannot penetrate through walls canpenetrate through walls

Requires low BW,no need for license It support both unlicensed band(430-
450MHz) and licensed (450-470MHz)

Characteristics of MANET
• Infrastructure-less dynamic multihop network. It does not have a definite Topology.No central
router required. Data takes multiple hops before reaching destination

WiMAX architecture

• Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) is a wireless communications

standard for Metropolitan Area Networks..
• Networks covering whole cities or even whole countries.
• It is a IEEE 802.16d.. originally intended for data communications.
• For voice communication( is enabled by Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)).
• The modulation format →MIMO/OFDM/OFDMA…
• This uses licensed worldwide spectrum →2.3 GHz, 2.5GHz, 3.3 GHz, and 3.5 GHz frequency
bands
• A main goal of this architecture is to separate the over-the-air access (the Access Service
Network (ASN) from the Internet access (Connectivity Service Network (CSN).
• The ASN provides the over-the-air connectivity corresponding to the PHY and MAC layer as
defined in the IEEE 802.16 (scheduling and resource management)
• It discovers which networks are available and connects the user to the preferred (permissible)
CSN..
• Each BS is connected to an ASN Gateway,which has somewhat similar functionality as the BS
controller in GSM..

Page | 2
 • During network discovery, the Mobile Station (MS) discovers both the access service provider
and the available Network Service Provider (NSP).

• The MAC layer consists→ (i) the MAC Convergence Sublayer (CS), (ii) the MAC Common Part
Sublayer, and (iii) the MAC Security Sublayer.
1) Convergence Sublayer→ receives data packets from higher layers and modify the suitable
format for sending via air medium by suppressing redundant information in their headers..
2) Common Part Sublayer→provides the essential support functions for the over the-air
transmission of the information.
• It includes such functions as signaling,modulation/coding scheme, feedback and bandwidth
allocation.
• It also provides fragmentation and packing…
3) Security Sublayer→ assign service flow identifier (ID), Connection Identifier (CID), provisioned
QoS parameters and the authorization module.
HIPERLAN standards
Data rate 23.529Mbps.
Coverage 100m,frequency 5.2GHZ.
Supports asynchronous and synchronous
Support power saving
Each HIPERLAN node is either forwarder (F) or non-forwarder.
Forwarder Node →receive packet and retransmit it to the other node.
Non-forwarder Node →Simply it accept a packet intended for it.
Each non forwarder node select at least one forwarder node as a neighbor.
Page | 3
 Both nodes periodically update the routing database.
Connection between the MS and AP is similar to WLAN.
But communication between APs are different.
It allows handover in a subnet and IP based handover for non homogeneous network.
It support seamless interoperation Ethernet and point-point connection.
• DSSS communicates non overlapping pulses at the chip rate of 11Mcps,which occupy 26 MHz.

WLAN
PHY
layer

Functions
1)FHSS PHY (Frequency-hopping spread spectrum)
Two data rates for transmission at 1 and 2Mbps.
Available channel 78 with a BW of 1GHz.
Modulation technique is GFSK.
Each BSS select one of the three patterns of 26 hops with the 3 groups..
Group1→(0,3,6,….75),Group2→(1,4,…76) and Group3→(2,5,…77)
In FHSS PHY, data transmission over media is controlled by the
FHSS PMD sublayer as directed by the
FHSS PLCP sublayer.
Binary information bits converts them
into RF signals by using carrier modulation
and FHSS techniques.
Data whitening is used for the PSDU before
transmission to
minimize DC bias on the data if long strings
of 1s or 0s are contained in the PSDU. The
PHY stuffs a special symbol every 4 octets
of the PSDU in a PPDU frame

Page | 4
DSSS PHY (Direct sequence spread spectrum)
The encoding scheme that is used is DBPSK (differential binary
phase shift keying) send 1 or 2 bits per symbol.
Total BW 2.4GHz is divided in to 11 channels with spaced by 5MHz.
DSSS communicates non overlapping pulses at the chip rate of 11Mcps,which occupy 26 MHz.

Bluetooth Architecture
Universal radio interface for ad-hoc wireless connectivity
Interconnecting computer and peripherals, handheld devices, PDAs, cell phones – replacement of
IrDA
Embedded in other devices, goal: 5€/device (already < 1€)
Short range (10 m), low power consumption, license-free 2.45 GHz ISM
Voice and data transmission, approx. 1 Mbit/s gross data rate
Bluetooth PAN is also called a piconet and is composed of to 8 active devices in a master-slave
relationship
Page | 5
The first Bluetooth device in the piconet is the master, and other devices are slaves that
communicate with the master.
A piconet typically has a range of 10 metres (33 ft)
A single channel is shared among all devices in the piconet
Each of the active slaves has an assigned 3-bit active member address

Linking of multiple co-located piconets through the sharing of common master or slave devices
Devices can be slave in one piconet and master of another
Communication between piconets
Devices jumping back and forth between the piconets
Collection of devices connected in an ad hoc fashion
One unit acts as master and the others as slaves for the lifetime of the piconet
Master determines hopping pattern, slaves have to synchronize
Each piconet has a unique hopping pattern
Participation in a piconet = synchronization to hopping sequence
Each piconet has one master and up to 7 simultaneous slaves (> 200 could be parked)

UNIT II MOBILE NETWORK LAYER

Tunnel is a secure path from HA to FA that ensures the successfuldelivery of packets to the
MN.Care of Address is a termination point of a tunneltoward a MH, for data grams forwarded to
the MH while it is away from home.

Mobile IP Messages
Message Types:
Binding Request (BR)
Binding Acknowledgement (BA)
Binding Update (BU)
Binding Warning(BW)

Page | 6
 Requirements for mobile IP.
Compatibility
Transparency
Scalability
Efficiency
Security
Triangular routing.
In the mobile IP, packets that are sent to a mobile host by thecorrespondent host are first routed to
the mobile host's home agent and thenforwarded to the mobile host at its current location by its
home agent.

Foreign and Home Agent in Mobile IP

Home Agent (HA)

• System in the home network of the MN, typically a router
• Registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagrams to the COA
Foreign Agent (FA)
• System in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router
• Forwards the tunneled datagrams to the MN, typically also the default router for the MN.

Care of address
Care of address is a address of Foreign agent (router)

Encapsulation and Decapsulation

• Encapsulation→is the mechanism of taking a packet consisting of packet header and data and
putting it into the data part of a new packet.
• Decapsulation→ The reverse operation, taking a packet out of the data part of another packet.

Proactive and reactive protocols.

• Proactive: when a packet needs to be forwarded, the route is already known.

• Reactive: Determine a route only when there is data to send.

Tunneling and reverse tunneling

• Tunneling → establishes a virtual pipe for data packets between a tunnel entry and a tunnel
endpoint.
• Reverse tunneling→MN can directly send its packets to the CN.

Routing protocol in MANET.

• Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing-DSDV

• Cluster Head Gateway Switch Routing-CGSR
• Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing-AODV
• Dynamic Source Routing-DSR
Page | 7
 • Temporarily Ordered Routing Algorithm-TORA
• Associativity-Based Routing-ABR

Micro mobility support

• Efficient local handover inside foreign domain without involving a HA.

• Reduces control traffic on backbone Especially needed for route optimization
a) Cellular IP

• It provides local handovers without renewed registration by installing a single cellular IP gateway
(CIPGW) for each domain.
• In cellular IP domain, all nodes collect routing information from CIPGW.
• Soft handovers are achieved by allowing simultaneous forwarding of packets destined for a mobile
node along multiple paths.
• A mobile node moving between adjacent cells→ temporarily be able to receive packets via both old
and new base stations (BS)
• Cellular IP requires changes to the basic mobile IP protocol and is not transparent to existing
systems.
• The foreign network‘s routing tables are changed based on messages sent by mobile nodes.
• These should not be trusted blindly even if they have been authenticated. This could be exploited
by systems in the foreign network

HAWAII(Handoff-Aware Wireless Access Internet Infrastructure)

• Keep micro-mobility support as transparent as

possible for both HA and MN.
• It doesn‘t replace IP but works better than IP.
• Each station maintains routing cache to deal with
mobility and hop-hop tx of pkts.
• It support 2types of Handover.
• Page request reach all stations (multicast group)
• step 1→MN obtains a COA
• step 2 →MN registers with the HA
• MN moving to foreign domain
• step 3→MN sends a registration request to the new
base station as to a FA

Page | 8
 • step 4 →New BS intercepts the registration request.
• Also it sends out a handoff message, and routers paths from the old and new BS.

Agent discovery process in mobile IP

• HA and FA advertise their presence periodically using AA messages.

• These advertisement messages(ICMP) is a beacon broadcast into the subnet.
Characteristics of agent
1. Bit H and F denotes whether agent offers services on the link
2. Bit Mand G specify the method of encapsulation
3. M→min;G→Generic
4. B→represents agent busy
5. T→reverse tunneling

Registration process

• Get a COA from FA

• Inform its HA of its current COA
• Renew registration with FA.
• De-register when it back to Home

• Type→ set to 1 for a registration request

• Lifetime →denotes the validity of the registration in seconds.
• B bit→indicates broadcast packets which have been received by the HA in the home network.
• D bit →indicates this behavior of MN
• M and G→ denote the use of minimal encapsulation or generic routing encapsulation
• T→indicates reverse tunneling, r and x are set to zero.
• home address→ is the fixed IP address of the MN
• home agent→ is the IP address of the HA
• COA represents the tunnel endpoint. The 64 bit identification is generated by the MN to identify a
request and match it with registration replies.

Page | 9
 • extensions→ contain parameters for authentication.

Dynamic source routing protocol

• The protocol consists of two major phases: Route Discovery, Route Maintenance.
• When a mobile node has a packet to send to some destination, it first consults its route cache to
check whether it has a route to that destination.
• If it is an un-expired route, it will use this route.
• If the node does not have a route, it initiates route discovery by broadcasting a Route Request
packet.
• This Route Request contains the address of the destination, along with the source address.
• Each node receiving the packet checks to see whether it has a route to the destination. If it does not,
it adds its own address to the route record of the packet and forwards it.
• A route reply is generated when the request reaches either the destination itself or an intermediate
node that contains in its route cache an un-expired route to that destination.
• If the node generating the route reply is the destination, it places the route record contained in the
route request into the route reply.
• 2 phases, operating both on demand:
– Route discovery

• Used only when source S attempts to to send a packet to destination D

• Based on flooding of Route Requests (RREQ)

Page | 10
 – Route maintenance

• makes S able to detect, while using a source route to D, if it can no longer use its
route (because a link along that route no longer works)

• Route reply by reversing the route (as illustrated) works only if all the links along
the route are bidirectional

• If unidirectional links are allowed, then RREP may need a route discovery from D to
S

Destination sequenced distance vector routing protocol

Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector Routing-DSDV

Each mobile node maintains a routing table with a route
every possible destination in the network and the number hops to the destination
The sequence number of the information received about the destination and a new sequence
number unique to the broadcast
The destination address

If multiple routes are available for the same destination the route with the smaller hops is used.
Any updates in the routing tables are periodically broadcast in the network to maintain table
consistency
The amount of traffic generated by these updates can be huge To alleviate this problem, the updates
are made through two types of packets (a) Full Dump (b) Incremental dump

Page | 11
The incremental packets fit into a standard NPDU and hence decrease the amount of traffic
generated.

UNIT III 3G OVERVIEW

TCPs Classification
• TCP in single hop wireless networks
• Indirect TCP (I-TCP)
• Fast retransmission
• Snooping TCP(S-TCP)
• Mobile TCP(M-TCP)
• Freeze TCP
• TCP in multihop wireless networks

Advantages T- TCP.
• RFC1644, T-TCP, describes a TCP version to avoid this overhead.
• Connection setup, data transfer and connection release can be combined.
• Thus, only 2 or 3 packets are needed.
• It is highly efficient.

Selective retransmission
• Selective retransmission allows for acknowledgements of single packets, not only
acknowledgements of in-sequence packet streams without gaps. Sender can now retransmit
only the missing packets
I –TCP isolate problems
• I-TCP splits the connection into two parts – a wired/fixed and a wireless/mobile part. This
isolates problems on the wireless link from the fixed network. However, this also requires
that intermediate systems are able to look into IP packets to split the TCP enhancements
for wireless.
Features of TCP/IP.
• Guarantees or Reliable message delivery.
• It support connection oriented data/voice services
• It provide end to end flow control mechanism.
• It incorporates congestion control mechanism

Page | 12
Timeout freezing
• Mobile hosts can be disconnected for a longer time - no packet exchange is possible, e.g., in a
tunnel, disconnection due to overloaded cells or mux.With higher priority traffic TCP
disconnects after time-out completely TCP freezing MAC layer is often able to detect
interruption in advance. MAC can inform TCP layer of upcoming loss of connection. TCP
stops sending, but does now not assume a congested link. MAC layer signals again if
reconnected.

Flow control and Congestion control.

Flow control involves preventing senders from overrunning the capacity of the receivers.
Congestion control involves preventing too much data from being injected into the network,
thereby causing switches or links to become overloaded.
TCP header format.

Round trip time

• Round Trip Time used to allocate a propagation time for communication

Fast retransmit and recovery.

• When the sender sees a duplicate ACK, it knows that the other side must have received a
packet out of order, which suggests the earlier packet might have been lost or delayed.TCP
waits until it has seen three duplicate ACKs before retransmitting the missing packet

Transaction-oriented TCP Phases

TCP phases

Page | 13
 connection setup, data transmission, connection release

using 3-way-handshake needs 3 packets for setup and release,

respectively thus, even short messages need a minimum of 7 packets!

Transaction oriented TCP

RFC1644, T-TCP, describes a TCP version to avoid this overhead connection setup, data transfer
and connection release can be combined thus, only 2 or 3 packets are needed

Advantage

Efficiency

Disadvantage

Requires changed TCP and mobility not longer transparent

Congestion in TCP

• Congestion→temporary overload some point in the

transfer path.
Controlling mechanism
1) Additive Increase Multiplicative Decrease
• TCP does not wait for an entire window‘s

Page | 14
 worth of ACKs to add 1 packet‘s worth to the congestion window, but instead increments
Congestion Window by a little for each ACK that arrives. Specifically, the congestion
window is incremented as follows each time an ACK arrives

Slow start or exponential start

• Slow start effectively increases the congestion window exponentially, rather than linearly.
• source starts out by setting Congestion Window to one packet.
• When the ACK for this packet arrives, TCP adds 1 to Congestion Window and then sends two
packets.

Fast Retransmit/Recovery
• Every time a data packet arrives at the receiving side, the receiver responds with an
acknowledgment.
• when a packet arrives out of order TCP resends the same acknowledgment it sent the last time.
• This second transmission of the same acknowledgment is called a duplicate ACK.

Indirect TCP and Snooping TCP

• TCP performs poorly together with wireless links
• TCP within the fixed network cannot be changed.
• mobile host connected via a wireless link and an access point to the ‗wired‘ internet where the
correspondent host resides

Page | 15
• Standard TCP is used between the fixed computer and the access point.
• Instead of the mobile host, the access point now terminates the standard TCP connection,
acting as a proxy.
• This means that the access point is now seen as the mobile host for the fixed host and as the
fixed host for the mobile host.
• If the correspondent host sends a packet,the foreign agent acknowledges this packet and tries
to forward the packet to the mobile host.
• If a packet is lost on the wireless link due to a transmission error, the correspondent host
would not notice this. In this case, the foreign agent tries to retransmit this packet locally to
maintain reliable data transport
• If the packet is lost on the wired link, the mobile hosts notice this much faster due to the lower
round trip time and can directly retransmit the packet
• Packet loss in the wired network is now handled by the foreign agent.
• Access point acts as a proxy buffering packets for retransmission.
• After the handover, the old proxy must forward buffered data to the new proxy because it has
already acknowledged the data.
• After registration with the new foreign agent, this new foreign agent can inform the old one
about its location to enable packet forwarding.
• The sockets of the proxy, must migrate to the new foreign agent located in the access point.
• The socket reflects the current state of the TCP connection, i.e., sequence number, addresses,
ports etc.
• No new connection may be established for the mobile host, and the correspondent host must
not see any changes in connection state.

Page | 16
 ii) Snooping TCP
• buffering of packets sent to the mobile host
• lost packets on the wireless link (both directions!) will be retransmitted immediately by the
mobile host or foreign agent, respectively (so called ―local‖ retransmission)
• foreign agent therefore ―snoops‖ the packet flow and recognizes acknowledgements in both
directions, it also filters ACKs changes of TCP only within the foreign agent

Data transfer to the mobile host

• FA buffers data until it receives ACK of the MH, FA detects packet
• loss via duplicated ACKs or time-out
• fast retransmission possible, transparent for the fixed network

Data transfer from the mobile host

FA detects packet loss on the wireless link via sequence numbers,
• FA answers directly with a NACK to the MH
• MH can now retransmit data with only a very short delay
Integration with MAC layer
• MAC layer often has similar mechanisms to those of TCP
• thus, the MAC layer can already detect duplicated packets due to
• retransmissions and discard them
Problems
• snooping TCP does not isolate the wireless link as good as I-TCP
• snooping might be tough if packets are encrypted

Selective Retransmission
• TCP acknowledgements are often cumulative
• ACK n acknowledges correct and in-sequence receipt of packets up to n
• if single packets are missing quite often a whole packet sequence beginning at the gap has to
be retransmitted (go-back-n), thus wasting bandwidth
• Selective retransmission as one solution
• RFC2018 allows for acknowledgements of single packets, not only acknowledgements of in-
sequence packet streams without gaps
Page | 17
• sender can now retransmit only the missing packets
Advantage
• much higher efficiency
Disadvantage
• more complex software in a receiver, more buffer needed at the receiver

ii)Transmission/time-out freezing

• Mobile hosts can be disconnected for a longer time no packet exchange possible, e.g., in a
tunnel, disconnection due to overloaded cells or mux. with higher priority traffic TCP
disconnects after time-out completely
TCP freezing
• MAC layer is often able to detect interruption in advance
• MAC can inform TCP layer of upcoming loss of connection
• TCP stops sending, but does now not assume a congested link
• MAC layer signals again if reconnected
Advantage
• scheme is independent of data
Disadvantage
• TCP on mobile host has to be changed, mechanism depends on MAC layer

UNIT-IV INTERNETWORKING BETWEEN WLANS AND WWANS

Physical layer in UTRAN

• Forward error correction, bit-interleaving, and rate matching

• Signal measurements
• Micro-diversity distribution/combining and soft handoff execution
• Multiplexing/mapping of services on dedicated physical codes
• Modulation, spreading, demodulation, despreading of physical channels
• Frequency and time (chip, bit, slot, frame) synchronization
• Fast closed-loop power control
• Power weighting and combining of physical channels
• Radio frequency (RF) processing.

Page | 18
RNC responsibilities

• Intra UTRAN handover

• Macro diversity combining/splitting of Iub data streams
• Frame synchronization
• Radio resource management
• Outer loop power control
• Iu interface user plane setup
• Serving RNS (SRNS) relocation
• Radio resource allocation (allocation of codes, etc.)
• Frame selection/distribution function necessary for soft handover (functions
of UMTS radio interface physical layer)
• UMTS radio link control (RLC) sublayers function execution

ALCAP

• The transport network control plane contains access link control application part(ALCAP)
required to set up the transport bearers (data bearers) for the user plane.

RNC functions

• Basic inter-RNC mobility support

• Dedicated channel traffic support
• Common channel traffic support
• Global resource management support

UMTS differs from 2G networks

• It supports the adv the UMTS supports the advanceddata and information services and can be
called a true multimedia network.
• Higher data rate - The UMTS supports 2 Mbps data rate, which is much higher than that
supported by the 2G mobile systems.

Logical interfaces in network architecture.

• Iu interface
• Iur interface
• Iub interface
• Uu interface

Page | 19
3G-MSC functions

• 3G-MSC→ provides the necessary control and corresponding signaling interfaces including
SS7, MAP, ISUP (ISDN user part).

Firewall protection

• Firewalls filter based on IP addresses. Home firewalls rejects packet from MN.

SGSN and GGSN.

• SGSN→serves routing,mobility management and authentication to and from all GPRS users.
• GGSN→ provides gateway for external IP network and handling security functions.

HSDPA channels.
• UTRAN→ Radio channel coding/decoding.Macro diversity combining/splitting of data
streams from its cells (sectors).Termination of Uu interface from UE.Error detection and
correction.
Protocol model of UTRAN
• New Radio Access network needed mainly due
to new radio access technology
• Core Network (CN) is based on GSM/GPRS
• Radio Network Controller (RNC) corresponds
roughly to the Base Station Controller (BSC)
in GSM
• Node B corresponds roughly to the Base
Station in GSM

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Page | 20
• Uu Interface→ Radio interface between a Node B and one of its UE.
• lu Interface→ interconnects one UTRAN to the UMTS core network
• Iur Interface→ connection between two RNCs
• lub Interface→ connection between the RNC and Node B
• Iu interface has three protocol planes→ Radio network control plane (RNCP), Transport
network control plane (TNCP), and the user plane (UP).
RNCP functions
• It carries information for the general control of UTRAN radio network operations.
• It carries information for control of UTRAN in the context of each specific call.
• It carries user call control (CC) and mobility management (MM) signaling messages.
TNCP functions
• carries information for the control of transport network used within UCN.
UP functions
• carries user voice and packet data information.(up to 64 kbps)
• SSCF and SSCOP layers are specifically designed for signaling transport in ATM networks.
• Also it will take care of signaling connection management functions.
• AAL5 is used for segmenting the data to ATM cells.
• SCTP layer is specifically designed for signaling transport on the Internet.

Page | 21
Functions of UMTS domains

• UCN consists of a CS entity for providing voice and CS data services and a PS entity for
providing packet-based services.
• Network management systems (billing and provisioning, service management, element
management.
• CN has different functional areas:
• Functional entities needed to support PS services (e.g. 3G-SGSN, 3G-GGSN)
• Functional entities needed to support CS services (e.g. 3G-MSC/VLR)
• Functional entities common to both types of services (e.g. 3G-HLR)

Page | 22
 3G-MSC Services
• Mobility management→ Handles attach, authentication, updates to the HLR, RNS relocation, and
intersystem's handover.
• Call management→ Handles call set-up messages from/to the UE.
• Supplementary services→ Handles call-related services.(call waiting, etc.)
• CS data services→ The IWF provides rate adaptation and message translation for circuit mode data
services, such as fax.
• Short message services (SMS)→ allows the user to send and receive SMS data to and from the
SMS-GMSC/SMS-IWMSC.
• VLR functionality→ database is located within the 3G-MSC and can serve as intermediate storage
for visitor subscriber data.
• OAM (operation, administration, and maintenance) agent functionality

RNC and Node B in UTRAN architecture

• RNC is responsible for the use and allocation of all the radio resources of the RNS to which it
belongs.
• Responsibilities of RNC
• Intra UTRAN soft handover
• Macro diversity combining/splitting of data streams
• Frame synchronization
• Radio resource allocation & management
• Outer loop power control

Page | 23
• Responsibilities of the Node B:
• Termination of Iub interface from RNC
• Termination of MAC protocol for transport channels RACH, FACH
• Termination of MAC, RLC, and RRC protocols for transport channels BCH, PCH
• Radio environment survey (BER estimate, receiving signal strength, etc.)
• power control and Radio channel coding/decoding
• Macro diversity combining/splitting of data streams from its cells (sectors)
• Termination of Uu interface from UE
• Error detection and correction(FEC),Mux and Demux
• Modulation and spreading/demodulation and despreading of physical channels
Frequency and time (chip, bit, slot, frame) synchronization

LTE Protocol structure

1) PCRF –( Policy Control and Charging Rules )→Function is responsible for policy control
decision-making and controlling the flow-based charging .
2) HSS – (Home Subscriber Server)→ contains users‘ SAE subscription data such as the EPS-
subscribed QoS profile and any access restrictions for roaming.
• It also holds information about the PDNs to which the user can connect.
• In addition the HSS holds dynamic information such as the identity of the MME to which the user
is currently attached or registered.
3) P-GW – (PDN Gateway)→ responsible for IP address allocation for the UE and flow-based
charging.
• It is responsible for the filtering of downlink user IP packets into the different QoS-based bearers.
• It also serves as the mobility anchor for interworking with non-3GPP technologies such as
CDMA2000 and WiMAX networks.
4) S-GW ( Serving Gateway)→ serves as the local mobility UE moves between eNodeBs.

Page | 24
• It also retainsthe information about the bearers when the UE is in the idle state IDLE.
• performs some administrative functions in the visited network such as collecting information for
charging packet radio service (GPRS) and UMTS.
5) MME –( Mobility Management Entity)→is the control node processes the signaling between the
UE and the CN.
• Functions related to bearer management – This includes the establishment, maintenance and release
of the bearers
• Functions related to connection management – This includes the establishment of the connection
and security between the network and UE

UNIT V 4G & BEYOND

Key features of 4G

• High usability: anytime, anywhere, and with any technology

• Support for multimedia services at low transmission cost
• Personalization
• Integrated services

Applications of 4G

• The following are some of the applications of the 4G system:

• Virtual presence — 4G will provide user services at all times, even if the user isoff-site.
• Virtual navigation — 4G will provide users with virtual navigation through which
• user can access a database of streets, buildings, etc., of a large city. Thisrequires high speed
transmission.
• Tele-medicine — 4G will support the remote health monitoring of patients viavideo conference
assistance for a doctor at anytime and anywhere.

Multi carrier modulation

• Multicarrier modulation (MCM) is a derivative of frequency-division multiplexing.

• MCM is a baseband process that uses parallel equal bandwidth subchannels totransmit
information and is normally implemented with fast Fourier transform (FFT)techniques.

MIMO system

• Multiple Input Multiple Output System

• We get a linear increase in capacity with respect to the transmitting antennas.

Page | 25
MAGIC

• G is described as MAGIC —Mobile multimedia, Anytime anywhere, Global mobilitysupport,

Integrated wirelesssolution, and Customized personal service.
Smart antenna
• Smart antenna techniques, such as multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO).MIMO systems use
multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to increase the capacity of the wireless
channel
SISO, SIPO, PISO and MIMO systems.

• SISO→One tx-one RX.SIMO→one Tx-Many Rx.MISO→Many TX-one Rx.MIMO→Many

Tx-Many Rx
Multicarrier modulation

• MCM is a baseband process that uses parallel equal bandwidth sub-channels to tx information
( implemented with fast Fourier transform (FFT))

Software defined radio

• Software-Defined Radio (SDR) system is a radio communication system which uses software
for the modulation and demodulation of radio signals

3G and 4G systems.

T e ch n o l o g y 3G 4G

Frequency
1.8 - 2.5GHz 2 - 8GHz
Band
Bandwidth 5-20MHz 5-20MHz
Data Rates Up to 2Mbps 100Mbps moving - 1Gbps
stationary
Access W-CDMA VSF-OFCDM and VSF-CDMA

4G vision, features and challenges

• 4G systems designed to provide a new services, from high-quality voice to high-definition

video to high-data-rate wireless channels.
• 4G is described as MAGIC —Mobile multimedia, Anytime anywhere, Global mobility
support, Integrated wireless and Customized personal service.
• support the next generation mobile services, and also fixed wireless networks.
• High usability→anytime, anywhere, and with any technology

Page | 26
• Support for multimedia services at low transmission cost Personalization
• Integrated services
• Multi-standard wireless system.
• –Bluetooth, Wired, Wireless (802.11x)
• Ad Hoc Networking.
• A network that operates on Internet technology, combines it with other applications and
technologies such as Wi-Fi.
• Fully IP-based wireless internet.
• 100 Mbps (outdoor) and 1Gbps (indoor).
• Any services, anytime, anywhere.
• Always Be Connected (ABC).
• Seamless roaming
• Smoother handover
• High bandwidth
• End-to-end QoS (Quality of service).
• High security.

APPLICATIONS
• Virtual presence → provide user services at all times, even if the user is off-site.
• Virtual navigation→ provide users with virtual navigation through which a user can access a
database of streets, buildings, etc., of a large city.
• Tele-medicine →support the remote health monitoring of patients via video conference
assistance for a doctor at anytime and anywhere.

Page | 27
Cognitive radio architecture

• It is not only a radio technology, also

includes how the spectrum can be
efficiently shared by
operators/users/systems.
• The main functions of
CR→Sensing,dynamic spectrum
allocation and adaptive communication
• The CR focuses on applying software
capabilities to determine when
frequencies are free to use and then use
them in the most efficient manner
possible.

• There are two main subsystems in a cognitive radio.

• Cognitive unit→ makes decision based on various inputs.
• SDR unit→ operating software provides a range of possible operating modes

Page | 28
• Cognitive engine→tries to find a solution based on received inputs.
• Policy engine→verify and ensure that the solution provided by Cognitive engine with
regulatory rules.
• The utilization of all elements use of available spectrum and access common set of radio
hardware..
• Cognitive capability→detect the existence of the information from the surrounding
environment of the radio.
• sense and ability to capture the different variations of environment
• Re-configurability→ system has the ability to be programmed according to the radio
environment ..
• sense a spectrum of wide range of frequencies and make some communication links by using
the information

OFDM-MIMO systems
• OFDM divides a broadband channel into many parallel sub channels.
• The sub channel pulse shape is a square wave.
• Pulse forming and modulation is performed by a simple IFFT.
• To decode the transmission, a receiver needs only to implement FFT.
• OFDM receiver senses the channel and corrects distortion on each sub channel before the
transmitted data can be extracted.
• In OFDM, each of the frequencies is an integer multiple of a fundamental frequency.
• This ensures that even though sub channels overlap, they do not interfere with each other
• OFDM and MIMO techniques can be combined to achieve high spectral efficiency and
increased throughput.
• The OFDM-MIMO system transmits independent OFDM modulated data from multiple
antennas simultaneously.
• At the receiver, after OFDM demodulation, MIMO decodes each sub channel to extract data
from all transmit antennas on all the sub channels.

Page | 29
 Software defined radio
• Software-Defined Radio (SDR) system is a radio communication system which uses software for
the modulation and demodulation of radio signals.
• An SDR performs significant amounts of signal processing in a general purpose computer
• The goal of this design is to produce a radio that can receive and transmit a new form of radio
protocol just by running new software.
• It have significant utility for cell phone services, which must serve a wide variety of changing radio
protocols in real time.
• The hardware of a SDR → consists of a super heterodyne RF front end which converts RF signals
from and to analog RF signals, and analog to digital converters and digital to analog converters
which are used to convert digitized intermediate frequency (IF) signals from and to analog form,
respectively.
• SDR can talk and listen to multiple channels at the same time.

Page | 30