3.9.5. ee oo Se CECE SES. MERZ PRICE CIRCULATING CURRENT / DIFFERENTIAL ‘TRANSFORMER PROTECTION Merz-Price circulating current principle is commonly used for the protection of Power transformers of 5 MVA and above against earth and phase faults, The system as applied to transformers is fundamentally the same as that for generators, but with certain complicated features not encountered in the generator protection system. They are explained as below. @ In a Power Transformer, currents in the primary and secondary are to be compared. These currents will be different, due to primary and secondary voltages being different. Hence the difference is compensated by different tums ratios of CTs. If T is the tums-ratio of Power Transformer, then the tums-ratio of the Cs on the LY side is made T times of the CTs.an the HV side, In this condition the secondaries. of the two CTs will carry identical currents under normal conditions. Consequently, therewill not_be any differential current flowing through the i i (ii) inoperative. There is usually a phase difference between the primary and secondary currents of a 3-phase nower-teensformer. Even if CTs of proper tums ratios are used, a differential current may flow through the relay under normal conditions and cause relay operation. —— ee Hence, the correction for phase difference, is effected by appropriate connections for CT’s. The CT’s on one side of the transformer, are connected in such a way that the resultant currents fed into the pilot wires siege seenApparatus Protection are displaced in pave fiom the individual phase currents-nr-the-same 8 and by an angle equal to dhe phase sift hetween the power transforme primary and secondary curents. “The table 3.2 shows the type of connections to be employed for C: *s, in order 10 nsate for the phase diffevence in the primary and secondary eurents of power transformer Table 3.2 Varions CV Connections of power transformer protection Pr uae poe - Power-Tr. Conneétions ..” . |. Current Tr; Connections SNe. - <= = Primary Secondary. Secondary Star (with 1 a Stat neutral earthed) Delta Delta 2 Delta Delta Star sir _| Star (with neutral : 3. Stac* Delta Delta earthed) Star (with neutral : 4. Delta Star Delta earthed) l | Power ranstornier Star side Fig. 3.31. Connections of CT secondaries on Star sideProtection and Switchgear Power transformer "Delta side Y 1 Pilot wires Fig. 3.32. Connections of CT secondary’s on Delta side It can be seen that for. a delta/star power transformer, the CTs on the delta side should be connected in star and those connected in delta are the ones on the slar side. ‘Mer2-VFice differential protection for delta/delta three phase power transformer is shown in Figure 3.33. Y-cTs Y-Cts Fig. 3.33. 4 A connected Power Transformer - Differential Protection i i In that, the CT's on both sides are connesiestin-star: This is v6 cuilipenisuse for —- the phase difference between the power transformer primary und secondary. The CT's areConnected by pilot wires and one relay is used for each pair of —E— ied During Normal Conditions ‘The secondaries of CTs cary identical currents, Therefore, the cuvents entering and leaving the pilot wires at hoth ends ure the same and no current flows through the PUES E dd da ad ry rvyery 5 relays.F Apparatus Protection 35) Under Fault Conditions If a ground-phase or phase-phase fault occurs, the currents in the CT secondaries will no longer be the same and the differential current flowing through the relay ‘circuit will make the breakers on both sides of the power transformer to trip. a-cT cf R LAB: Y as B + ® = Fig, 3.34, Differential Protection Scheme Y -Y Connected Transformer Figure 3.34 shows the differential protection scheme for Y ~ Y connected transformer. This scheme also provides protection for short circuits between turns on the same _Phase winding. When a short. circuiLoccurs between-the-turns;-the tums-ratio-of the-— power transformer is altered and causes unbalance in gurrent transformer pairs. When more differential current flows through the relay it acts and clgas the fault. Buchhola relay also:comes into operation under sugh conditions. Figure 3.35 and 3.36 shows the clear arrangement of Merz price protection scheme.06. -+ Operap cot RC. + Resvabing Cot CB. Creat heater Dire eay ip 3.35 Merrie Protection for Stndta power transformer Starter pow eta Stator conocted connected C.7. ‘primag _— ‘secondaries Pot wires 0c. -+ Operating Colt RC. + Restaising Coll CB. + Creu Bresker Diterontt relay | Fg 2.36 MerePree Protection fr Starstar power tansformer “Dalyonns pu wouseroeg Toisas vomely3.11. PROTECTION OF BUSBAR . a Y Bus bar protection includes bus and the apparatus such as circuit breakers, disconnecting switches, instrument_transformers, ctc. Bus_bars_in_the - generating stations and sub-stations form important link between the incoming and outgoing links or circuits. Y Ifa fault occurs on a bus bar, considerable damage and disruption of supply will occur unless some form of quick-acting automatic protection 1s providec to isolate the aunty busbar— : Y The bus bar zone for the purpose of prote 5 but also the isolating switches, circuit breakers and the ion, includes not only the bu: bars theinselve:Protection and Switchgear. associated connections. In the event of fault on any section of the bus bar; al the circuit equipment’s connected to that section must be tripped out to-give complete isolation, ¥ Bus bar protection needs careful attention because, ‘Fault level is very high at bus bars i + The stability of the system is affected by fault in bus zone. ‘The fault on bus bar causes disconnection of power to @ large portion of the system, A fault on bus bar should be interrupted in shortage possible time (50ms), in order to avoid damage to the installation due to heating of conductors. * A bus fault tends to be appreciably more severe, both with respect to the safety of personnel, system stability and the damage. ; | “A major system shut-down can be caused by the lack of adequate bus | protection, | The bus zone faults are generally single line to ground faults. However phase) to phase faults can occur for medium and high voltage buses, 3.11.1, CAUSES OF BUSBAR FAULTS ‘The causes for bus zone faults ean be ‘Failure of support insulator resulting in earth fault, + Flash over across support insulator due to over voltage. Heavily polluted insulator causing flash over. ——#+—Failure-of connected equipment, —— + Earth quake, mechanical damages etc. % Foreign objects accidently falling across bus bars. Failure of circuit breaker ‘Insulation failure due to material deterioration, Errors in the operation and maintenance of switchgear. 3.11.2, SCHEME FOR BUS BAR PROTECTION ‘The bus bar plays an important role in the supply system. The bus bar faults are rare but if occurs there can be interruption of supply, considerable damage and loss.Apparatus Protection pee eee rable and reliable, Improved ty of incorrect Hence a bus bar protection is must and it must be fast, relaying methods have been developed, reducing the possbili operation. ‘The most commonly used schemes for bus bar protection are (i) Differential protection Gi) Fault bas protection (iii) Prame leakage protection of bus bar iv) Circulating current protection of busbar () High impedance differential protection of busbar. 3.11.3. BASIC DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF BUSBAR ‘The common method for bus bar protection isthe difference protection scl Which currents entering and leaving the bus aze totalized. Figure 3.41 shows the single line diagram of Gurrent differential scheme for a station bus bar. Bus bar = {cs 1 heme in ct [ea cr cB F Preoy Fig. 341. Differential bus-bar Protection ————Diwring-normal load condition the differential current is equal to zero, When a fault occurs, the faults current upsets the balance and produce a differential ‘current to operate a relay. VAs shown in Figure 1.41, the bus bari fed by a generator and supplies load to two lines. The secondaries of cafen Gaited fom ihe arecmor parallel divided into two lines, The protective relay is connected across Tis divided into two li parallel Connection, All current transformers must be of the same ratio in the scheme regardless of the capacities ofthe various circuits, ¥ Under normal load conditions, the sum of the currents entering the bus is equal to those leaving it and no current lows through the relay. Jf a fault ]!Protection and Switchgear occurs within the protegted zone, the currents entering the bus will no longer be equal to those leaving it. The difference of these cuimenis will Tow through the relay and cause the opening of the generator brenker and each of the line breakers. 3.11.4, FAULT BUS PROTECTION Y Fault bus is nothing but earthed metal barrier. It is possible to design a station so that.the faults that develop are mostly earth faults. This-can be achieved by providing earthed metal barrier known as fault bus surrounding each conductor throughout its entire Feng Ta Tae DIS SUCTire Y With this arrangement, every fault that might occur must involve a copnection between a conductor and an earthed nietal part. Hy directing the flow of earth-fault current, itis possible to detect the faults ‘and determine their location, This type of protection is known as fault bus protection. Figure 3.42 shows the schematic arrangement of faui bus protection. Conductor | Reulators ‘Supporting structure (faut bus) fo tp circuit Fig, 3.42, Fault bus sehermune for busbar protection As shown in Figure 3.42, the metal supporting structure or fault bus is earthed through a current transformer. A relay is connected across the secondary of this current transformer,Apparatus Protection Under normal operating conditions, there is no current flow from fault bus to ground and the relay remains in-operative. A fault involving a connection between ‘a conductor and earthed supporting structure will result in current flow to ground through the fault bus, causing the relay to operate. The operationafrelay will trip all breakers connecting equipment to the bus. 3.11.5. FRAME LEAKAGE PROTECTION OF BUSBAR ‘The schematic of frame leakage protection to a busbar substation is shown in Figure 3.43. = 7 © | Busbar section {-— switengear [framework i ae Feeder? cr. game > “leakage relay Incoming 1 | Tip co translomner ‘Check relay a To tripping circuit of A, Band C __. Fig. 5.43. Frame leakage protection of busbar _ Fault bus is earthed through a C.T. when the fault is there, a contact between conductor and earth faults, this drives current through this C.T. This energizes the fame leakage relay. The C.T. energizing the check relay is mounted in neutral earth of the treneformer. The contacts of check relay and frame leakage relay are in series. “Thus before tipping cireuit gets energized both the relays must operate. Once both the relays operate due to earth faull, the enlire breaker will irip connecting the equipment to,the busbar, Due to check relay, accidental operation of single relay to ttip the citcuit gets avoided. oeA a 3.62 Protection and Switchgear 3.11.6, HIGH IMPEDANCE DIFFERENTIAL BUSBAR PROTECTION igure 3.44 shows the high impedance scheme for bus bar pyotestion. The basic principle is the differential scheime, iti flowing through high temperature Z, is zero and the relay is inoperative, A 80 Oe Trip ig ® Tope erat : t = Xz Clay i | = Measuring ; Lines Han Unit £ impedance Tranélormer Fig. 3.44, High Impedance Differential Busbar Protection During fault conditions, unbalanced current flows through 2, covering high voltage drop. It is given to a transformer. A C.T. is connected to the secondary of this transformer which measures this drop and trips the relay. The main advantage of high impedance relay is that voltage drop is sensed, saturation of C.T. core has na effect on the protection scheme, —— 3.11.7, DIFFERENTIAL BUS BAR PROTECTION-CIRCULATING CURRENT PRINCIPLE Fig, 3.45. Differential Protection of busbar using circulating current principle(563) ae norm This scheme based on simple circulating current principle that agieoant i Joad conditions or external fault conditions the sum of currents ent bus equals the sum ofthe current leaving the bus. Nth el thls Apparatus Protection Hence, no current will low through the relay and it will not operate TF any fa either a phase to phase or phase to ground fault occur in the systems the sum & these curent will not be zero an some cutrent wil flow through the relay and caust® the relay to operate and isolate the faulty section. Along with isolation, the bus bars cean be sectionalized to identify the fault in that particular section. 3.11.8 PROBLEMS IN BUS BAR DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION ‘The basic problems are 4 Settings of relays need a change with variations in the load. Sectionalizing of bus circuit makes complication. 4 Possibility of saturation of C.T, cores due to dc. component and ac ‘Component in short circuit current The saturation introduces ratio-error. + Current levels for different circuits are different. Different methods adopted for bus zone protection is summarized and tabulated. Methods of Bus Zone Protection Method Particulars | Remarks: Bus~ protection by | High-set instantaneous over | Used in distribution | overcurrent relays, of | current relays and earth fault | system (6-33 KV) with connected circuits. _| relays, or definite time transformers feeder relays. supply to bus bars. Bus- protection by | High impedance circulating | Used in major stations. differential protection. | current differential High impedance protection. ; ‘connected in series with. High impedance differential | relay coil to improve Protertion based on voltage | stability, rt op Voltage drop across Biased differential impedance i$ measuteu protection. for discrimination. Biased coil gives restrain __Lforexteralfauts. |PEELE eo Protection and Switchgear © Particulags.: 2 oi] iy“ Remark zi Frame-leakage earth ‘The metal frame of switch- | Earth fault protection of fault protection. gear (lightly insulated from | metal clad switchgear. earth) earthed only through act. Earth fault relay connected to secondary of the CT. Static protection. Rapid reliable, no problems _| Preferred in modern of CT saturation, installations, Back-up protection Overcurrent protection or The zone of primary Distance protection Protection of feeders is extended to cover bus- zone. 3.12, FEEDER / TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION The probability of faults occurring on the transmission line is much more due to their greater length and exposure to atmospheric conditions. The requirements of transmission line protection are ‘Jn the event of fault or short-circuit, the breaker close to the fault should open and all other breakers are to remain in closed position, except in case of grid lines. In case the nearest breaker to the fault fails to open, back-up protection should be provided by the adjacent breakers, The relay operating time should be as short as Possible i in order to preserve stability ———_—--—-__—.3.12.6. DISTANCE PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES % Distance relays are Impedance RelaProtection and Switchgear “A = riiettion nd Stchiger % Impedance relay with directional feature is preferred for phase fault piotection s of ines of moderate length, y ‘> Reactance relay in conjunction with Mho starter, is used for protection of short lines, having fault current less than 20 KA. \ Mio or Admittance relays in conjunctions with offset Mho relays. are preferred for phase fault protection of long lines, particularly where severe power swings due to wrong synchronization are likely to occur. The choice of distance protection scheme depends upon: / Y Distance between relaying points, number of stations connected in series. Y Speed of operation desired Y System configuration Y Sta Both time graded and pilot-wire system are not suitable for the protection of very 2 Jong high voltage transmission lines. The time graded system gives an unduly Tong time delay in fault clearance atthe generating station end when there axe mace than four or five sections and the pilot wire system becomes two expensive owing to the. | {greater length of pilgt wires required, enor a This led to the development of distance protection in which the action of relay depends upon the distance or impedance between the point where the relay is “| installed “and the point of fault, This system Govides discrimination protection “| thout employing pilot ices —, istance Protection ~ Application forthe transmission line —Fignre'3.52 shows a siiple SyStenr Consisting OF Whsinissioi lies in’senves sug] that power can flow only from left to right. The wigs of & Band P are sét to ‘operate for impedance less than Z,, Z, and Z, respectivély- Power station Sub-stfion Substation 7 8 c Pp yp ty considerations etc. Fig. 3.52. Simple transmission line system Suppose a fault occurs between sub-stations B and C, the fault impedance at power. station and sub-station A and B will be Z, + Z and Z respectively, for the positionApparatus Protection = shown, only relay at B will operate. Similarly, if a fault occurs within section AB. then only relay at A will operate. In this manner, instantaneous protections can be obtained for all conditions of operation.3.12.9, CARRIER CURRENT PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES Mea ee Y Carrier current protection is used for the protection of transmissign lines. The | carrier currents with. high frequency range’ are transmitted and received with eee the help of transmission line for protection, ‘ VY This scheme is mostly used for the protection of EHT transmission lines. The Frequency range of the carrier signal is 50 KHz to 700 KHz. The power level is 10-20 w. In this scheme, the conductor of the power line to be protected is used for the transmission of carrier signals. So the pilot is termed as powerline carrier, . ee v¥ Ina carrier current sch, cart can be used either to prevent or initiate the tripping_of a protective rely. ace the carrier Sinnal i is used to prevent the operation of a 1 jer-blocking scheme. When the carrier signal is employed to initiate tripping, the scheme is khown | as Carrier tripping or Transfer tripping .or Permissive tripping scheme. a es The schematic representation of carrier current protection is shown in Figure 3.55. The carrier equipment which includes transmitter, receiver, line turning unit, master oscillator, power amplifier elc., are provided at each end of the transmission line.Busbar circuit Une Trap Transmission Une Trap Jo treater Pt Pr Reta fre unit nit Cartas caren wansmitr, Crier curent Receiver, Power amir equipment ‘Line tuning unit, ms Master osolatr Fig, 3.55. Carrier Current Protection Scheme 1, Coupling Capacitor The carrier equipment is connected to the transmission through coupling capacitor’, it offers low reactance I/ac to carrier frequency, but high reactance to power frequency. Thus, the coupling capacitor allows carrieg frequency signals to enter the carer equipment ut dors not allow SOHz power Requensy RARE enter the carrier equipment. To reduce impedance further, @ Tow indua is connected in sevies-with coupling capacitors to form a resonance at carrier frequency. ro HE generator = 1.5 mn for SOHz 500 kHz somersoovte 4 Fig. 3.56. Coupling Capacitor 2. Line Trap Unit This unit is placed between the bus bar and the connection of coupling capacitor to the line, It consists of parallel combination of inductance (L) and capacitance (C) acting as tuned circuit, This circuit offers low impedance to power frequency currents which offers very high impendence to carrier frequenoy Currents wht prevents the enter in The neighbour He amt carrier carremns TOW, only high frequency carrier to in the protected line, ooaq Protection and Switchgear 3. Coupling Unit Over voltages on power lines caused by lightning, switching, fauls etc., produce Sees on coupling equipment and line tap unit, Nonlinear esistgnesin series witha iue-ga‘G" is connected across the line trap unit and j ing Unit. The gap is adjusted to spark at a set value of overvoltage. Base of the coupling unit is earthed in the vicinity, 10 obtain low earth resistance, Carrier panel, usually installed in relay room is connected to station earthing system. 4. Electronic Equipment Tdentical electronic units are installed at each end. The units are @ Transmitter unit ‘Receiver unit © Relay unit Transmitter Frequencies between $0 to 500 KHz are amploved in diferent frequency. bands Carrier frequencies are generated in oscillator. The output of the oscillator is held constant by voltage stabilizers. THIS OUtpatis fed into amplifier to overcome any loss of signals in the transmission line which is affected bY weather. or — > Line tuning unt Relay 14 Power amplifier eae Master oscilatorApparatus Protection __ From relay unit ‘Oscilator Oscillator Tole "niet fren] [Sg] —- Pa] “Amplifier eee Carrer receiver [Protective] ay Fig, 3.59. Receiver Unit The control circuit switches the device which interconnects the oscillator to the amplifier. The frequency of the carrier transmission is decided based on the cost of equipment provided in the cntrier protection scheme, Recelver and Relay Unit Y The high frequency signals arriving from remote end are received by Receiver tnd fed to receiving relay unit that comprises of an attenuator that reduces the signals to safe value, filters, matching unit are to match the Impedance of the fine and HE TMPedtance of the receiving unit. Y In order to avoid operation of relay due to spurious signals, the carrier signals will have high power level (20 MW) and the receiver should be set ata higher level (SMW). ‘The signals are related to the current flow in the main line, as they are derived from CT secondary current. When there is no fault, th cycle from each end alternatively, which results in co line, half signal from one end and remaini condition holds goo! from an external fault, ie signal is sent for 4 tinuous signal over the ing half from the other, The sameProtection and Switchgear Y During internal fault, the current in one of the lines reverses in phase and remains below the fault detector setting, so that the carrier signal is sent only for half the time. The relay is arranged to sense the absence of the signal in the line. Depending upon the setting, the tripping occurs when the phase angle between two signals reaches a certain value. Advantages of Carrier Current Protection The advantages are v Simultaneous reclosing of circuit breaker is possible as reclosing signal is sent simultaneously. . Y Itprevents shock to the systems as faults are cleared rapidly. Y It gives easy discrimination for simultaneous faults. v During synchronizing power surges, tripping does not occur. Y For operation of circuit breaker to be fast, faster relaying is necessary which is achieved through currier aided protection, “ ¥~ Reliable system Y Cost is less because no separate pilot wire is needed for signalling. v¥ Used in SCADA and Telemetering.