PSYC-320A Psychology of Sex Differences

UBC Distance Education

by David King

Lecture 5: Stereotypes, Sexism, & Discrimination

Contents, Consequences, and Sources of Stereotypes

Social Structures; Sexism and Discrimination
Gender Stereotypes
Gender stereotypes are shared beliefs about the traits,
qualities, and tendencies associated with members of different
sex categories (Deaux & Lewis, 1984).

What are their contents, consequences, and sources?

How accurate are they? How universal?

Gender Stereotypes
Gender stereotypes are shared beliefs about the traits,
qualities, and tendencies associated with members of different
sex categories (Deaux & Lewis, 1984).

What are their contents, consequences, and sources?

How accurate are they, if at all? And how universal?

Stereotyping
The process of assigning a quality to all members of a social group.

Stereotyping allows us to make sense of a complex world by

constructing and then using mental categories that filter, organize,
and store information in meaningful ways.

Generalization is one of the defining features of stereotyping.

Stereotypes are often based on schemas – mental concepts which help us

organize and interpret information, guide behaviour.

Underlying mechanisms can be helpful – but socially problematic.

Origins of Gender Stereotypes
Evolutionary psychology suggests that our stereotypes derive from
and reflect genetically inherited differences in the traits and
behaviours that women and men exhibit.

Social role theory views gender stereotypes as arising from and

reflecting large-scale sex differences in the types of social roles that
women and men typically occupy.

Biosocial constructionist theory draws on both evolutionary and

social role theories.
We all stereotype…
Whether you like it or not, we all engage in (gender) stereotyping,
and we do so regularly!
Implicitly or Explicitly
Gender stereotypes can be either…

Explicit – within conscious awareness; can be shared verbally; or…

Implicit – automatic and involuntary; unconscious associations that

people make between a social group (e.g., men) and a domain or
trait (e.g., science, leadership).

A person can have different implicit and explicit stereotypes; they

are sometimes uncorrelated.

(Greenwald & Banaji, 1995)

Common Gender Stereotypes
Male Stereotypes: Female Stereotypes:

Active Aware of feelings of others

Athletic Cooks the meals
Breadwinner Delicate
Competitive Does the laundry
Doesn’t give up easily Fashionable
Independent Kind, compassionate
Leader Polite
Self-confident Soft voice
Takes initiative Takes care of children
Tall / strong Wears jewelry
Contents / Structure of Stereotypes
Experts proposed four primary components of gender stereotypes:
(1) trait dimensions, (2) role behaviours, (3) occupations, and (4)
physical appearance.

There are two trait dimensions:

Communion (warmth) → women are stereotyped as higher.

Consists of traits often described as feminine.

Agency (competence) → men are stereotyped as higher.

Consists of traits often described as masculine.
Stereotype Content Model (Fiske et al., 2002)
Social groups can be stereotyped as high or low on both dimensions.

elderly Christians
women
developmentally delayed
Communion (Warmth)

middle class
educated
disabled gay men Whites
professionals
blue-collar
young Asians
poor
Muslims men

welfare recipients rich

homeless

Low Agency (Competence) High

Communion & Agency
Hentschel et al. (2019) examined how 628 male and female participants
described men and women (in general) and themselves on measures of
multiple dimensions of agency (assertiveness, independence, instrumental
competence, leadership competence) and communion (concern for others,
sociability, emotional sensitivity).

Men were rated lower in communion than women by males and females.
Males generally described women in general as being less agentic than
men; and as less agentic than females described women in general.
Stereotypes were evident in self-characterizations, with females rating
themselves as less agentic than males; males less communal than females.
Females tended to characterize themselves in more stereotypic terms (less
assertive, less competent in leadership) than they characterized others in
their own gender group. Males were less stereotypic of themselves.
Communion & Agency
These dimensions also underlie many aspects of gender stereotypes
other than traits.

The tendency to make quick assessments of others along these two

dimensions may facilitate our ability to navigate the social world
effectively (Fiske et al., 2007).

Do they intend to befriend or harm me? (TRUST)

Are they capable of helping or harming me? (RESPECT)

Being Liked vs. Being Respected
Although people seem to like women more than men because of
their stereotyped warmth, they respect men more than women
because of their stereotyped agency (Vescio et al., 2010).

Being stereotyped positively does not necessarily offer women a

route to social status and power!

E.g., Think Manager–Think Male Effect:

Stereotypes of men and good leaders overlap
more strongly than stereotypes of women and
good managers.
Women-are-Wonderful-Effect
Researchers have found strong evidence that stereotypes of women
are more favourable than stereotypes of men. This phenomenon is
dubbed the women-are-wonderful effect.
Found to be smaller in more egalitarian countries (Krys et al., 2018).

The belief that women are wonderful is reserved for a specific type
of woman and may not be shared by other groups.
Women who fulfill gender role expectations.
Primarily White, middle-class women who occupy domestic roles.

Nontraditional women tend to be stereotyped in a hostile and insulting

manner: overly bossy, manipulative, untrustworthy (Rudman et al., 2012).
All stereotypes are problematic…
Consider the full extent of it…
All nuances aside, what’s wrong with the assumption that ALL
women are wonderful?

Consider women in leadership roles…

An analysis of Canadian provinces between

1976 and 2009 found that increases in
female politicians (across parties) was
associated with decreases in mortality, and
this was partially mediated by government
spending (Ng & Muntaner, 2018).

Jacinda Ardern, Prime Minister of New Zealand

Stereotype Subgroups
In addition to broad gender stereotypes, studies show that most
people have more finely differentiated stereotypic views of
“women” and “men.”

Stereotype subgroups result from the ongoing differentiation and

organization of men and women into smaller groups based on
similar characteristics.

Stereotype subtypes arise when we encounter women and men who

do not fit pre-existing stereotypes. We see these individuals as
exceptions to the rule and place them in separate subcategories,
thus supporting the preservation of our original stereotypes.

(Richards & Hewstone, 2001)

Common Subgroups (Vonk & Ashmore, 2003)
Subgroups of women: Subgroups of men:

Athlete Athlete
Career woman Business man
Feminist Family man E.g., “Hippie” men are
stereotyped as lower in
Housewife Gay man competence but higher in
Mother Hippie warmth than “manager”
men; “career” women are
Secretary/nurse Intellectual stereotyped as higher in
Slut/whore Macho man competence but lower in
warmth than “housewife”
Snob Mama’s boy women.
Student Student
Submissive woman Yuppie
Stereotype Subgroups
Stereotypes about subgroups are still overgeneralizations but may be
less problematic than stereotypes about all men and all women.

Multiple subgroups can increase tendencies to view group members

as unique individuals, to see them as similar to us, and to like them
(Crisp et al., 2001).

Thinking about people at the level of their subgroups may help us to

better acknowledge their differences.
Subgroups and Intersectionality
Stereotypes and stereotype subgroups can be examined from an
intersectional perspective…

Stereotypes about people who occupy multiple subordinate status

categories (e.g., gay Black men) can contain unique elements not
found in stereotypes of the individual groups (see study by Ghavami
& Peplau, 2012).

Suggests that stereotypes about people who occupy multiple

subordinate groups do not merely reflect a sum of stereotypes.

Illustrates the importance of intersectionality!

Stereotypes / Prototypes
Cultural stereotypes about gender and ethnicity are rooted in
systems of power in which the most powerful members of social
groups serve as the prototypes of those groups.

A prototype is the most typical cognitive representation of a given

category, or the cultural default.

The default representative of racial/ethnic stereotypes is a man and

the default representative of gender stereotypes is a White person.
Transgender Stereotypes
To date, there is little systematic psychological research on
stereotypes of transgender individuals.

Gazzola & Morrison (2014):

Stereotypes of trans women (MtF) largely align with stereotypes of
cisgender women (feminine traits, interests, appearances).
Stereotypes of trans men (FtM) are more androgynous than
stereotypes of cisgender men (contain both feminine and masculine
traits and hobbies.
Sexual Orientation Stereotypes
One well-documented stereotype about gay men and lesbians is that
their gender attributes are similar to members of the other sex.

Largely driven by sexual inversion theory, which posited that lesbians

and gay men have an external appearance of one sex but an internal
experience of the other sex.

The assumptions behind sexual inversion theory continue to

influence stereotypes of lesbian women and gay men.
Sexual Orientation Stereotypes
Lesbians are stereotyped as having more agentic and dominant
personalities, as likely to pursue male-typed hobbies and occupations, and
as masculine in appearance and clothing style (Blashill & Powlishta, 2009;
Kite & Deaux, 1987).

Gay men are stereotyped as having feminine traits, as suited to female-

typed occupations, as having feminine mannerisms, and as likely to suffer
from female-typed mental health concerns, such as eating and mood
disorders (Boysen et al., 2006; Madon, 1997).

Gay men are stereotyped as similar to straight men when it comes to their
presumed high levels of sexual promiscuity, and lesbians are stereotyped as
similar to straight women in this tendency (Burke & LaFrance, 2016).
Sexual Orientation Stereotypes
Stereotypes about bisexual people tend to be more negative overall
than stereotypes of straight, gay, or lesbian people.

Possibly due to the stereotyped belief that bi people are highly sexual,
indecisive, and confused (Burke & LaFrance, 2016).

Likely reflects a preference for binary thinking.

Little research examines stereotypes of straight women and men

due to heteronormative assumptions about sexuality.

i.e., Heterosexuality is the default normal sexuality unless proven otherwise.

Accuracy of Gender Stereotypes
Testing the accuracy of gender stereotypes is difficult, largely
because of measurement challenges (Jussim et al., 2016).
Researchers must choose their index of “reality”…

Direction accuracy refers to which group has more of a quality.

Discrepancy accuracy conceptualizes accuracy in absolute terms.

Rank-order accuracy computes correlations between stereotyped and

actual sex differences across several dimensions.
Accuracy of Gender Stereotypes
Some general findings from the research…

Gender stereotypes about cognitive abilities are largely accurate for

direction, but people may underestimate them in size.

Gender stereotypes about personality traits are mainly correct for

direction and size (as measured by the Big Five).

Gender stereotypes about communication styles are accurate for

direction on most behaviours.
Inaccurate for general talkativeness – no sex difference despite
stereotype that women are higher (Holleran et al., 2009).
Accuracy of Gender Stereotypes
Swim (1994) examined the accuracy of people’s gender stereotypes
across 17 different domains, including cognitive abilities, leadership
potential, helpfulness, nonverbal communication, happiness, and
susceptibility to persuasion.

Found a very large correlation between stereotyped and real sex

differences across the 17 domains (r = .79)…
suggesting that gender stereotypes offer fairly accurate information
about the relative sizes of sex differences across domains.

BUT that doesn’t remove their problematic consequences!

Universal Stereotyping?

Williams and Best (1990)

Examined 30 countries for 15 years, including countries in Western

Europe (e.g., Germany, Netherlands, Italy), Asia (e.g., Japan, India),
South America (e.g., Venezuela), and Africa (e.g., Nigeria).

University students examined 300 trait adjectives (e.g., aggressive,

emotional, dominant) and indicated whether each trait is more often
associated with men, women, or both sexes.

Many trait adjectives were associated with one or the other sex;
there was tremendous consensus across cultures.
Universal Stereotyping?

Cuddy et al. (2015)

Re-examined data collected by Williams and Best (1990) according to

individualism and collectivism.

The more individualistic a nation was, the more people in that nation
associated individualistic traits with men; the more collectivistic a
nation was, the more people in that nation associated collectivistic
traits with men.

Dominant social groups are often attributed high levels of culturally

valued traits (Ridgeway, 2001).
Universal Gender Bias?

UNDP Report (2020)

International responses (from 75 countries) to the UN World Values

Survey indicate that nearly 90% of people are biased against women
in relation to politics, economics, education, violence, and/or
reproductive rights (UNDP, 2020).

91% of men / 86% of women hold at least one bias against women.

E.g., Almost half of people surveyed feel men are superior political
leaders; over 40% believe men make better business executives.
Consequences of Gender Stereotyping
Gender stereotypes double as gender rules.

Gender prescriptions indicate traits that women and men

should exhibit.

Gender proscriptions indicate traits that women and men

should not exhibit.
Consequences of Gender Stereotyping
Gender stereotypes have two important consequences:

1. If a culture values a stereotype, people feel pressure to conform

to it; those who do not conform can face punishment (see status
incongruity hypothesis).

2. When a gender stereotype is negative, the results can include

either/both personal anxieties (see stereotype threat) or
interpersonal behaviours that reinforce the stereotype (see self-
fulfilling prophecy).
Penalizing Violators
The status incongruity hypothesis states that people stigmatize
gender role-violating women so severely because they seem as “too
high” in dominance.

Gender rules serve to justify and reinforce the unequal gender hierarchy in
which men, across cultures, have higher social status.

Incongruent behaviours question the legitimacy of the gender

hierarchy itself: “If women can demonstrate agentic traits, then why
do we routinely allow men more access to power and status?”

To avoid the discomfort that results, we penalize dominant women.

Similarly, we penalize men who display low-status traits.

(Rudman et al., 2012)

Confirming Negative Stereotypes
Stereotype Threat
Members of negatively stereotyped groups often feel anxiety
about the possibility of confirming negative group stereotypes.

When women or girls are reminded about negative math

stereotypes prior to completing a series of difficult math problems,
they perform more poorly than when not first reminded about the
negative stereotype (Schmader & Johns, 2003).

Stereotype threat has also been found to negatively impact work

performance in LGBTQ people (e.g., Collins, 2007).
Confirming Negative Stereotypes
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Gender stereotypes can become true not because of inborn,
biological factors, but due merely to interpersonal processes.

Perceiver’s Gender Perceiver’s Behaviour

Stereotype toward Target

Target’s Behaviour
toward Perceiver
The Broader Context…
Now, let’s take a step back and look at the bigger picture…

How do sex and gender function

within a social context?
How do dominant groups maintain
power over others?
What are sexism and gender
discrimination?
How do people confront these social
challenges?
Social Structures
All human societies have hierarchical structures, with dominant
groups enjoying more power and resources than subordinate ones.

Dominant groups have more political and decision-making power and better access
to education, desirable jobs, good food, housing and protection, quality medical
care, and leisure activities than subordinate groups (Pratto et al., 2006).
Accompanied by privilege → automatic, unearned advantage.

The majority of human societies have

been (and still are) patriarchal.

In addition to some matrilineal societies.

 Humans and Chimps vs. Bonobos
Our closest point of reference for a matriarchal society is that of bonobos
(unlike chimpanzees and humans, both of which form patriarchal societies).

Chimps Humans Bonobos

Power Structures
Power is the capacity to determine one’s own outcomes and the
outcomes of others.

Patriarchal power is structural – it shapes how society operates and

determines which groups of people have (or lack) access to resources,
education, autonomy, jobs, and so on.

Dyadic power is the capacity to choose and to control intimate

partners and relationships.
The Sex Ratio
Sex Ratio: Ratio of men to women in a given environment.
According to sex ratio theory, when men outnumber women,
women should hold more dyadic power (and vice versa).

Research findings are mixed…

Ways of Exerting Power
Force – capacity to inflict physical or psychological harm on another.

Resource control – controlling the creation or distribution of

essential and desirable goods.

Cultural ideologies – beliefs and assumptions about groups to explain

and justify unequal social hierarchies.

Androcentrism refers to a cultural ideology that defines men as the

universal or default for the species.
Ethnocentrism portrays dominant ethnic groups as universal and “normal.”
Heterocentrism portrays heterosexual people as universal and “normal.”
Intersectionality and Invisibility
Double Jeopardy Hypothesis
Individuals who belong to two or more subordinate groups will
experience more discrimination than individuals who belong to one
subordinate group.

Intersectional Invisibility Hypothesis

The experiences of people with multiple subordinate identities are
sometimes ignored or disregarded, leading them to feel socially
invisible.

Both empirical and historical evidence of these phenomena.

 Sexism
Negative attitudes toward individuals based solely on their sex,
combined with institutional and cultural practices that support the
unequal status of different sex categories (Swim & Hyers, 2009).
See also systemic/institutional sexism.

Sexism is typically defined within the

context of power and privilege, such
that women are targets of sexism.

Men, on the other hand, can be targets

of sex-based discrimination → negative,
unfair treatment based on sex.
Ambivalent Sexism
Ambivalent Sexism Theory
A combination of hostile and benevolent attitudes characterizes the
relations between women and men across time and cultures.

Hostile sexism consists of antagonistic and derogatory beliefs about women

and their roles; supports dominance of men, positions women as inferior.

Benevolent sexism consists of subjectively positive and well-intentioned

beliefs about women and their importance; results from dependence of
men on women for many things (e.g., reproduction, intimacy).

Complement one another; tend to be positively correlated; work jointly to maintain

and perpetuate a gender hierarchy in which men wield more power than women
but simultaneously depend on women (Glick et al., 2000).
Ambivalent Sexism
Psychosocially speaking…

People tend to direct hostile and benevolent sexism at different

types of female behaviours.

Benevolent sexism “rewards” women who accept traditional female roles

without protest; hostile sexism punishes women who reject these roles.

Leads people to view the unequal gender hierarchy as fair.

Feelings of resentment aroused by reminders of men’s unfair dominance

over women (hostile sexism) may be soothed, to some degree, by the
promise of men’s flattery and chivalrous treatment (benevolent sexism).
Ambivalent Sexism
People hold ambivalent attitudes about men that mirror their
ambivalent attitudes toward women (Glick & Fiske, 1999).

Hostile attitudes toward men consist of resentment toward men who are
viewed as arrogant, power-hungry, unable to care for themselves, and
immoral sexual predators.

Benevolent attitudes toward men consist of positive attitudes about men’s

roles as protectors and providers and beliefs that men ought to be cared for
domestically by women.

Also correlate positively with one another; correlate with hostile and benevolent
sexism towards women; believed to reflect same underlying ideology that
perpetuates the unequal gender hierarchy.
Modern Sexism
Socially acceptable form of sexism consisting of a denial that
women still face gender discrimination, coupled with resentment
toward women who seek social change.

“What rights do men have

that women don’t?”
Evolution of the Manosphere
The manosphere is a collection of websites and online forums
promoting hegemonic/traditional masculinity, hostility towards
women, strong opposition to feminism, and exaggerated misogyny;
associated politically with the far-right / alt-right.

Ribeiro et al. (2020) analyzed 28.8 million posts from 6 forums and
51 subreddits…

Milder/older groups (e.g., Pick Up Artists, Men’s Rights Activists)

are giving way to more extremist groups (e.g., Incels, Men Going
Their Own Way), with a substantial migration of active users.

New groups are more toxic and misogynistic than older ones.
Social Dominance Theory
Some people have a social dominance orientation (SDO) – refers to
the belief that inequality is right and fair, and that some people and
groups should have more status than others.

This orientation helps to legitimize hierarchies based on sex and gender.

• Members of dominant groups tend to score higher on SDO.

• SDO correlates with cultural ideologies that legitimize unequal

hierarchies, such as sexism, racism, etc.

• People higher in SDO tend to seek and prefer occupations (such as law,
politics, and business) that protect the interests of high-status groups.
System Justification Theory
Everyone is motivated to justify the social system in which they live.

Because feelings of uncertainty and unfairness threaten people’s needs for

security, people are motivated to accept the current social system as
legitimate, even if it denies them access to resources (Jost et al., 2012).

System justification theory proposes that members of subordinate groups

endorse legitimizing cultural ideologies out of need to view hierarchy as fair.

This need sometimes results in subordinate group members endorsing more

favourable stereotypes about the dominant group than about their own
group (Jost et al., 2005) – but this appears to be more likely if the system is
seen as stable and unchanging (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999).
Supporting the Status Quo
Stereotypes also help support the status quo.

In experimental research, Jost & Kay (2005) found that activation of gender
stereotypes (e.g., men are agentic) increased the likelihood of participants
endorsing social norms regarding gender and gender roles in society.

And complementary stereotypes (see next slide) seem to be the most

effective in leading people to see the current system as fair.
Complementary Stereotypes
Stereotypes that link the same group to both positive and negative
qualities; relied on in order to legitimize the social hierarchy.

People are motivated to believe that if a group has a clear

disadvantage, it also has some compensatory positive attributes that
make the disadvantage seem less unfair.

People exposed to the stereotype that women are low in agency but high in
warmth perceive the unequal gender hierarchy as fairer (Jost & Kay, 2005).
Gender Discrimination
Discrimination is unjust treatment based solely on a person’s
group membership.

Gender discrimination is unjust treatment based solely on

one’s sex, sexual orientation, or gender identity.

Misogyny: Dislike of, contempt for, or

ingrained prejudice against women.

Misandry: Dislike of, contempt for, or

ingrained prejudice against men.
Gender Discrimination
Gender discrimination can be overt or subtle…

Overt gender discrimination is obvious and easy to recognize.

Microaggressions refer to subtle discrimination including insults and

indignities, verbal or behavioural, need not be intentional and
directed toward members of subordinate social groups.
Homophobia and Transphobia
Homophobia and transphobia are terms that refer to a variety of
negative attitudes and behaviours toward LGBTQIA+ people,
including the casual use of pejorative language; the fear, discomfort,
intolerance, or hatred of LGBTQIA+ people (and others perceived to
transgress from gender norms); and/or aggressive personal attacks
and violence (Taylor & Peter, 2011; UNESCO, 2016).

Involve psychological, behavioural, cultural, social, and moral

components (Rollè et al., 2010).

Homophobia and transphobia (as well as biphobia) are phenomena

directed against people who challenge the sexual and gender
stereotypes commonly accepted by society.
Homophobia and Transphobia
“[Globally], hundreds of people have been killed and thousands
more injured in brutal, violent attacks…and countless more have
been denied access to healthcare, housing, employment and
other basic human rights based on their sexual orientation or
gender identity” (UNHRC, 2015, para. 4).

The 2015 UNHRC report also underscored the fact that in 76

countries, expressions of sexual orientation and gender/gender
identity are criminalized and, in many states, punishable by death.

Violence will be examined more closely in Unit 3.

Hegemonic Masculinity / Femmephobia
Hegemonic masculinity is associated with both sexism and
homophobia; people who adopt idealized notions of masculinity are
more likely to reject people who do not conform to gender norms
(Thompson et al., 1992).

It has been suggested that feelings of antifemininity (as seen in

hegemonic masculinity) or “femmephobia” may lie at the heart of
various forms of discrimination experienced by LGBTQ+ people
(Hoskin, 2019).

Femininity also operates as a target of discrimination WITHIN LGBTQ+

communities; and it is seen as signalling a masculine right to access across
groups (Hoskin, 2019).
Trans-Exclusionary Radical Feminists (TERFs)
TERFs oppose the self-definition of transgender people and seek to
exclude trans women from women’s spaces (often suggesting that
trans women threaten safe spaces for women).

In recent years, TERF ideology has been on the rise and has
contributed significantly to transphobia (especially online). Many
myths and fears have been perpetuated, often supporting more
conservative political ideologies.

Despite attempts at exclusion, trans women remain at very high risk

of sexual assault and also require safe spaces.
How Can We Resist
and Reduce Gender-
Based Discrimination?
Seeking Equity
In Canada, the Employment Equity Act (1995) is intended to redress
past inequities and promote the hiring of underrepresented groups.

Does it start with awareness?

Research by Toni Schmader (UBC Psychology) suggests that gender

biases are more likely to affect behaviour when people deny that
there’s a bias problem in the first place.

Specifically, Régner et al. (2019) found that when hiring committees

do not believe a gender bias exists, they promote fewer women.
Individual Efforts
Confronting Prejudiced Responses Model
Individuals must overcome hurdles before actively confronting
discrimination.

Attributional ambiguity is the difficulty that people have in attributing

negative treatment to discrimination if other explanations exist.

Even with clear and unambiguous discrimination, confrontation does not

always occur. Individuals must decide to disregard any potential personal
costs that might result from the confrontation. Those who confront
discrimination tend to be perceived negatively, especially when they adopt a
hostile or accusatory tone (Czopp et al., 2006).
Collective Action
Two key factors must be present before people will engage in
collective action:

1. Recognition that a subordinate group is unfairly disadvantaged.

2. Anger on behalf of the group.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-CU040Hqbas
Anger arouses and motivates
people to confront and challenge
the source. Anger is a common
emotional response to INJUSTICE.

“Why do all the girls have to buy princesses?”

Being an Ally
Allies publicly support and promote the rights of marginalized group
members, despite not belonging to the group.
Allies can encounter stigmatization themselves (“courtesy stigma”).

Allies also report experiencing

benefits, and for many, the benefits
of aligning themselves with valued
social causes outweigh the potential
interpersonal costs.
Sandra Bem’s Legacy

Bem wanted people to see how the

male/female dichotomy is often
unnecessary and sometimes harmful.

Society should decrease the use of the

gender dichotomy as a functional unit
and try to be gender-aschematic.

(1944—2014)
Learning Objectives for this Lecture
Define and summarize the content of gender stereotypes, including the
role of agency and communion; note specific effects.
Define stereotype subtypes and subgroups; note stereotypes of minorities.
Discuss the accuracy and universality of gender stereotypes.
Explain the sources and consequences of gender stereotypes.
Generally discuss the broader social context of sex and gender, including
dominance hierarchies and power structures.
Describe ways in which power is exerted; impact on minorities.
Define sexism, ambivalent sexism, modern sexism, and related constructs;
and explain their nature.
Explain social dominance theory and main tenants.
Name and describe factors in gender-based discrimination.
Name and discuss ways to resist and reduce gender discrimination.
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