Electrical Transmission and Distribution fe eee ete RC Cn L rsd Xanga Tale ito) aUPreface to fourth edition Some thirty years ago a well-known electrical engineer was ordered by his physician to take a complete rest. During this period, as a diversion, he began to study transmission-line calculations, Out of that came, in 1922, a book that was quickly recognized as a classic on the subject becouse it was simple, practical, useful. The man was William Nesbit; the book, “‘Electrieal Characteristics of Transtnis- sion Circuits.” In the two succeeding decades power-transmission systems grew tremendously in complexity. Voltages were doubled, longer lines were built, interconnections became more extensive, knowledge of how to protect against lightning was greatly increased, and new methods of calculating performances were adopted. With all this grew the need for a new book on transmission lines, one of broader scope that would meet the new conditions, but retain the entirely practical viewpoint of its predecessor. Fourteen men, all connected with the Central Station Engineering Group of the Westinghouse Blectrie Corporation, undertook to produce such a book. All of these men worked daily on actual problems sueh as are considered here. With this background of experience and with the reputation of the Nesbit book as inspiration, they presented in January, 1942 the first edition of a book which they hoped would be useful to all concerned with electric-power transmission as a practical reference book, helpful in solving everyday problems. In 1948 a second edition was brought out in whieh two chapters that discussed the general features of the electrical distribution problem were added at the ond of the book, The third edition differed from the second edition only in that the two chapters were introduced just before the appendix. A fourth and completely rewritten edition is presented herewith. It contains essentially the material of the previous three editions, sometimes with new authors, and three new chapters—Excitation Systems, Application of Capacitors to Power Systems, and Power Line Carrier Application, As before, all of the authors are from theCentral Station Section or are closely associated with it. As was the case with previous editions, this one also bears the imprint of two outstanding engineers, who contributed so much to the transmission of power, Dr. Charles L. Fortescue and Mr. Robert D. Evans. ‘The latter, before his reeent death, was one of the active participants in the previous editions. ‘The name or names of the original authors and the revising authors appear at the head of each chapter. To conform to the original standards regarding the sign of reac- tive power, the authors in the first edition of this book found it necessary to change the curves and discussions from what they had used in their previous publications. With the recent change in the standards, the sign has again been changed so that the curves and disonssions now use lagging kvar as positive. ‘The material presented here is naturally the results of research and investigations by many engineers. It is not feasible to list here the names of the companies and individuals whose work has been summarized. ‘These acknowledgments are given in the individuel chapters, Much of the material used has been the result of cooperative studies of mutual problems with engineers of electric-power com- panies, the conductor and cable manufacturers, and the communica- tion companies. The authors gratefully acknowledge the hearty cooperation of those engineers whose work has assisted in the prepara tion of this book. ‘The title page photograph is reproduced by per mission of the Bureau of Reclamation, Grand Coulee, Washington. ‘The acknowledgments would be incomplete without giving recogni- tion to the fine cooperation of the editorial staff of the Westinghouse ENGINEER, in reviewing the material and making many helpful suggestions to the authors and to Mr. Raymond W. Ferguson, who assisted in editing the material. A.C, MONTEITH Vice President in Charge of Engineering ©. F WAGNER, Consulting Engineer September 1, 1950Contents Original Author 9 and Revising Author cuaprer 1 General Considerations of Transmission... . . . . page ©. A. Powel 8 C. A. Powet 2 Symmetrieal Components 5. 2... ee... page 12 J.B, Hobson * D. L, Whitehead 3 Characteristics of Aerial Lines... + page 32 Sherwin H, Wright and C. P. Hall D. Shane and RE. Tremaine 4 Electrical Characteristics of Cables. . 2). 5... . . page 64 ALN, Muller, Jr J, 8. Williaa 5 Power Transformers and Reactors... +4 + page 96 | J.B Hobson and RL. Witeke R, L, Witte and J. 8. Williams 6 Machine Cheracteristies © 2. 2 1. ee 6... page 145 ©. F, Wagner © C.F, Wagner i 7 Excitation Systems... . . ek ee page 195 J.B. Barkle, Jr, 8 Application of Capacitors to Power Systems... . . page 233 A, A, Johnson 9 Regulation and Losses of Transmission Lines. . . . . . page 265 : ©. D. MoCann " R. F, Laurence 10 Steady-State Performance of Systems Treluding ‘Methods of Network Solution... 1... wwe ee. page 290 B. L. Harder © B, l, Harder u Relay and Cireuit Breaker Application... . + page 342 EL, Harder and J.C. Cunninghan ® B, L, Harder and J.C. Cunninghame 12 Power-Line Carrier Application... . 2 4... page 401 B.C. Cheek 13 Power-System Stability—Basic Elements of Theory and Application . toe : + page 433 RD, Boone and Hl, N, Mule, Jr. J.B, Darke, Jr and Rb, Premaine 14 Power-System Voltages and Currents During Abnormal Conditions... Fo ee eee page 498 . 2B. L, Wisko# RL WitekecHapren 15 16 7 18 19 20 21 [Orin toe and Revising Author ‘Wave Propagation on Transmission Lines . ©. F. Wagner and @. D. McCann # C.F. Wogner Lightning Phenomena C.F. Wopuer and @.D. MeConn . Wegner and JM. Cnyon Line Design Based on Direct Strokes. A.C. Monteith © BL. Harder and J. M. Clayton Insulation Coordination... A.C. Monteith and H.R. Vaughan # A. A. Jobson Grounding of Power-System Neutrals . S. B. Griscom = 8, B. Griscom Distribution Systems . alm 8. Peron and I. . Barnes Joan, Parsons and H. 0. Barnet Primary and Secondary Network Distribution Systems . Jokn 8. Parsons and H. @. Barneit ® John S. Parsons and H. G, Barnett ‘Lamp Flicker on Power Systems 8. B. Griscom = 8. B. Griscom Coordination of Power and Communication Systems. B.D. Beans R. L, Wilske Index 2 2 ee page 523 page 542 page 578 page 610 page 643 page 686 page 689 page 719 page 741 page 784 page 813CHAPTER 1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF TRANSMISSION Original Author: . A. Powel fication, the engineer has macs electricity of eon inually greater use to mankind. ‘The invention of the dynamo first made engine power many times more effective in relieving the toil and increasing the opportu- nities and comforts not only of industry but also of the home, Its scope, hoover, sas limited to relatively short dlistanees from the power station because of the low voltage of the distribution circuits, ‘This limitation, for economic easons, kept the general uso of electricity confined to city fareas whero a number of customers could be served from the same power station. ‘The next step in the development of the present-day electric systems was the invention of the transformer. ‘This invention was revolutionary in its effect ‘on the electric industry because it, made high voltage and Tong transmission distances possible, thus placing the ‘engine power, through the medium of the alternating current generator, at the doorstep of practically everyone. "The first alternating current system in America us twansformers was put in operation at Great Barrington in Massachusetts in 1886, Mr. Wiliam Stanley, Westing- house oleetrical expert who was responsible for the installa~ tion, gives an account of the plant, part of which reads: “Before leaving Pittsburgh I designed several induction coils, cor transformers as we now cull them, for parallel connection. ‘The original was designed in the early summer of 1885 and wound for 500 volts primary and 100 volts secondary emf, Several other eoils were constructed for experimental purposes. At the north end of the village of Great Barrington was an old deserted rubber mill which [leased for trifling sum and erected jr ita 26 hp boiler and engine that I purchased for the purpose. “After what seemerl an interminable delay ¥ at last installed the ‘iemens elternator that Mr. Westinghouse had imported from Tondon. It was wound to furnish 12 amperes of curzent with & ‘maximum of 500 volts. Tn the meantime I had started the com: iruction of a number of transformers in the laboratory and en- kgaged a young man to eanyass the town of Great Barrington for ent customers. We built m all at Great Barrington 26 trans- formers, 10 of which were sent to Pittsburgh to be used in demonstration plant bebwaen the Union Switch and Signal Corn ppany's factory and Bast Liberty. “Wo installed in the town plant at Great Barrington two 50- fight and four 25-light transformers, the reroainder being used in the Inboratory for experimental work. ‘The transformers in the village lit 13 stores, 2 hotels, 2 doctors’ offices, one barber shop, land the telephone and post offices. The length of the line from the laboratory to the center of the town was about $000 feet.” Teer discovery, invention, and enginesring ap- Our centrat-station industry today is, for all practical purposes, entirely alternating current. It, ean, therefore, te said to have grown from the small beginning at Creal “About two rales, Revised by: G, A. Powel Barrington to its presont size involving as it does a capital~ ization in the privately-owned poser companies of some 17 billion dollars with an annual revenue of 4 billion dollars. The growth since the beginning of this century in in- stalled generating, capacity of all electrie power plants o o Fig. 1—(a) Gaulard and Globe transformer for which Georse Westinghouse had secured ell rights in che United States. (First transformer designed by William Seaniey. The proto- re of ail transformers since bullt, 1t defintely established. feasibility of the alternating-current system, 1884-1886, ‘contributing to the public supply has been from about Lb million kilowatts to 55 million kilowatts in 1948, Of this 55 million kilowatts the privately-owned utilities account ‘ed for 44 million kilowatts and government-ow' ned utilities for 11 million kilowatts divided equally between the federal government and local governments, Thus, 30 percent of the generating capacity of the country is pri- vately owned and 20 per cent government owned. ‘With this 55 million kilowatts of generating capacity, 282 billion kilowatt-hours, divided 228 billion kilowatt- hours by privately-owned generation ‘and 54 billion public, were generated in 1948. The average use of the installed capacity for the country as a whole was, therefere, 282000. 5150 hours, and the espacity factor for the 5130 country as a whole 555 =68.5 percent. ‘This capacity factor of 58.5 percent is generally ot ceded as being too high. It does not allow sufficient margin to provide adequate spare capacity for maintenance and repairs. Fig. 2 illustrates how the spare and reserve capacity bas shrunk in the past few yemrs. A ratio of installed capacity to peak load of 1.15 to 1.20 is considered necessary to provide a safe margin for emergencies. Such2 409; Eg i 3 20: z ! ‘ i t 3 = = Z “ pas a \/ g g r 4 z fax «i.0WRTT-WOURS IN BILLIONS z Se TOTAL INSTALLED CAP-MILLIONS OF KILOWATTS. 8 s SUM OF NON-CONCIDENT DEMANDS" MILLIONS 2 fA“ ornivowarss woo Ta 1820 TRO 1640586 year Fig. 2—Trend in production of electricity, Installed capacity, and aum of peak demands, ‘2 margin in 1948 would have given a capacity-factor of about 58 percent, instead of 58.5 percent. General Considerations of Transmission Chapter 1 ‘The average cost of all electricity. used for residential service has shown a steady downward trend sinee 1925 from 7 cents per kilowatt-hour to 3 cents in 1948, ‘This is all the more remarkable as since 1939 all other items make ing up tho cost-of-living indox have shown increases rang- ing from 10 percent (for rents) to 121 percent (for food), the average increase of all items being 69 percent. ‘The revenue from sales to residential customers aecounts for about 36 percent of the total utility revenue; to large power customers about 29 percent; to small light and power customers 27 percent, and to miscellaneous cus- tomers (railroads, street lighting, etc.) 8 percent. 1, Sources of Energy ‘The sources of energy for large-scale generation of cleo- tricity are: 1, Steam, from (a) coal, (b) oil, or (c) natural gas, 2. Water (hydro-electric) 3. Diese? power from oil Other possible sources of energy are direct solar heat, windpower, tidal power, shale oil, and atomic energy, but none of these as yet has gone beyond the pilot-plant stage, for the reason that-coal and petroleum are still abundantly available. But a8 fossil fuels become scarcer and more expensive, there is every reason to believe that all of these, as well as petroleum manufactured from vegetable matter, may become useful and economies! supplementary sources of energy. ‘The estimated reserves of ooal and lignite in the United States are about 3000 billion tons. This constitutes almost, 99 percent of the mineral fuel energy reserves of the country; oil shale, petroleum and natural gas amounting to little more than 1 pereent.! By far the greater part of the electric energy generated in this country is obtained from fuel, the 55 million kilo- ‘TaBLS 1—PREFeRRED STANDARDS FoR Large 3600-RPM 3-Puass 60-Cycia CONDENSING ‘STRAM TURBINE-GENERATORS i-Cooled Generator ‘Turbine-generator rating, kw -300 | 15000 ‘Turbine capability, kw 12650 | 18500 Generator rating, kv. 13329 | 17047 035 | 0.86 os | 08 ‘Throttle prossure, pig oo | 880 ‘Throttle temperature, F 325 | 900 F ‘openings 4 Saturation temperatures at at) 175 ‘openings at “turbine-gen- nd) 236: erator rating” with all ex 3rd] 285, ‘rection openings in serv ‘ath| 350, ice, F sth| Exhaust pressure, inches Hig abs 1s ‘Gonerator capability at 0.86 power factor and 15 psig hydrogen pressure, ka Genertor enpabilty at O88 power factor and Fiydrogen-Cooled Generators Rated for 0.5 Psig Hydrogen Pressure 0000 90000" 40000 ‘60000 i 22000 33000 44000 86000 99000 2352 95298 © 47088 70888 105882 08s 085 08s, 025, 08, oa OB 08 08 08 350850 (zalorp zs (por) (ean | 900 900 900) {900} 950) 11000, 8 3 6 5 15 1% 15 180 235 235 235 245 285 25 255 05 360 350 350 380 410 410 410 40 15 15 1s 15 27058 40588 SLIT 81176 121704 1.80 percent yore AIRES STRESS We i Lr tenors el cued bnten the High proto wtb etauat ead low sree tbe fal for ie rebut machine. Iopmaten, abd tbe seconds mashia for obot eps operation:Chapter 1 General Considerations of Transmission 3 he Hiei Senral-etHlod Garbo-altermator installation a a ere aie le cre Phas, 8 spre the or, , two-phase, 1209 cpm-—ae (he Giitiord Wleetrle Light Compaay, Hartford, Connecticut, Hee ivi turbine waa about four times as large a8 any one YN; before that time and caused much comment the world overs swatta of installed capacity boing made up of approximately 38 million kilowatts of steam turbines and one mi kilowatts of diesel engines. Approximately 16 million kilo- ‘watts ofthe installed eapacity are in hydro-electric stations Of the 282 billion kilowatt-hours generated by all means in 1948, roughly 200 billion came from fuel; 76 peresnt, from cal 14 percent fem natural gs and 10 percent from oi 2. Development of Steam Power i ‘The modern steam-electric station can be dated from the . installation by the Hartford Blectric Company in 1900 of ae i 4 2000-kw unit (Fig. 3) which at that time was o large machine. Progress in design and efficiency from then on has been continuous and rapid. In 1925 the public utilities consuned in thet fuelbuming plants 98 erage hoo ae TO eae mo m0 pounds (or coal equivalent) per kilowatt-hour, we orceet rene—efgttt ‘whereas today the corresponding figure is 1.3 pounds per Ce Llowatt-hour. This average figure has not changed mato- con rially in the last 10 years. Tt would appear that the eos! lg. 4_Progrees in turbine generator deslon. ‘congumption curve is approaching an asymptote and that ‘a much better overall performance is not to be expected, average from 676 to 910 degrees. Generator loases in the yen though the best baso-lond stations generate power meantime have been greatly reduced from about 6 percent for less than one pound of coal per kilowatt-hour. ‘The in 1900 to 2 percent today, but these losses never did form sory high efieusy in the best bacoload stations is «large part of the total, and their influence on the overall Shtained at a considerable increase in investment. It can- performance of the station has been minor. sor be economically carried over to the aystem a a whole ‘The increaso in maximuin size of 60-cycle, two-and four Tar the season that there must be some idle or partly idle pole generating units over the years sinee 1900 is shown in tepeeity on the ayetem to allow for peaks (seasonal and Fig. 4, The remanrkable increase has been due to improved daly), aleaning, adjuatmenta, overhaul, and repairs. How materiala and designs, particularly in large forgings, tur- much one ean afford to epend for the improvement of sta- bine blading, and generator ventilation. tion effisieney above “normal” depends on the shape of Tn 1946 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers thespotem lood curve, the role of the station in that curve, and the American Institute of Electrical Kngineors adopted and the cost of fuel, standard ratings for turbine-generator units. These were "Most of tho credit for the improvement in steam con- revised in Noveraber 1950 to include the 90.000 lew unit sumption goes to the boiler and turbine ‘manufacturers and are listed in Table 1. ‘The machines are designed to “sho through continuous betterment of designs and ma- moot their rating with 0.6 psi hydrogen pressure, but ox ‘terials have been able to raise steam pressures and tempora- ‘perience has shown that between ‘0,5 and 15 psi the output ‘tures, Between 1925 and 1943 the maximum throttle pres- of the generator can be increased one percent for each ‘sure was raised from 1000 psi to 2400 psi and the average pound increase in the gas pressure without exceeding the from 350 to 1000 pai. In the eame period the throttle tem- temperature riso guarantee at atmospheric pressure, In. perature was raised from 725 to 1000 degrece F. and the many locations operation at more than L6 psi gas pressure4 General Considerations of Transmission may be difficult because of codes regulating operation of “unfired pressure vessels” at greater pressures, but serious consideration is being given to operation at 30 Ibs. For a hydrogen-air mixture to be explosive, the per- centage of hydrogen must lie between 5 and 75 percent. ‘The control equipment is designed to operate an alarm if the purity of the hydrogen drops below 95 percent. ‘The density meter and alarm system is in principle a small constant-speed fan cireulating a sample of the mixture, If the density varies, the drop of pressure aeross the fan varies and registers on the meter. 3, Development of Water Power ‘The great transmission systems of this country received their impetus as a result of hydro-electric developments. Forty years ago conditions favored such developments, ‘and in the early years of this century water-power plants costing $150 per kilowatt or less were common. Steam stations were relatively high in first cost and coal consump- tion per kilowatt hour was threo times ss much as to- day, and finally fuel oil was not readily available, AS undeveloped water-power sites became economically less desirable, steam stations less costly ond their efficiency higher, and as oil fuel and natural gas became more gen- erally available through pipe lines, stoam etations rapidly ‘outgrew hydro-electric stations in number and capacity. Today very few water-power sites can be developed at such low eost as to be competitive with steam stations in ‘economic energy production. For this reason hydro- electric developments of recent years have almost all boon undertaken by Government agoncios, which are in a position to include in the projects other considerations, ‘such as, navigation, flood control, irrigation, conserva tion of resources, giving them great social value. As the water-powor developments within easy reach of the load centers were utilized and it beeame necessary to reach to greater distances for water power, only large developments coutd be considered, and stations of less than 100 000 kw became the exception rather than the tule, as witness Conowingo with 252.000 kw, Diablo with 135000 kw, Fifteen Mile Falls with 140 000 kw, Osage ‘with 200000 kw, and many others. The developments of recent years undertaken by various government agen- cies have reached gigantic proportions, as for example Hoover Dam with 1000000 and Grand Coulee with 2 000-000 kw installed capacity. ‘A natural corollary to the increase in station capacity hhas been gradual increase in the size of the individual generator units, the growth of which is shown in Fig. 5, culminating in 'the Grand Coulee generators, of 120000 kw at 120 rpm with an overall diameter of 45 fect. Most of the multi-purpose hydrautie developments oall {or large, slow-speod machines. For euch conditions verti- I units are used to obtain maximum energy from the water passing through the turbine. The rotating parts ate supported by a thrust bearing which is an integral part of the generator. ‘Two general types of generator design are used as dis- tinguished by the arrangement of the guide and thrust bearings. Where the axial length of the generator is short in relation to ite diameter, the “umbrella” design Chapter 1 is preferred, in which » single combination guide and ‘thrust beating is located below the rotor (IFig. 1, Chapter 6). Where the axial length of the machines is too great ‘an additional guide bearing must be provided. In this ‘case the combination thrust and guide beating is usually located above tho rotor and the additional guide bearing below the rotor. ‘The advantages of the umbrella design aro (a) reduction in overhead room to assemble and dismantle the unit during erection and overhaul, and (b) iplicity of the single bearing from the standpoint of cooling and mini- ve y —vernicat Tyee wool ___[-==MOMBOnTad Tree oo 3% + ar Be [— 0 : f . L oh Ret ber 8a 1320 183. — Tas Taso ean Fig. 5—Trend in marimum waterwheel generator ratings. mum amount of piping. The design also lends iteelf readily to a totally-enclosed recirculating system of ventilation, which keeps dirt out of the machine and facili= tates the use of fire-extinguishing equipment. Tt also ze- duces heat and noise in the power house. 4, Combination of Water and Steam Power ‘There are very few locations today where an important mmarket can be supplied entirely from water power bo- ‘cause of seasonal variations in river flow, but in most cases & daving will be realized from combining water power and steam. ‘The saving results from the combins- tion of low operating cost of water-power plants with low investment cost of steam stations. Moreover, hydro electric units in themselves have cortain valuable ad- vantages when used in combination with steam units. ‘They start more quickly than steam-driven units, pro- viding high degres of standby readiness in emergency.Gn Chapter 1 ‘They are well adapted to maintenance of frequency, and ako to providing wattless enorgy at times of low water flow. And finally, hydro-pondage can be drawn upon to lieve steam plants of short-time peaks to save banking extra boilors. "To what extent a water-power site can be developed economically involves a thorough investigation of indi- Siiual cases. An economic balance must be struck be~ tween the steam and water power to give maximum ‘One might install enough generating capacity fo take care of the maximum flow of the river during & | —thert-poried. ‘The. cast per kilowatt installed would be Tow but the use made of the equipment (capacity factor) wrouild also be Low. Or one might put in only enough gen- erating eapacity to use the minimum river flow. In this case the cost of the development per kilowatt ‘installed trould be high, but the espacity factor would be high 200 Hro0 ® Mit BOW 2030" 8070 ‘CAPACITY FACTOR= PERCENT Fig. ¢ Cost of enesgy at various capacity factors of atenm ‘and hydro-electric plants, also. Obviously between these two extremes lies an optimum value. The ratio of installed water-power ca- pacity to the peak load of the system that gives the mini- ‘mum annual cost of power supply hes beeh referred to as the “economic hydro ratio,” and it can be doter- mined without great diffielty for any particular set of con- Tn a paper! presented before tho American Society of ‘Mechanical Engineers, Irwin and Justin discussed in an interesting and graphical manner the importance of incremental coste on the economies of any proposed do~ velopment. Fig. 6, taken from their paper, shows in Curve C the capitel cost per kilowatt of installation for various capacity factors. ‘The costs were segregated items that would be the same regardless of installation (and, water rights, dams) and those that vary with the amount of installation (power house, zaachinory, trans~ General Considerations of Transmission 5 mission). ‘The latter group in this partitular study was about $70 per kilowatt. Curve A gives the total cost of energy per kilowatt hour for a modern steam plant casting £05 per kilowatt with fixed charges at 12 percent and coal ab $4 a ton, Curve B gives the total cost of energy from the water- power plant having the eapital cost indicated in Curve C. ‘To obtain such a curve it is necessary to determine the amount of energy available at the various capacity f tors, the assumption being made that all hydro eapa‘ installed is firm capacity, that is, that the system load ean absorb all of the energy generated. ‘Curve B shows the typically high cost of hydro-electric ‘energy as compared with steam at high capacity factors and its low ost at low eapacity factors. 5. Transmission Liability In a hydro-cleetrie development the transmission be- comes large factor of expense and in comparing such developments with equivalent steam plants, it is necessary to include the transmission as a charge against the hydro- clectrie plant. Figures of cost published on the Hoover Dam-Los Angeles 287-kv line indicate that this trans- mission costs over $90 a kilowatt, and other Hines con- templated will probably show higher costs. ‘Under certain conditions it may be more costly to trans- mit electrical energy over wires than to transport the cqitivalent fuel to the steam station. It has been shown* ‘that the cost of electric transmission for optimum load and voltages can be expressed as a linear function of power and distance, as follows: Yor 807 load factor: miller -20.54-+ °01 let For 90% load factor: rals/kew-hr=0.30 + SS Tt was also shown that fuel transportation can be ex- pressed as a linear function of energy and distance, thus: Railroad rates on coal $1.20-+54 mills per Pipe-line rates on crude oil 185.0044 cents per mile per 100 barrels For pipo-line rates on natural ges two curves were ‘given for estimated minimum and maximum inter- ruptible contract rates $0 +12 cents per mile per million cubie feet $50++12 cents per mile per million cubie feet ‘The authors point out that a comparison between trans- mission costs alone for gas, oil, and coal are likely to be misleading because there is n wide difference in the costs of the fuels at their souree, There is also e considerable variation in the transportation costs above and below the average. {Firm Capacity” of "Fiem Power” in the case of an individual station ia the capacity intended to be alvays available even under ‘emergency conditions. “Eiydro Firm Capacity" in the ease of come ‘bined atcam and hydeo ia the part of the installed capacity that. ix capable of doing the same work on that part of the losd curve to ‘which itis assigned as could be performond by nn alernative steam plant.6 General Considerations of Transmission ‘The equivalenee between the fuels is given 1 ton of coat - 25.000 000 BTU A barrel of ofl. 2! 6.250 000 BTU 1000 eubie feet of gas... 1.000 000 BTU 6, Purpose of Transmission ‘Transmission lines are essential for threo purposes. A, To transit power from a water-power site to a markets ‘These may be very long and justified because of the sub= sidy aspect connected with the project. bb. For bulk supply of power to load centers from outlying steam stations. These nre likely to be relatively short. . For interoomnection purposes, that is, for transfor of ‘energy from one system to another in case of emergency or in response to diversity in system peaks, Frequent attempts have been made to set up defini- tions of “transmission lines,” “distribution eireuits” and “substations.” None has proved entirely satisfactory or universally applicable, but for the purposes of accounting the Federal Power Commission and various state com- inissions have set up definitions that in essence read: A transmission system includes ail land, eonversion structures ‘nd equipment at a primary source of supply; lines, switehing 1nd conversion stations between a generating or receiving point and the entrance to a distribution center or wholesale point, all lines and equipment whose primary purpose is to augment, into- rate or tie together sources of power supply. 7. Choice of Frequency ‘Tho standard frequency in North America is 60 eyelea per second, Th most foreign countries it is 50 cycles. As ‘ general-purpose distribution frequency 60 cycles has an economic advantage over 50 cycles in that it permits a maximum speed of 3600 rpm as against 3000 rpm. Where ‘a Tare number of distribution transformers are used 9 considerable economic gain is obtained in that the saving in materials of 60-cycle transformers over 0-cycle brans~ formers may amount to 10 to 15 percent. ‘This is beeause in a transformer the induced voltage is proportional to the total flux-linkage and the frequency, ‘The higher the frequency, therefore, the smaller the crose-sectional area of the core, and the sinaller the core the shorter the length of the coils. ‘There is a saving, therefore, in both iron and copper. ‘The only condition under which any frequency other than 50 to 60 eycles might be considered for a new project would be the case of a long transmission of, say, 500 ot 600 miles. Such Jong transmission has been discussed in connection with remote hydro-clectrie developments at ‘home end abroad, and for these a frequency less than 60 cycles might be interesting because as the frequency is decreased the inductive reactance of the line, 2rfL, de- Long-distance direct-eurrent transmission ha considered. It offers advantages that look attractive, but present limitations in conversion and inversion equipment, make the prospect of any application in the near future untikely, In many industrial applications, particularly in the tmachine-toot industry, 60 cycles does not permit a ‘enough speed, and frequencies up to 2000 eyeles may be necessary. Steps are boing taken to standardize frequen cies of more than 60 eycles. 8. Choice of Voltage ‘Transmission of alternating-current power over several tmiles dates from 1886 when a line was built at Cerchi, Italy, to transmit 150 hp 17 miles at 2000 volts. The voltage has progressively increased, as shown in Fig. 7, until in 1936 the Hoover Dam-Los Angeles line was put in service at 287 kv. ‘This is still the highest operating voltage in use in the United States today, but considera- tion is being given to higher values. An investigation was begun in 1948 at the Tid Station of the Ohio Power Company on an experimental line with vollages up to 500 ky, ‘The cost of transformers, switehes, and circuit breakers increases rapidly with inereasing voltage in the upper ranges of transmission voltages. In any investigation in- volving voltages above 230 000 volts, therefore, the unit, ost of power transmitted is subjeet to the law of diminish- ing returns, Furthermore, the increase of the reactance of the terminal transformers also tends to counteract the gain obtained in the transmission lino from the higher voltage. There is, therefore, some value of voltage in the range being investigated beyond which, under existing cir- ‘cumstances, it is uneconomical to go and it may be more profitable to give consideration to line compensation by. means of capacitors to increase the economic limit of crt and te capsve none, py ney resulting in highor load limits, transmission efficiency, and better regulation, Full advantage of low frequency ean be realized, how- ever, only where the utilization is at low frequeney. Tf the Jow ‘transmission frequency must be converted to 00 \ eycles for utilization, most of the advantage is lost heeause of limitations of terminal conversion equipment. — . : § gi r “HH a ol 850-00 Teo SOHO 1880 Fig, 7~Trend in tranemission voleages in 60 years,_— chapter L General Considerations of Tranemission ‘Taptss 2—FORM OF TABULATION FOR DETERMINING VOLTAGES AND CONDUCTOR SIZES paved on the Transmission of 10.000 Kiva for 10 Miles at 80 Pereont Power Factor Lagging, OOCyte, 3-Phase conecroRs ROR, rest cost cont WAcose 4 zg a al al i chee] | 2 | ge | 4a : Eli. Sle) 1G | | = | 8 & Hu a 2 Z ne Hie A 3 if 4 z BUBB EBLE GLa i 2 ls aR tal Tinh hs ahaa SRNR ahs #8 SSS ESAS eR) C2R 1B, He 88 Se as 33 emul cea al Foe) Soe) Bu 2am, ea Say S| a 52 See) £9) Se | SR) HR) SFR] NR) SR) ESR Sta) Sal sia 32 500 I asl aa oa 400 | Face | #000 | 101 00 | Sov | 19 140) 18.000 8B mel size] po $F SB| 198] 30 Seo] S| SRB) San] 8) ‘tants $—QUICK-HATIMATING DATA ON THE Loap CARRYING ‘CAPACITY OP ‘TRANSMISSION LiNeat Kw Which Can Be Delivered Based on 8% Regulation and 90% Power Pactor Distance in Miles ‘Delivered Line Voltage a 18.2 kv—Sfoot spacing Btranded Copper 2 4/0 8 kv Soot apacing ‘Stranded Copper 2/0 4/0 309000 ‘Kw Which Can Be Delivered Based ‘00 10% Loss and Equal Voltage at ‘Bending and Receiving Ends Distance in Miles 12 kv 16-400 spacing ‘Sttanded Copper 158.000) 39.500) 20 100 44 900 77100 219 000 | 151 090 | 119 000 477 000 | 216.000 | 149.000 | 118 £00 ‘Data obtained from Figs. 19 and 22 of Chap, 9. power transmission than increase the voltage much above present practice, "The basic principles underlying system operation as regards voltages have been set forth in a report! which fists the voltages in common use, the recommended firni of voltage spread, and the equipment voltage ratings in- tended to fulfil the voltage requirements of the level for which tho equipment is designed. ‘The report should be carefully studied before any plans are made involving the adoption of or change in a aystem voltage. In selecting the transmission voltage, consideration ‘should bo given to the present and probable future voltage ‘of other lines in the vicinity. The advantages of being able to tie together adjoining power districts at a common Voltage frequently outweighs a choice of voltage based on Towest immediate cost, Tf the contemplated transmission is remote from any existing systema, the choice of voltage should result from & complete study of all factors involved. Attempts have heen made to determine by mathematical expression, based on the well-known Kelvin’s Law, the most-economi- eal transmission voltage with all factors evaluated, but these are #0 numerous that such an expression becomes complicated, difficult, and wnsatisfsetory. ‘The only satis- factory way todetermine the voltage is to make a complete study of the initial and operating costs corresponding to ‘Yarious assumed transmission voltages and to various sizes of conductors. For the purposes of the complete study, it is usually ‘unnecessary to choose more than three volinges, because ‘a fairly good guess a8 to the probable one is possible with- out knowing more than the length of the circuit. For this preliminary guess, the quick-estimating Table 3 is ‘useful. This table assumes that the magnitude of power transmitted in the case of voltages 13.2, 33, and 66 ky is based on a regulation of 5 percent and load power factor ‘of 90 percent. In the ease of 122 and 220 kv, the table is based on a loss of 10 pervent and equal voltages at the send- ing and receiving ends of the line, ‘The reason for this and the bases of the calculations are given in Chapter 9. ‘s representative study is given in Table 2. It isassumed8 General Considerations of Transmission that it is dosived to transtnit over a single-cireuit ten miles Tong, 8000 kv (10.000 kva) at 80 percent power-factor Inge ging for 10 hours a day followed by 2000 kw (2500 kva) ‘at 80 percent power-fuctor for 14 hours, ‘Lhe preliminary guess indicates that 23, 34.5, or 46 ky are probably the economical nominal voltages. Equivalent eonductor spacing and the number of insulators are as given in Tabie 4. Conductors of hard-drawn stranded copper are ‘Tamue 4—ConsrRUCTION FeaTUREs OF TRANSMISSION Lines IN THE Unite Srares* Tine aims) Eauvelent | Number of Voltage| Length in 3 Spacing Tnaubators, ink opel aw 13.8 Sc-W HS sow oo BCW us scW 138 sc 290 scst 290_| 193 |_ 45 | oo [oes ee employed, the resistance being taken at 25 degrees C. The stop-up and step-down transformers are assumed as 2.6% 10 000 kva,12 500 kva ab either end, and high-voltage circuitebreakors are used in anticipation of future addi- tional circuits. "The eosts of the pole line, right- real estate are not inchided as they same for the range of voltages studied. ‘Assuming that the cost figures in the table are correct, a 34 500-volt line with No, 00 copper conductor is the most ‘economical. ‘The transmission lose will be 6 percent and the regulation 7 percent at full load, which is deemed satisfactory. ‘The voltage is sufficiently high for use as a subtransmission voltage if and when the territory de- velops and additional lond is ereated. ‘The likelihood of early growth of a load district is an important factor im ‘election of the higher voltage and larger conductor where ‘the annual operating costs do not vary too widely. 9 Choice of Conductors “The preliminary choice of the conductor size can also ‘be limited to two or three, although the method of selecting ‘will differ with the length of transmission and the choice of voltoge. In the lower voltages up to, say, 30 kv, for fa given percentage encray loss in transmission, Uhe eross section and consequently the weight of the conductors required to tranamit given block of power varies in- versely as the square of the voltage, Thus, if the voltage is doubled, the weight of the conductors will be reduced to one-fourth with approximately a corresponding reduc~ tion in their cost. ‘This saving in conducting snater for a given energy loss in transmission becomes loss fas the higher voltages are reached, becoming increas~ jngly less as voltages go higher. ‘This is for the reasou that for the highor voltages at least two other sources of ‘Thin table is based on information publishod in Blecrioat World ‘and in Bledrical Engineering. While it does not include at! Hines, it i probably representative of general practica in the USA. *SC-W —Singleicult wood. 80-ST—Singlesicult steel. ray, building, and ‘be practically the Chapter 1 Joss, leakage over insulators and the escape of energy through the air between the conductors (known as “eorona”—see Chap. 3) appear. In addition to these ‘avo losses, the charging current, which inereases as the transmission voltage goes higher, may either increase or decrease the current in the cireuit depending upon the power-factor of the load eurrent. and the relative amount of the leading and lagging components of the current i the cizeuit. Any change in the current of the circuit will consequently be accompanied by a corresponding change in the FR loss. In fact, these sources of additional losses may, in some cases of long circuits ot extensive eystors materially contribute toward limiting the transmission voltage. ‘The weight of copper conductors, from which their ooet ean be caleulated, is given in Chap, 3. As au inguranee against breakdown, important lines frequent are built with circuits in duplicate, Tn seh eases the eos ‘of conductors for tivo cireuits should not be overlooked. 10. Cholce of Spacing Conductor spacing depends upon the economie eon sideration given to performance against lightning surges Tf maximum reliability is sought, the spacing loses it relation to the operating voltage and then a mediur Yoltage line assumes most of the cost of a high-voltas transmission without, the corresponding economy, (Se Chap. 17) In general a compromise is adopted whereb the spacing is based on tho dynamic voltage condition with some allowaneo for reasonable performance again lightning surges. "Table 4 shows typical features of transmission lines j the United States including their “equivalent spacing ‘and the number of suspension insulators used. By equiv lent spacing is understood the spacing that would gi the samo reactance and capacitance as if an equilaten ngular arrangement of conductors had been used. | ig usually impractical to uso an equilateral triangular a rangement for design reasons, The equivalent. spacit is obtained from the formula D= ABC where A, } and @ are the actual distances between conductors. 11. Choice of Supply Circuits ‘The choice of the electrical Inyout of the propos power station is based on the conditions prevailing local Tt should take into consideration the character of Ul Joad and the necessity for maintaining continuity servies, It should be as simple in arrangement as pr tieable to secure the desired flexibility in operation a to provide the proper facilities for inspection of ¢ apparatus. ‘A review of existing installations shows that the apps ent combinations are innumerable, but an analysis in ‘cates that in general they are combinations of a limit number of fundamental schemes, ‘The arrangemer vary from the simplest single-cireuit layout to the | volved duplicate systerns installed for metropolitan se igo where the importance of maintaining continuity service justifies » high capital expenditure. ‘The scheme selected for stations distributing power ‘bus voltage differs radieally from the layout that wou be desirable for a station designed for bulk transmissi