Developments in osmotic dehydration technique for the preservation of fruits
and vegetables

Ishfaq Ahmed, Ihsan Mabood Qazi, Suraiya Jamal

PII: S1466-8564(16)00007-2
DOI: doi: 10.1016/j.ifset.2016.01.003
Reference: INNFOO 1455

To appear in: Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies

Received date: 4 August 2015

Revised date: 10 January 2016
Accepted date: 11 January 2016

Please cite this article as: Ahmed, I., Qazi, I.M. & Jamal, S., Developments in osmotic
dehydration technique for the preservation of fruits and vegetables, Innovative Food Sci-
ence and Emerging Technologies (2016), doi: 10.1016/j.ifset.2016.01.003

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Developments in osmotic dehydration technique for the preservation
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of fruits and vegetables
Ishfaq Ahmeda*, Ihsan Mabood Qazia and Suraiya Jamala
a
Department of Food Science and Technology, The University of Agriculture Peshawar-Pakistan.
*
Corresponding email: Cell # +92-300-3952685, Email: ishfak90@gmail.com

Abstract
In recent years much attention has been focused on maintaining the freshness of fruits and
vegetables by immersion of cellular materials containing water in an osmotic solution. It results

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in the development of intermediate moisture products having lower water activity, which is
imparted by solute gain and water loss. During the process, chemical, physical and biological

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activities, which deteriorate the foods, are lowered considerably; hence extend the shelf life of
food products. In this process moisture is withdrawn from the product at ambient temperature by

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diffusion, so phase change has been avoided. Besides, it helps to improve the nutritional and

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sensory attributes of food products and is less energy intensive process as compared to other
drying techniques. Osmotic dehydration is influenced by various factors such as osmotic agent,
time and temperature, solute concentration, solution to sample ratio, agitation and geometry of
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the materials. Recently, osmotic dehydration has been combined with several other methods
namely, pulsed high electric field, high hydrostatic pressure, ultrasound, centrifugal force,
vacuum and gamma irradiation. These techniques have been employed during or after osmotic
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treatment to enhance osmotic dehydration performance by increasing the cell membrane

permeability and mass transfer rate. These combined operations reduce the drying time,
minimizing further energy costs. In this study, various segments of osmotic dehydration
techniques and its application in food processing as well as recent advances in osmotic
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dehydration have been reviewed.

Keywords: Osmotic dehydration; Mechanism; Food applications; Factors; Benefits; Recent

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advances

1. Introduction
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Dehydration is one of the mean of ensuring long lasting durability of food (fish, vegetables,
fruits and meat) and is the earliest form of preservation method known to man (Nastaj &
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Witkiewicz, 2004). In recent year, the development of intermediate moisture food by the use of
osmotic dehydration has received much appraisal among the consumer due to minimal
processing (Silva et al., 2014; Sutar et al., 2012; Raoult-Wack, 1994). Osmotic dehydration is a
pretreatment process, which depends upon the phenomenon of diffusion of moisture from food
materials by immersing in a hypertonic solution (Tortoe, 2010; Shi & Xue, 2009). Various types
of osmotic agents such as glucose, corn syrup, sodium chloride, starch concentrates, fructose and
sucrose are used according to the final product. Osmotic dehydration is usually followed by other
drying methods such as air drying, deep fat frying, freeze drying etc. to produce better quality
final product (Khan, 2012; Phisut, 2012; Tortoe, 2010).
Osmotic dehydration is a process of counter-current transfer of mass, in which the solute
flows into the food, while moisture is eluted from the interior of the food to the hypertonic
solution. However, due to the semi-permeability of the cell membrane, the solutes i.e. organic
acids, minerals, fragrances and colorants move into the hypertonic solution from the food
materials. This transfer is negligible quantitatively but essential in term of composition of the
product (Tortoe, 2010; Phisut, 2012). Generally, it is a slow process which depends mostly on
cell membrane permeability and cell architecture (Amami et al., 2007). The osmotic pressure
difference between the food material and the hypertonic solution, provide the necessary driving
force for the removal of water from the food to the osmo-active solution. The cellular structure
of the biological material is complex enough to cause hindrance in the diffusion of water
(Fernandes et al., 2009). Moisture is removed mainly by capillary flow and diffusion, whereas
leaching and solute uptake takes place only by diffusion (Shi & Xue, 2009; Rahman, 2007). All
these exchange of masses between the foodstuffs and the hypertonic solution may have an effect
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on the overall quality and yield of the dehydrated products (Shi, 2008). The semi-permeable
nature of plant tissues and the lower molecular size of water molecules allow water movement
from the food and solute gain from hypertonic solution. This results in the reduction of moisture
content up to 50% weight of fresh fruits and vegetables with the passage of time until
equilibrium condition is reached (Yetenayet & Hosahalli, 2010).

2. Mechanism of osmotic dehydration

When food materials are soaked in a highly concentrated osmotic solution, multi-component
transfer process resulted, in which solution flows concurrently with a combination of drying,

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leaching and impregnation processes in the matrix of biological tissues. The moisture loss from

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the product takes place at a faster rate in the first few hours, and then the rate decreases slowly in
succeeding hours (6 hours) and at last flattens out. However, the diffusion of the solute into the

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material is not significant at the initial stage of osmotic treatment. But as the dewatering rate

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decreases, the solute rate increases into the food material (Phisut, 2012; Raoult-Wack, 1994).
Generally, the diffusion of liquid takes place in non-porous solids, while capillary movement
takes place in porous solids. In porous food materials; gas filled cavities, capillaries and cell
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walls, as well as intracellular and extracellular spaces provides the pathways for the transfer of
masses (Shi & Xue, 2009). The mass transfer phenomenon in a food material is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1.
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The modeling of mass transfer phenomena in osmotic dehydration is mainly based on the
simplified semi-empirical models (Yao & Le Maguer, 1996). The cell mainly entailed in osmotic
dehydration is the parenchymatous cells, which comprises of three parts: extracellular volume,
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intercellular volume and a cell membrane in between these. The extracellular volume includes
cell wall and free spaces in between respective cells. The intercellular volume contains vacuole
and cytoplasm. The chemical potential difference across a semi-permeable membrane between
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the cellular material and osmotic solution is the driving force for mass flow, which is related to
temperature and water activity. The osmotic dehydration phenomena precede until the water
activity of both the solution and the sample attain the equilibrium state. However, lower osmotic
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pressure of the surroundings than that of a cell results migration of water into the cells. The cells
start swelling up to a limited extent due to the rigid structure of the cell wall. The solute flows
into the extracellular volume and it might or might not penetrate the cell membrane and diffuses
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into the intracellular volume depending on the geometry of the solutes. As the solutes penetrate
the tissue, a potential difference is developed across the cell membrane; hence water flows into
the extracellular volume. A cell submerged in a hypertonic solution will lose water. Dehydration
of protoplasm resulted in cell shrinkage, consequently, detaches plasmalemma from the cell wall.
This process is called plasmolysis. Due to the permeability of cell wall, the volume between the
plasmalemma and cell wall get filled with the osmotic solution (Lewicki & Lenart, 2006;
Crapiste & Rotstein, 1982). These spaces are large enough for the transport of water, ions and
tiny molecules to pass through them. A continuous matrix capable of diffusing water and tiny
molecules is formed because of the interconnectivity of the cell wall in the tissue. The process is
called apoplast. In most of the cells, protoplasm of the surrounding cells interconnected through
plasmodesmata and another continuous matrix is developed. The system of connecting
plasmodesmata and protoplast is known as symplast, as it allow the passage of solutes and water
(Spanswick, 1976). Apoplasmic and symplasmic are the two ways of water movement in plants.
Generally, it is agreed that cell walls offer the major pathway for the transport of water in plant
materials. The volume diffuses in an order of 50:1 in apoplasmic and symplasmic pathways in a
leaf tissue (Spanswick, 1976). However, for the root cortex, the ratio is lower. The porous and
capillary system of the body exists in intercellular spaces and vascular tissues. Xylem is filled
with diluted mineral solution and develops an open channel of relatively low hydraulic resistance
(Parthasarathy, 1975; Ziegier, 1975). Phloem provides pathway for the transport of substance of
different molecular weight, charge, shape and surface activity as well as water and is believed
that the mechanism is an osmotically driven solution flow (Milburn, 1975). The intercellular
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volume depends upon the kind of tissue. Cell walls and intercellular spaces occupy 1–3% and
25% volume in potatoes and beet roots, respectively (Poole, 1976). Undoubtedly, all these
structures of the transport system in the plant tissues take part in osmotic dehydration process
(Lewicki & Lenart, 2006).
When a food material is dipped in a hypertonic solution, the cells in the first layer of the
material contact the solution and start to lose water due to the concentration gradient between the
hypertonic solution and the cells, which lead to shrinkage of the material. After the loss of water
from the cell of the first layer, a chemical potential difference of water develops between the first
layer cells and second layer cells. Afterward, the cells of the second layer start to pump water to

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the cells of first layer and then shrink. The process of mass transfer and tissue shrinkage extend

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from the surface to the center of the material with the passage of operation time. At last, the cells
in the center of the material lose water and the mass transfer flux likely to equilibrate after an

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extended period of liquid-solid contact. The shrinkage of the tissues and mass transfer takes
place concurrently during osmotic dehydration process (Phisut, 2012; Shi & Xue, 2009).

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However, the cell membrane is not entirely selective; the solutes such as organic acids, minerals,
sugars, colorants and fragrances can flow into the hypertonic solution (Derossi et al., 2008). The
mechanisms of osmotic water removal from cellular biological materials proposed by Rastogi et
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al. (2000b) can be explained with the help of schematic diagram shown in Figure 2. The
dehydration front moves towards the center of the material during osmotic dehydration, which
leads to the disintegration of cell membranes in the dehydrated region. The water is transported
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across three different regions each with its own characteristic properties i.e. diffusion of water
from the material core to the dehydration front, diffusion of water across the front and diffusion
of water through the osmotically treated biological material into the surrounding medium.
Initially water is diffused from the sample outer layer to the osmotic medium, hence enhancing
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the osmotic pressure at the surface. The cell membranes begin to rupture and shrink as the
osmotic pressure reach to a critical value. This leads to an abrupt reduction in the proportion of
intact cells, which is caused by an increase in the cell disintegration index (Zp). At this stage, the
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mass transfer rate enhances sharply and a substantial amount of water diffuses out with a
diffusion coefficient of D2 (D2 > > D3). The diffusion coefficient of water releases through the
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disintegrated and shrunken cells into the osmotic medium as given by D3. The water diffusion
coefficient from the material core (D1) is much lower than D2 and D3, as the cells in the core of
material are intact. The profile for cell disintegration index (Zp) and relative moisture content
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(M/Mo) values have been indicated in figure 2.

Figure 2.

3. Application of osmosis in food processing

Osmotic dehydration technique has mostly been utilized to develop new products, as it
affects the nutritional and sensory properties of fresh fruits and vegetables (Khan, 2012; Phisut,
2012; Tortoe, 2010). It also maximizes the sugar to acid ratio and enhances the stability of
pigments and texture during drying and storage (Rastogi et al., 2005). The sugar uptake of low
molar mass sacharides (glucose, fructose and sucrose) is high due to maximum diffusion rate of
molecules. This method produces a gentle processing of fruits and vegetables, because of their
greater sensory resemblance between the dehydrated and natural products (Tortoe, 2010; Phisut,
2012). However, temperature above 45°C causes thermal damage to the tissue, flavor
deterioration and enzymatic browning (Lazarides, 2001). As the osmotic dewatering partly
remove water, hence results in intermediate moisture product having lower water activity, at
which most of the chemical, physical and biological activities, which deteriorate the foods, are
ceased (Piasecka et al., 2012). Besides, osmotic pretreatment provides benefits such as energy
savings and reducing heat damage to the color and flavor, as well as retarding enzymatic
browning (Khan, 2012). These partially dehydrated vegetables and fruits are used in products
such as yogurt, ice cream, desserts and confectionery products. Additionally, dried product can
be used as a snacks or components of cereals for direct usage (Torreggiani & Bertolo, 2001).
 The effect of osmotic dehydration on mango fruit was carried out by varying the processing
temperature (30-50°C), concentration of solution (40–60% w⁄ w) and immersion time (60-150
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min). Maximum water removal (25%) with less than 6% solid uptake could be possible by
maintaining a suitable combination of sucrose solution (44% w/w), processing time (80 min) and
a temperature of 38°C (Azoabell & Francinaide, 2008). It was studied that osmotic dehydration
of Tamarillo and Andes berry by using three different osmotic agents i.e. sucrose (70%), sucrose
+ glucose (70% + 65%) and ethanol, lowered the water activity and also resulted in the elution of
flavor constituents and anthocyanin into the osmotic solution (Osorio et al., 2007). It also
significantly influenced the lycopene and ascorbic acid contents. Osmotic pretreatment enhanced
the storage stability of frozen product (Olatidoye et al., 2010). Ali et al. (2010) osmotically dried

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tomato rings and banana. Banana showed substantial reduction in weight, when 100% sucrose

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solution was used as an osmotic agent. However, tomato ring showed higher reduction in weight
when immersed in a solution of 30% NaCl, as well as in a solution of sucrose: salt (1:1.5).

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Sulphur dioxide treatment is not required to prevent color loss during osmotic dehydration
process. The air dried osmotic process removed 40-50% water from fruits and vegetables and

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gave a superior quality product, but not enough for long term storage. Therefore, further drying
is essential to remove water up to safe level. High temperature above 60oC alters the tissue
structure, hence lead to impregnation phenomena and sold gain (Khan, 2012). Rahman and Lamb
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(1991) reported that the diffusion of sucrose is caused by solute concentration and temperature.
However, the osmo-dried product is not stable from preservation perspective, while the
physicochemical and sensory properties of the osmo-dehydrated fruits and vegetables gave a
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superior quality product that can undergo subsequent air or vacuum drying, freezing and
dehydro-freezing. Additionally, the process can decreases the drying time and overcome
undesirable effects of heat on final product quality (Ade-Omowaye et al., 2002; Levi et al.,
1980).
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4. Factor affecting osmotic dehydration process

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Variables such as variety, maturity, pretreatments, temperature and concentration of osmotic

agent, geometry of the material, agitation, food pieces to osmotic solution ratio, additives,
physicochemical properties and structure affect the mass transfer kinetics during osmotic
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dehydration (Khan, 2012; Raout Wack 1994; Torreggiani, 1993).

4.1. Pretreatment
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The pretreatments such as blanching, sulphiting, alkaline dipping, application of high

hydrostatic pressure and freezing have been used by many researchers prior to osmotic
dehydration to reduce the detrimental changes in biological materials caused by conventional
drying techniques (Ade-Omowaye et al., 2001; Pokharkar, 2001). The combination of blanching
and osmotic pretreatments before drying of carrot slices resulted in better nutritional quality and
sensory acceptability (Tadesse et al., 2015). The blanching pre-treatment for vegetable slices at a
temperature of 100°C for a time period of 10-30 seconds, resulted in an increase of effective
water and sucrose diffusion coefficients (Escobar et al., 2007). Pretreatment with sulphur dioxide
or blanching prevent discoloration of fruits and vegetables. Immersion of papaya and mango
slices for 30 min in 0.4% ascorbic acid solution and 0.4% ascorbic acid + 0.1% KMS solution
prior to osmotic dehydration gave a highly acceptable product (Torreggiani, 1993). Immersion of
food materials in acid or alkaline solutions prior to drying retained the color. Enzymatic
browning of fruits and vegetables were prevented by dipping in 1.0% citric acid solution before
osmotic dehydration (Sunkja & Raghavan, 2004).

4.2. Types of osmotic agent

The osmotic dehydration process is affected by the physicochemical properties, molecular
weight, solubility and ionic state of solute (Lenart, 1992; Lazarides, 1994). It serves as a driving
force for the countercurrent flows of solute and water, as well as measure the extent of water loss
and solid uptake. It significantly affects the physical and sensory properties of the final product.
The compatibility of a solute with the components of the food must be an important criterion
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(Tortoe, 2010). Osmotic agent with lower molecular weight can easily penetrate into the cells of
fruits and vegetables as compared to the osmotic agent of higher molecular weight (Phisut,
2012). However, osmotic dehydration process is also influenced by the pH of osmotic solution.
Contreras and Smyrl (1981) observed maximum water loss at pH 3 for apple rings by using corn
syrup. As the pH decreased (pH 2) the texture of apple ring became softer, which might be due to
depolymerization and hydrolysis of the pectin, whereas firmness of the product was retained at
pH 3.0-6.0. The solute cost, its compatibility with the end product and preservative effect are of
prime importance in selecting osmotic agents. The most commonly used osmotic agents are
glucose, sucrose, glycerol, sorbitol, corn syrup, glucose syrup and fructo-oligosaccharide

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(Tortoe, 2010). The influences of various osmotic agents are shown in Table 1.

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Table 1.

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Ispir and Togrul (2009) evaluated the influence of various osmotic agents (sucrose, fructose,

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glucose, sorbitol and maltodextrin) on mass flow rate during osmotic dehydration of apricot fruit.
They indicated that the lowest and the highest water loss were obtained by sorbitol and sucrose
solutions, respectively. However, the lowest and the highest sold gain were obtained by fructose
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and maltodextrin solutions, respectively. Sorbitol (C6H14O6) is a sugar alcohol obtained by
reduction of glucose aldehyde group to an additional hydroxyl group. Its molecular weight is
smaller than sucrose. Maltodextrin has considerably higher molecular weight as compared to
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other osmotic agents used. The higher solid gain in case of maltodextrin is attributed with its
higher absorption characteristic. Besides providing low solid uptake, fructose provides high
osmotic pressure in apricot by its water bonding potentials. Hence, fructose and sucrose solution
are considered best in osmotic treatments of apricots due to low solid gain and high water loss.
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Lenart and Flink (1984a) compared different osmotic solutions at constant solid
concentration. It was found that mixed salt and sucrose solutions resulted significant reduction in
moisture content as compared to pure sucrose solutions and was accredited to the extensive
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uptake of salt. Further studies by the same researchers observed that sucrose was accumulated in
the thin sub-surface layer leading to compacting of surface tissue, while salt was penetrated to a
much greater depth in the osmosed tissue. The existence of salt in the hypertonic solution
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obstructed the formation of compact surface layer, permitting higher rates of solid gain and water
loss. The increase in salt concentrations lowered the water activity of solution with elevated
driving (osmotic) force. It has been reported that adding small quantity of salt to sugar solution
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could increase the osmotic drying force due to its lower molecular weight and higher capability
of reducing the water activity (Azoubel & Murr, 2004).
The use of complex solutions made from sugar, water, salt, etc., have received considerable
attention, but in term of drying kinetics it appeared to be more complex (Tsamo et al., 2005;
Derossi et al., 2010). The influence of using complex osmotic agents (sucrose, inverted sugar,
oligo-fructose, galacto-sorbitol, sorbitol and de-acidified fruit juice) on the acceptability and
sensory perception of osmo-dried and osmo-freeze dried sour cherries, apples and blackcurrants
were studied. All the sensory attributes except basic fruit taste were affected significantly by the
osmotic agent used for fruit impregnation before dehydration. The use of oligo-fructose in
freeze-dried fruit produced higher crispness in the final product. Sorbitol and galacto-sorbitol
showed increase in the hardness of the product, which subsequently influences the consumer
acceptance rate negatively (Konopacka et al., 2009). It was reported that the moisture loss of
onion and tomato samples offered to osmotic dehydration in salt solution was much higher
compared to sucrose solution. This behavior was resulted due to the passage of smaller
molecules of salt through cell membranes; producing pressure gradients at cytoplasm and
vacuole, hence caused more water loss from the cells. In addition, maximum dehydration was
investigated by using mixed solution, probably due to the increase of concentration gradient
(Tsamo et al., 2005). Similarly, Derrosi et al. (2015) used response surface methodology to
model the osmotic dehydration of cherry tomatoes in complex solution of salt and sucrose,
showing a correlation coefficient of greater than 0.94. The moisture content, water activity level,
consistency and the red index of the samples varied significantly altering the independent
variables, while the pH of the samples, even though decreased during drying to even below 4.18,
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did not showed any changes when the process variables were altered. The treatment time and the
mass fraction of sucrose had the major influence on all the analyzed parameters, while the
interactive influence of sucrose-salt and salt-treatment time influenced only the consistency and
red index, respectively.

4.3. Concentration of osmotic agent

Concentration of osmotic agent also affects the mass transfer kinetics during osmotic
dehydration (Phisut, 2012; Rahman & Lamb, 1990). Lenart (1992) reported that increase in
concentration of osmotic solution lead to greater rate of water loss until equilibrium level was

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achieved (Tortoe, 2010). The difference in osmotic potential between the solution and fruit

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sample resulted in higher diffusion rate of solute and water (Phisut, 2012; Azoubel & Murr,
2004). Less concentrated sucrose solution lead to minimal loss of water and solid gain ratios

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(Tortoe, 2010). However, case hardening influence of high sucrose concentration could reduce

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the mass flow within fruits and vegetables (Phisut, 2012). Likewise, Falade et al. (2007) studied
the osmotic mass transfer phenomenon of water melon slabs using three different concentrations
of sucrose solution (40oB, 50oB and 60oB). Water loss and solid gain of the watermelon slabs
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treated with the higher osmotic solution concentration were found higher. Similarly, Ispir and
Togrul (2009) evaluated the mass transfer rate of apricot during osmotic dehydration. Apricot
fruits were immersed in three different sucrose concentrations (40%, 50% and 60%). The higher
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concentration of sucrose lead to greater osmotic pressure gradients, thereby lead to higher solid
gain and water loss throughout the osmotic treatment period. Likewise, Mundada (2011) studied
the influence of various sucrose concentrations (40oB, 50oB and 60oB) on mass transfer rate of
pomegranate arils during osmotic dehydration. Pomegranate arils soaked in 60oB sucrose
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solution showed higher solid gain and water loss as compared to the samples soaked in 40oB and
50oB osmotic solution.
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4.4. Process duration

The increase in immersion time leads to higher loss of moisture during osmotic dehydration
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(Mundada et al., 2011; Ispir & Togrul, 2009). Previous studies indicated that the solid gain and
weight loss of the produce during osmosis attain equilibrium state with respect to time (Phisut,
2012; Ispir & Togrul, 2009). Studies on the effect of duration on osmotic process showed that
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exchange of masses occurred at a faster rate within the initial two hours followed by a reduction
in drying rate during further processing time (Ramaswamy, 2005). Similarly, Lazarides and
Mavroudis (1995) found that the apple slices showed about 25 percent water loss within the first
hour and 40 percent loss after third hour of osmotic treatment at a concentration of 45 to 60%
and a temperature range of 20 to 50 °C. However, the initial period of time is crucial, since the
mass transfer phenomena is rapid and have a significant impact on further progression of the
osmotic process (Tortoe, 2010).

4.5. Temperature of osmotic solution

Temperature is the most important factor which affects the rate of osmotic mass transfer
(Tortoe, 2010). Rise in process temperature accelerates water loss, while solid uptake is less
affected (Khan, 2012; Tortoe, 2010). The higher and rapid water loss with the increase of
solution temperature might be attributed to the plasticizing effect of cell membranes and also to
the lower viscosity of the osmotic medium. The impact of temperature on the kinetic of moisture
loss without imparting any effect on solid gain is more obvious between 30-60 °C for vegetables
and fruits (Pokharkar, 2001). Lazarides (1994) reported that apple processed at a temperature of
30 and 50 °C resulted in higher sugar gain (up to 55%) compared to room temperature condition.
It is due to the swelling of membrane and plasticizing effect, which enhances the permeability of
membrane. However, temperature above 50 °C produced adverse changes on blue berries during
osmotic dehydration (Khan, 2012; Shi & Xue, 2009). Temperature greater than 60 °C can
damage the plant tissues (Ramaswamy, 2005).
4.6. Agitation during osmotic dehydration process
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The osmotic mass transfer rate increases by agitation during osmotic process because of the
reduction in resistance by localized dilution process. The use of highly concentrated sugar
solutions creates problems i.e. floatation of food portions, hindering the contact between the
osmotic solution and food materials, thereby minimizing the mass transfer rates (Phisut, 2012;
Moreira et al., 2007). It has been reported that agitation induces reduction in the rate of solids
gain for longer process period. It might be due to higher water loss, which alters the solute
concentration gradient within the food particle. Since, diffusion of solute into the cell is slow, so
most of it accumulates as a thin sub-surface layer (Tortoe, 2010). Moreira et al. (2007) studied

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the mass transfer rate of agitated and non-agitated samples. The agitated samples showed greater
weight loss than non-agitated samples. The process of stirring promotes turbulence, which lead

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to higher rate of diffusion during the process. Higher water loss was observed in the region of
turbulent flow than laminar flow (Shi & Xue, 2009; Moreira et al., 2007). Hence, agitation is a

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good complementary process to maximize the mass transfer rate by lowering the contact time

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between the food and osmotic solution (Phisut, 2012; Tortoe, 2010).

4.7. Sample to solution ratio

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The sample weight to solution ratio is of major importance during osmotic treatment of fruits
and vegetables, which affect the mass transfer kinetics up to certain extent. Many researchers
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worked on the influence of different sample to solution ratio (1:1 to 1:5) on mass transfer
kinetics. Higher ratio of 1:10 to 1:60 was used to avoid dilution of the medium, which can occur
due to water gain and solute loss. Hence, it caused reduction in the osmotic drying force.
However, for practical purpose, sample to solution ratio of 1:2 or 1:3 is optimum (Tiwari, 2005;
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Karathanos et al., 1995).

4.8. Factors related to product

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Variations in species, maturity level, even variation among the same species have found to
induce substantially different response to osmotic dehydration (Lazarides, 2001). Differences in
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chemical composition (protein, fat, carbohydrates, minerals etc) and physical properties (fiber
orientation, skin and porosity) influence the kinetics of osmotic mass transfer in food (Rahman,
2007). The outer and inner parenchyma tissue of apple (Grany Smith variety) exhibited different
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solid gain and water loss at identical osmotic dehydration conditions. The pore spaces and
interconnectivity of two kinds of tissues showed variation in mass transfer, mainly because of
different pathways of transport (Marvroudis et al., 1998b). Under similar conditions, five apricot
varieties showed variation in mass reduction during osmotic dehydration (Singh, 1995). The
variation in solute gain and water loss in different fruits are mainly related to tissue compactness,
initial soluble and insoluble solid contents, enzymatic activity and inter-cellular spaces. Among
different varieties of mango, Totapuri and Dashehari at ripe stage were found appropriate for
osmotic dehydration (Tiwar & Jalali, 2004). The osmotic mass transfer rate is also affected by
the size and shape of the produce due to variation in surface area to thickness ratio (Tortoe,
2010). The rate of dewatering increases with increase in the surface area of fruit and vegetable
pieces. Panagiotou et al. (1998) found that the size of fruit samples had a negative influence on
moisture loss during osmotic dehydration and also found that the distribution coefficient of
moisture reduced with the increase in surface area and temperature, whereas, it showed
increasing trend with the increase in thickness of minimum geometric dimension and syrup
concentration. Generally, a sample size of 3-10 mm in rectangle, cube or ring shape was
proposed for use in osmotic dehydration process. The influence of sucrose syrup as a function of
solution concentration and temperature on the osmotic dehydration kinetics of pineapple has
been studied (Lombard et al. 2008). It has been reported that losses up to 30% have been found
in case of citric acid and ascorbic acid in pineapple and other fruits during osmotic dehydration
(Peiró-Mena et al., 2007; Ramallo & Mascheroni, 2010; Moraga et al., 2010).
5. Marketing of osmo-dehydrated product
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Osmo-dehydrated products are intermediate moisture products and are ready to consume.
The main purpose of osmotic dehydration is to provide stability to the product. These products
can be used in dairy, candy and bakery industries, as well as utilized in the production of fruits
and vegetables concentrates and jams (Khan, 2012; García-Martínez et al., 2002). Osmotic
dehydration process can be applied to various fruits such as strawberries, mangoes, pineapple,
banana, plantain and apples, as well as to vegetables such as pepper, potato and tomato. In the
case of mango, flavor, color and texture are retained to an acceptable level for about one year
(Falade & Aworh, 2005). The influence of osmotic dehydration is chiefly related to the

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improvement of some nutritional, functional and organoleptic properties of the product. As the

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process is efficient at ambient temperature, heat damage to flavor and color is minimized and the
high sugar concentration surrounding the fruits and vegetables prevent discoloration. These

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properties enable them to use in various food systems. For example, osmotically dried fruits may
be added in baked goods i.e. raisins. These properties are achieved with a reduced energy input

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over the conventional drying methods, due to the initial outflow of water from the fruits. Air
drying following osmotic treatment is frequently used in tropical countries for the development
of semi-candied dried fruits. The uptake of sugar limits or avoids the use of sulphur dioxide and
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increases the pigments stability during processing and subsequent storage due to the protective
action of saccharides (Torreggiani, 1995). Osmotically dried quince was used as an ingredient in
a breakfast cereals. Quince pieces were immersed in a solution of fructose having a
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concentration of 45, 55 and 60 ºBrix at 30, 40 and 50 ºC. The concentration of 45 and 55ºBrix at
30 ºC significantly affected color, water activity, vitamin C and texture of final product (Roble-
Manzanares et al., 2004). Intermediate moisture food products i.e. candied fruits, have been
developed by dipping fruits in 50–70 °Brix solution of sucrose to lessen their weight by 30–50%
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(Sankat et al., 1996). The products were further dehydrated using a hot air or vacuum
dehydration to about 15% and 2%, respectively, to develop ready to eat snack items (Rizvi et al.,
1994).
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6. Benefit of osmotic dehydration

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There are many benefits of osmotic dehydration process in the food industry. It includes
quality features, energy efficiency, packaging and distribution cost reduction, avoiding chemical
treatments and stability of product during storage (Yetenayet & Hosahalli, 2010). The process
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can improve the retention of color and flavor and provide softer textures to vegetable and fruit
products by properly selecting solutes and by maintaining equilibrated ratio of impregnation and
water removal (Tortoe, 2010).

6.1. Quality issues

Osmotic dehydration is an important tool to minimize the moisture content with minimal
damage to product quality. This is done at a mild heat treatment (30-50 °C); so no thermal
damage to membranes of food resulted (Lazarides, 2001). Besides, it prevents oxidative
browning and loss of volatile flavoring constituents. Oxidative browning of the fruits and
vegetables are prevented by the use of highly concentrated sugar solution, thereby retaining the
color of the final product (Yetenayet & Hosahalli, 2010). Osmo-dehydrated products have
sweeter taste compared to conventionally dried products. The final products are very pleasing for
direct utilization due to their better physicochemical properties and nutritional profile (Tortoe,
2010). Besides, osmotic dehydration prevents structural damage during subsequent drying
processes (Maestrelli et al., 2001). Osmotically pre-treated frozen products have longer shelf life
and retained good color, flavor and texture after thawing (Yetenayet & Hosahalli, 2010;
Maestrelli et al., 2001). The uptake of sugar and withdrawal of water during osmotic dehydration
have been found to have some cryo-protectant effect on texture and color of several fruits
(Chiralt et al., 2001).
6.2. Energy saving
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The efficiency of energy is averaged over process duration, moisture content or the volume
or dryer length depending on dryer design for continuous drying. In each cases the efficiency of
drying and energy demand is linked with drying duration, which is highly associated with
moisture volume in a food material to be removed or the rate at which drying is conducted
(Lazarides, 2001). Drying is considered as one of the most energy demanding process both in
food and non-food products, due to the high latent heat of vaporization of water to be withdrawn
from the product (Yetenayet & Hosahalli, 2010). The process of osmotic dehydration is
performed at lower temperatures, hence is considered a less energy intensive process than

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vacuum or air drying (Tortoe, 2010). However, osmotic dehydration does not produce a very low
moisture product having long shelf life, and is therefore complemented with other drying

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techniques such as freeze, convective, vacuum or microwave drying steps. The harmonization of
osmotic drying with such drying technologies has a certain advantages in provision of increasing

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effectiveness of energy usage and minimizing product cost (Yetenayet & Hosahalli, 2010). The

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high solute concentration in osmotic treatment reduces the water activity of the product and
preserves them. In result, osmotic dehydration minimizes the load of water removal in a
succeeding drying step. The left over osmotic solution can also be utilized in beverage industries,
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thereby enhancing process economy or it may be re-used for further drying (Tortoe, 2010).

6.3. Chemical treatment not required

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In osmotic dehydration process, no chemical treatment is required to inhibit enzymatic and

oxidative browning. Sugar imparts significant role in the effective inhibition of
polyphenoloxidase which catalyses oxidative browning of many cut vegetables and fruits.
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Secondly, it prevents the loss of volatile flavor compounds during further vacuum or air drying
(Tortoe, 2010). Due to the continuous immersion of product in the osmotic solution, the animal
or plant tissue is not exposed to oxygen; hence use of antioxidants is not required (Yetenayet &
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Hosahalli, 2010). In order to preserve apple slices in can, calcium chloride is used to improve
texture (Tortoe, 2010). Canning of apple rings is not practiced commercially due to intrinsic
problems related with the volume of gases in apple tissues, difficulty of its exclusion during
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exhausting, lower drained weight and softer texture. Apple rings are pre-treated in 70% sugar
solution at 50 oC for half an hour before the canning process. The analysis of canned rings
revealed that the osmotically pre-treated samples were found best in term of physic-chemical,
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sensory and economic point of view. This lead to a final product of desired drained weight,
appearance, texture, color and sugar-acid blend compared to those samples which are
conventionally canned (Sharma et al., 1991).

6.4. Packaging and storage stability of osmo-dehydrated product

Most of the vegetables and fruits could be made accessible throughout the year by
overcoming the problems of fruit glut seasons. Premium quality air tight containers and food
grade cans are used for packaging of osmo-dried foods in order to prevent moisture absorption
from atmosphere and other contaminations. Laminated polypropylene pouches and aluminum
foil are advised for packaging of osmo-dehydrated products (Sagar & Khurdiya, 1999). Ahmed
and Choudhary (1995) packed the osmo-dried papaya in a high-density polyethylene pouches. In
addition, a substantial cost reduction could be possible in packaging and distribution of osmo-
dehydrated food, due to it reduced weight and volume, leading to easier handling and
transportation to the market place (Biswal et al., 1991). At room temperature osmo-dehydrated
food remain stable up to six months to one year. At lower water activity level, the chemical
reactions as well as growth of toxin producing microorganisms are ceased (Ahmed &
Choudhary, 1995). Kumar et al. (2008) prepared osmo-vacuum dehydrated mango slices from
ripe and firm Amrapali mango. Mango slices were dehydrated in vacuum drier at 40 oC with an
atmospheric pressure of 640 mmHg. Among the three packaging materials i.e. 250 gauge COEX
(coextruded), 200 gauge HDPE (high density polyethylene) and 260 gauge ALPE (aluminum
laminated polyethylene), the 250 gauge COEX nitrogen packed followed by storage at 7 oC
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showed to be the best packing condition when judged after 6 months of storage. It retained
higher ascorbic acid, carotene, rehydration ratio, sugar and sensory score, while less moisture
and non-enzymatic browning in mango slices.

The major concern for improvement of osmo-dehydrated food products is their microbial
load, since it may influence the shelf life of packaged products, especially the cut fruits (Castelló
et al., 2009). Therefore, the approach for reducing the microbial load, without including any
additional processing steps, could reduce the postharvest losses, while maintaining the costs,
thereby providing added value to food products. It was found that suitable combination of water

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activity and pH can be very efficient in controlling microbes in food. For example, it has been
determined that pretreatment with acid solutions inactivated Escherichia coli in dehydrated

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apples (Derrickson-Tharringtona et al., 2005). The use of citric acid in different types of cut
fruits has been widely accepted as effective in reducing the surface pH (Soliva-Fortuny &

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Martín-Belloso, 2003). The combination of low pH and water activity significantly reduce the

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microbial loads (Tiganitas et al., 2009). The response surface methodology was applied to
optimize the influence of citric acid concentration (0.5−2.5% w/w) and temperature (25−45 oC)
in osmotic dehydration of pineapple in sucrose solution. It was found that moisture loss, weight
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loss and solid gain reached 36.54%, 42.62% and 292.16% respectively, after six hour of the
process, with reduction in microbial counts of more than two log cycles and greater sensory
acceptance, via the condition defined by optimization (2.48% citric acid and 44.99 oC) (Zapata et
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al., 2011). The water activity is an important parameter that affects the microbial ecology and is
highly important for the shelf life of osmo-dehydrated products. It is defined as the available
moisture content of a food product. Klewicki et al. (2009) worked on the water activity and dry
matter content of osmo-convectively dried and osmo-freeze-dried fruits. Their findings are
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presented in table 2.

Table 2
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Different microbes need various levels of water activity for their growth. Proliferation of
microorganism ceased when the water activity was ≤ 0.5. However, it was presumed that
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microbiological safety was ensured when the water activity values was ≤ 0.6 (Prothon & Ahrne,
2004). Phisut et al. (2013) studied the influence of fast osmotic dehydration (FOD) and slow
osmotic dehydration (SOD) on the chemical, physical and sensory properties of osmo-dried
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cantaloupe. Pre-treatment of cantaloupe slices with 2% calcium lactate for 3 hours was found
suitable, considering the firmness and sensory properties of the samples. The samples were
subjected to two osmotic dehydration processes after pre-treatment and then dried in hot air
oven. The SOD process maintained the shape and present softer texture, thereby resulted in
higher mean score for sensory properties. However, the SOD-treated cantaloupe sample showed
lower water activity (0.69) as compared to the FOD-treated samples (0.72). These findings may
be due to the higher sugar content of SOD-treated sample, which encouraged the interaction of
sugar and water molecules via hydrogen bond.

7. Limitations of osmotic dehydration process

7.1. Product quality

The problem of handling the resulting syrup is a restraint, as the constituent of osmotic
solution has been altered due to the uptake of solute and water outflow from the food. It leads to
reduction in the acidity level. This decline in the acidity level diminishes the characteristic taste
of final products (Tortoe, 2010). Uptake of solute and leaching of food constituents resulted
substantial alteration of the composition of original product with a negative influence on
nutritional profile and sensory attributes (Raoult-Wack, 1994). In some of the products, sugar
coating is not desirable, so immediate rinsing is essential after osmotic treatment. The uptake of
sugar results in the formation of concentrated solid layer under the surface of fruit, disturbing the
osmotic pressure gradient across the interface of fruits and vegetables, as well as lessening the
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driving force for water flow. Sugar uptake influences flavor and rehydration characteristics of
final product due to lower rehydration rate of sugar in fruits and vegetables (Tortoe, 2010; Ghosh
et al., 2004; Chaudhari et al., 1993). The main issues related with the deterioration of minimally
processed fruits and vegetables is by wound-induced biochemical and physiological changes, cut
surface browning and respiration accompanied by microbial spoilage. There also happen losses
in the nutritional value by oxidation of ascorbic acid (Lewicki & Lenart, 2006). Some
shortcomings in osmotic dehydration occur due to the lack of precise design and process control.
Breakage to the vegetable and fruit pieces might occur by flow of osmotic solution and
mechanical agitation in cases of continuous flow process and batch process respectively.

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Osmotic dehydration prior to freezing resulted in the shrinkage of dried material (Tortoe, 2010).

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7.2. Osmotic solution management

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Removal of water from the food material dilutes the osmotic solution. Consequently, the

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concentration of the solution must be kept constant by dissolution of osmo-active substance or by
continuous evaporation of excess water. The dilution of osmotic solution depends upon the ratio
between solution and the solids (Pavasovic et al., 1986; Contreras & Smyrl, 1981). However, the
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solution could not remain the same as that used in the start of the process. The physical, chemical
and sensory properties of the hypertonic solutions changes with the leaching of soluble from
fruits and vegetables (Szymczak et al., 1998; Valdez-Fragoso et al., 1998). Dalla Rosa and
Giroux, (2001) stated that the problems are related to the following aspects:
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a) Changes in the properties (pH, viscosity, water activity) of solution due to the solutes that
could affect the kinetics of osmosis in a subsequent process cycle;
b) Changes in the sensory properties (mainly flavor and color) of solution, thus limiting the
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use of spent solution for the processing of various food materials;

c) Increase in organic contents provides a substrate for microbial growth.
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The management of osmotic solution i.e. solution concentration and composition, recycling,
solute addition, waste disposal and re-use, is a challenge for industrialists. The control of solute
composition for single solute solutions is easier to recycle than mixed solute solutions. The dilute
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solution can be re-concentrated by reverse osmosis and evaporation (Tortoe, 2010). Due to the
re-use of osmotic solution and longer processing time, damage to the cells and off-flavor takes
place (Tortoe, 2010). The fruits and seed debris accumulated in the solution by its use; hence
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provides a suitable medium for microbial growth. Chances of microbial contaminations increase
with the delay in osmotic solution recycling. Coarse filtration, de-colorization and pasteurization
must be taken into account during osmotic solution recycling. Sanitation throughout the
recycling process must be given priority (Raoult-Wack, 1994; Dalla Rosa & Giroux, 2001).
However, mild heat treatment is enough to reduce the microbial load (Dalla Rosa et al., 1995).
Enzymatic browning of the solution resulted in discoloration, which can be treated with charcoal
and activated carbon (Szymczak et al., 1998; Dalla Rosa et al., 1995). Pasteurized, decolorized
and filtered syrup can be used few to several times depending on processed material (Dalla Rosa
& Giroux, 2001). The spent solution management depends upon kind of processed material, type
of re-concentration technology, pasteurization parameters, process organization and individual
adaptation to the given process. The refining of a solution from pulp fragments, seed and haze-
forming proteins are the main problems, and are removed through continuous coarse filtration
(Dalla Rosa & Giroux, 2001). The continuous plant design for the purification and restoration of
spent solution by coarse filtration, pasteurization and dry sugar is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3

The management of spent salt solution in vegetable processing has not been solved until
today. Solution containing high organic materials demands high biological oxygen demand, so
efficient wastewater treatment is needed. Osmotic solution containing salt creates additional
problems and probably the application of reverse osmosis is the rational mean of treating this
used liquor (Dalla Rosa & Giroux, 2001). Dalla Rosa and Giroux (2001) reviewed that when the
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osmotic solution reached the end point and the methods for purification are not applicable, the
solution should be removed from the process and then various possibilities could be
recommended, although literature is scanty in this aspect. The solution remained after osmotic
treatment of fruits has been suggested to be applied for other food preparations such as jams,
syrup for fruit canning, mixing with fruit juices, fruity soft drinks, pharmaceutical and food
industries as a natural additives and animal feed production.

8. Recent developments in osmotic dehydration

The osmotic dehydration is generally a slow process and need to be enhanced with further

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cell membranes permeabilization and by lessening the moisture content of foods, so that the

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growth of microorganisms can be inhibited effectively. The cellular membrane in fruits and
vegetables exerts resistance to mass flow and minimizes the mass transfer rate. Membrane

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damage can be accomplished by non-thermal pretreatments i.e. the application of ultra-sound,

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pulsed electric field, ultra-sound, vacuum, centrifugal force or gamma-irradiation to the
biological material prior to osmotic treatment lead to extensive mass transfer (Rastogi et al.,
2005; Amami & Vorobiev, 2005).
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8.1. Application of high hydrostatic pressure during osmotic dehydration
High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) processing is utilized on industrial scale in order to increase
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the product stability by inhibiting microorganisms and enzymatic activities. High pressure
pretreatment (100-800 MPa) alters the cell wall structure, increases permeabilization and cell
disruption. The index of cell disintegration (Zp, as measured by electro-physical method based
on analysis of electrical impedance) increases with time after high pressure treatment. This
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phenomenon is used to increase osmotic mass transfer rate during osmotic dehydration, by pre-
treatment of the food materials at such high pressures (Nuñez-Mancilla et al., 2014; Rastogi et
al., 2005). The process is also applied to change the functional properties of raw materials as
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well as the final product, thereby develops new rheological, primarily textural properties
(Pietrzak, 2010). In high pressure technology, a suitable selection of conditions for material
processing is vital from a methodological standpoint (Taiwo et al., 2003a). The combined effect
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of high hydrostatic pressure (100, 300 and 500 MPa for 10 minutes) and osmotic dehydration of
pineapple cubes at various temperatures (5, 25 and 35 oC) were compared with ordinary
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osmotically dehydrated samples. The diffusion coefficients for solute and water were determined
by Fickian diffusion model (Rastogi et al., 2000c). The diffusion coefficients for solute diffusion
out of the tissue as well as for rehydration rate into the tissue were observed to be lower in the
high pressure treated samples. Furthermore, the diffusion coefficients reduced significantly with
the increase in processing pressure. The reduction in water diffusion coefficient was caused by
cell membranes permeabilization, which lowers it rehydration capacity. HHP pretreatment lead
to compression of cellular structure, thereby releases the cellular constituents. This causes the
development of gel network with divalent ions binding to de-esterified pectin, hence reduces the
solid diffusion coefficient (Basak & Ramaswamy, 1998; Rastogi et al., 2000c).
Verma et al. (2014) observed that high pressure pretreatment of banana slices had enhanced
the mass transfer rate during osmotic dehydration. Similar results were found by Taiwo et al.
(2003a) for osmotically dehydrated strawberries, pretreated with a high hydrostatic pressure (200
MPa) for 5 minutes. Likewise, Rastogi and Niranjan (1998) found substantial influence of
pressure variations on osmotic dehydration kinetics of pineapple, as it caused significantly higher
water loss and mass gain. The mass gain of pineapple dried at 700MPa pressure for 3 hours was
approximately 30% higher as compared to dehydration at 100MPa. Sopanangkul et al. (2002)
studied the effect of osmotic dehydration of potato cylinders by varying the pressure conditions
between 200 and 500 MPa. It was found that application of pressures above 400 MPa lead to
starch gelation, thereby hindering the diffusion of water and osmo-active substance in a system.
From the previous literature, it was observed that osmotic dehydration performed under elevated
pressure influenced the nutritional composition and quality characteristics of dehydrated product
(Nuñez-Mancilla et al., 2014). On the other hand, high pressure may accelerate non-enzymatic
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browning reactions. Pressure of 300-500 MPa caused higher browning as compared to 200-300
MPa pressure treatment during osmotic dehydration of strawberry fruits (Nuñez-Mancilla et al.,
2013). The effect of high pressure treatments (100, 300 and 500 MPa) and osmotic
concentrations on mass transfer rate and product quality (color, texture and shelf life) of kiwifruit
slices during osmotic dehydration were studied for defined time intervals. The solute gain and
water loss were found to be faster than at atmospheric pressure. It also resulted in a product with
reduced risk of microbial spoilage, hence prolonged the shelf life of the final product with better
color and texture (Dalla Rosa et al., 1997).

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8.2. Application of high electric field pulse pre-treatment

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The use of pulsed electric field (PEF) is one of the promising non-thermal techniques used
for the preservation of food. The application of electric waves of high voltage amplitude induced

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breakage and pore formation in cell membranes. Various mechanisms are involved in electrical

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breakage such as visco-elastic properties, critical trans-membrane potential, compression of the
membrane, structural defects in the cell membrane etc. and this disintegration of the natural
structure of cell membrane (perforation) assist water and solute diffusivity. All these causes rapid
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mass flow and osmo-dehydration process (Wiktor & Witrowa-Rajchert 2012; Taiwo et al.,
2003b). PEF presents fresh like minimally processed food with minor loss of flavor, color and
nutrients. The process is conducted by placing the food material between electrodes at controlled
temperatures for short span of time i.e. microseconds, thereby reducing energy losses of heating.
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The electrical parameters i.e. pulse duration, number of pulses, field strength and pulse shape
must be controlled to optimize the process (Ade-Omowaye et al., 2001).
Taiwo et al. (2003a) studied the influence of pulses of high intensity electric field as a pre-
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treatment process on mass transfer kinetics during osmotic dehydration of strawberry halves.
Solid gain and water loss of control and PEF treated samples were compared. Higher solid gain
and water loss was recorded in PEF treated samples than control. Wiktor et al. (2014) observed
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that the application of PEF pre-treatment of apples resulted in greater loss of water compared to
control during osmotic dehydration. The penetration of osmo-active substance has not been
found effective in this method. Electric field intensity of 5 kV/ cm at the rate of 10 pulses was
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found to be the optimum condition in case of PEF pre-treatment of the materials. Similarly,
Amami and Vorobiev (2005) observed increase in water loss and osmo-active substance
penetration with the increase of electric field strength and pulse rates during osmotic dehydration
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of apples. The influence of the pretreatment using high voltage amplitude electric waves was
evaluated by Amami et al. (2007) during osmotic dehydration of carrots. It facilitated the mass
transfer rate, as the loss of moisture from the dehydrated material had increased up to 42% as
compared to control. Ade-Omowaye et al. (2003b) explained that the retention of ascorbic acid
during osmotic dehydration of red peppers depended upon the number of applied pulses. The
sample subjected to 1.0 pulse showed highest retention, while those subjected to 20 pulses
showed the lowest retention of ascorbic acid. Electric field strength of 1.0 kV/cm was found to
be sufficient for optimal solid gain and water loss. It was observed that PEF pretreatment had
minimized the drying time by about 20% (Wiktor & Witrowa-Rajchert, 2012).

8.3. Application of ultrasound during osmotic dehydration

The use of ultrasonic technique is a novel approach for increasing the safety of food products
as well as for food analysis and processing in the industry. Primarily, ultrasonic waves with high
power at low frequency (20-100 kHz) are applied at minimal temperature to stimulate a rapid
series of alternative expansions and compressions, resulting in the removal of moisture and
providing a sponge like effect (Kapturowska et al., 2011). It leads to the formation of
microscopic channels and through these channels, osmotic solution flow into the intercellular
spaces of the partially dried materials (Fernandes et al., 2009). Frequency and pressure are the
two important factors. When the intensity is maximized, the diffusion rates increases due to the
greater cavitations that develops intense turbulence or vapor locks at the boundary (Rastogi et al.,
2005). The application of continuous high frequency ultrasound enhances mass transfer rate
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during osmo-concentration. Ultrasound in combination with high sugar concentration speeds up
the rate of water withdrawal from the tissue and may significantly reduce the osmo-dehydration
time. Usually, the ultrasound assisted osmotic dehydration involves the dipping of fruits and
vegetables in a hypertonic solution to which ultrasound is applied. The process is beneficial in
the way that no heating is involved and is carried out at ambient temperature, so degradation of
the product is minimized. It also lead to rapid and complete degassing, commencing various
reactions by creating free radicals, increasing polymerization and de-polymerization reactions as
well as enhancing diffusion rates (Silva & Stojanovic, 2007).
Nowacka et al. (2014) reported that the preliminary exposure of kiwi fruit to ultrasound

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waves of 35 kHz frequency for half an hour resulted in a 45% mass gain as compared to control.

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However, Xin et al. (2014) observed that the application of ultrasound had reduced the duration
of osmotic dehydration of broccoli from 2 hours to 30 minutes. In addition, it retained up to 79.7-

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84.4% L-ascorbic acid compared to 63.4-72.3% in un-dehydrated frozen samples. It also
improved color retention and firmness during storage at –25°C for 6 months. Shamaei et al.

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(2011) compared osmotically dehydrated cranberries treated with ultrasound of low (35 kHz) and
high frequencies (130 kHz). The results indicated that the application of acoustic waves of lower
frequency was much preferred due to color retention and firmness of the final product. However,
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high frequency had caused structural degradation, whereas, the applications of moderate
conditions had formed less micro-channel. Heat is released during sonication, which could cause
thermal damage to the tissue and is linked with cavitation effect. It depends upon the used
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sequence, power, frequency of pulses and duration (Nowacka et al., 2014). Furthermore,
Francisca et al. (2010) used ultrasound for the dehydration of Malay apple by immersing in
osmotic solution at lower temperature. The percentage of solid gain and water loss was found
significantly high in ultrasound treated samples as compared to untreated samples. The natural
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color, flavor and nutritive components of the product were also retained during the process
(Rastogi et al., 2002).
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8.4. Application of gamma-irradiation in osmotic dehydration

Gamma irradiation is used to extend the shelf life of fresh produce. It helps to retard the
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growth of pathogenic microorganisms, sprouting of vegetables, insect disinfestations and

sterilization of foods. It also increases the permeability of plant tissue by damaging the interior
tissue structure and thereby maximizes the mass transfer rate during dehydration (Rastogi et al.,
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2006). Gamma irradiation had significantly influenced the drying kinetics and quality
characteristics i.e. appearance, rehydration ratio and vitamin C content of the dehydrated potato
(Wang & Chao, 2003b). The inner structure of food materials are altered and injured up to a
certain level. These structural changes causes higher permeability of the plant cells, hence
enhances the mass transfer kinetics during dehydration (Rastogi et al., 2006). Rastogi et al.
(2005) carried out research work on the combined effect of osmotic treatment and gamma-
irradiation on carrots. It was found that the diffusivity values for solute diffusion was lower,
while water infusion was higher during rehydration of osmotically treated and gamma irradiated
dried carrot samples. The use of osmotic solution above 10°Brix during the combined process
had caused minimal water uptake and higher solute loss as compared to the control. Rastogi et al.
(2006) reported that the application of gamma-irradiation (3.0–12.0 kGy) had reduced the
firmness of potato, thus enhanced the solute and water diffusion coefficients. All these
phenomena were ascribed to the increase of cell wall permeability.

8.5. Pulsed vacuum osmotic dehydration

Nowadays, vacuum impregnation is being applied widely for food materials in the food
industries. The method is beneficial for the rapid transfer of liquids into the pores of animal and
plant tissues in a controlled manner (Viana et al., 2013; Fito et al., 1994). The osmotic
dehydration process can be conducted at atmospheric pressure or by the application of vacuum.
Vacuum treatment causes compression and subsequent expansion of occluded gases in the food
material pores due to the hydrodynamic mechanisms (HDM), which is augmented by variation in
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pressure. Consequently, it encourages the exchange of pore liquid/gas from the outside liquid
(Chiralt et al., 1999; Torres et al., 2005). It is important to analyze the typical steps involved
during the process when a porous solid material is soaked in a liquid under vacuum conditions.
The steps are:

 The food material is immersed in the osmotic solution at atmospheric pressure.

 The working pressure is applied to the system.
 The system is kept at working pressure for a given period of time.
 The system is held at atmospheric pressure again. Mass transfer phenomena take

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place in the system.

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In vacuum osmotic dehydration (VOD), the capillary pores of fruits and vegetables are filled,
which resulted in the increase of solid-liquid surface contact area, hence enhances the mass

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transfer rate. VOD is conducted by the application of vacuum pressure for a short period called

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vacuum period and the restoration of atmospheric pressure called relaxation period. During the
first period, a pressure of 0.005-0.04 MPa is applied, which promote the removal of native gases
and liquids from capillary pores as well as lead to expansion of gases. In the second step, the
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atmospheric pressure restoration produces the suction of osmotic solution inside the pores and
the deformation and relaxation phenomenon takes place, which enable the modification of pores
dimension (Fito et al., 1994; Atares et al., 2008). Furthermore, if the relaxation period is
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increased similar to traditional osmotic dehydration, the process is called pulsed vacuum osmotic
dehydration (PVOD). During this method a short vacuum pulse is applied at the beginning of the
process, along with the osmotic process which persists at atmospheric conditions (Fito et al.,
1994; Derossi et al., 2010).
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After the initiation of HDM, the uptake of solid and loss of water maximizes, hence reduces
the drying time and improves the quality of the final product (Chafer et al., 2003). In some fruits
i.e. apples, the occurrence of intercellular spaces is the distinctive trait of the parenchymatous
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tissue. The pore volume comprises of 20% of the total apple volume and is believed to be
occupied by gasses, which can be removed by the use of low pressure treatment, as in vacuum
assisted osmotic dehydration. The reduction in pressure leads to the expansion and occlusion of
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gasses in the pores. As the pressure is restored, the pores can be filled by osmotic solution,
thereby enhances the surface area for mass transfer (Fito et al., 1994; Shi & Fito, 1994). It causes
the flow of osmotic solution into the pores of the fruits and vegetables by HDM (Fito & Chiralt,
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1997). The application of vacuum in brining process (brine vacuum impregnation) has been
reported to reduce the drying time by imposing the substitution of part of the sample aqueous
phase and the initial gases in the structure for brine, coupling with the HDM, promoted by
capillary force or imposed pressure gradients. Table 3 presents the different phenomena taking
place at various steps during the food salting process.

Table 3

The level of pressure and time of its action, the concentration and type of the used osmotic
agent, the geometrical shape as well as the porosity of the sample must be taken into
consideration in order to develop suitable conditions for pulsed vacuum osmotic dehydration
process (Chafer et al., 2003). Vacuum is applied for 10 to 20 minutes and is then released;
leading to pulsed vacuum osmotic dehydration cycles, which in combination with osmotic
gradients develop compression and relaxation of the food matrix, hence speed up osmotic
dehydration (Santacruz-Vazquez et al., 2008). Osmotic dehydration followed by vacuum drying
is carried out in a food material with a sucrose solution of 65–75°Brix until the weight is lost up
to 30-50%. It had created a puffy product with a crispy texture at a cost that is comparatively
much lower than product obtained by freeze-drying (Falade & Igbeka, 2007). Combined osmotic
and vacuum impregnation of apple slices with 30-40% maple syrup compared to other sugars
lead to a better textural properties and whitening index, while lowered the water activity level.
From the comparison of various drying methods, it was found that vacuum drying was most
effective in preserving color, texture and phenolic compounds during apple drying (Rupasinghe
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et al., 2010). Ferrari et al. (2011) conducted research on the vacuum dehydration of melon cubes
at 0.01 MPa pressure and 40, 50, 60 °Brix sucrose solutions. The use of less viscous solution in
conjunction with vacuum pulse at the start of the process had lead to higher solid gain. However,
a decreasing trend was found in the solid gain as the concentration of the solution was increased.
Geometry of the food material also plays important role during pulsed vacuum osmotic
dehydration. It was found ineffective when applied to fodder palm, which has quite hard
structure (Viana et al., 2013). Mujica-Paz et al. (2003b) studied the impact of various pressure
conditions on the moisture content of the food materials. The increase of vacuum had resulted in
the reduction of liquid volume in the sample. The application of pressure below 0.04 MPa had

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removed most of the liquid phase from the tissue pores. Matusek et al. (2008) found that a 0.7

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MPa pressure treatment of apples with oligo-fructose for 5 minutes lead to approximately 12%
greater loss of moisture content and higher fructo-oligosaccharide impregnation level compared

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to samples dehydrated without the application of pressure. Escriche et al. (2000) found that
PVOD of kiwifruit with concentrated grape juice of 63 °Brix at 0.005 MPa pressure for 15

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minutes had resulted in a 20% increase of diffusion coefficient in comparison with 65 °Brix
sucrose solution at the same condition. Similarly, Bórquez et al. (2010) in their experiments
showed that osmotic dehydration of raspberry fruit using 1.33 MPa pressure for 8 minutes had
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caused 3-4 times higher water loss than solid gain. Mechanical resistance, flavor and color of
fruits have been enhanced significantly by impregnation with sucrose solution.
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8.6. Application of centrifugal force during osmotic dehydration

Centrifugal osmotic dehydration technique is used to enhance the rate of mass transfer in
fruits and vegetables. It maximizes the water loss, but at the same time minimizes the solid gain.
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Thereby, enhances the ratio between water loss and solid gain (Amami et al., 2007). It has been
reported that the use of centrifugal force during osmotic dehydration results in water loss of up to
15%, while reduces the solid uptake by about 80% (Rastogi et al., 2005). Azuara et al. (1996)
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centrifuged cylindrical slices of apples and potatoes by dipping in osmotic solution at a

temperature of 30 °C. The centrifuged potato and apple samples showed approximately 2% and
6% solids gain respectively, while about 70% and 83% water loss respectively, compared with
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15% and 12% solid gain and 65% and 75% water loss respectively, for the untreated samples
during 6 hours of osmotic treatment. The obtained results showed that the solid gain by the food
samples was reduced, while moisture loss was increased by the application of centrifugal force.
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Similarly, Badwaik et al. (2013) studied the osmotic dehydration of bamboo shoots with the
application of centrifugal force using salt as an osmotic agent. This caused higher rehydration
ratio, while lowered solid gain, hardness, and color values.

8.7. Osmodehydro-freezing
The process of osmotic dehydration in conjunction with freezing is called osmodehydro-
freezing and is used to get quality product with better textural properties i.e. lesser drip loss and
structural collapse (Efimia et al., 2008). In osmotic dehydration, the moisture content of fresh
fruits and vegetables decreases, thus minimizing the available water for freezing and minimizes
the changes in the quality of food product after thawing (Li & Sun, 2002; Tregunno, & Goff,
1996). Additionally, osmotic dehydration minimizes the energy requirement for ice crystals
formation as well as distribution and packaging cost (Lowithun & Charoenrein, 2009). During
freezing, the cellular structure is damaged during ice crystal formation. The unfrozen water acts
as solvent for all the solutes after freezing of the aqueous solution. High electrolytes
concentration influences the ionic interaction, thereby stabilizes proteins (Wolfe & Bryant,
2001). Osmotic dehydration in conjunction with freezing treatment had been found to improve
the quality of fruits and vegetables and minimizes the unwanted changes (Forni et al., 1990).
Giannakourou and Taoukis (2003) analyzed the quality characteristics of osmodehydro-
frozen green peas. It was found that osmotic treatment had minimized the quality changes in
term of color, ascorbic acid and texture for frozen samples. The quality of frozen cucumber can
be improved during osmotic dehydration by cryo-protection achieved by pre-freezing.
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Osmodehydro-freezing enhanced the firmness and sensory attributes of the products (Efimia et
al., 2008). The quality attributes of osmodehydro-frozen tomato were improved during storage
period as compared to the traditionally frozen tomato. The retention of vitamin C in samples
dehydrated with glucose at −20°C were found higher than untreated frozen samples for a storage
period of one year (Dermesonlouoglou et al., 2007). Partial removal of water prior to freezing
was found to enhance the final quality of strawberries and melons (Maestrelli et al., 2001).
Similarly, Agnelli et al. (2005) studied the osmotic dehydration of apple with sucrose and
glucose solutions followed by freezing and found good results in regard to quality of final
product. Osmodehydro-freezing results in the transfer of water and soluble solids between the

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osmotic solution and food materials as well as the transfer of heat during freezing. Kowalska et

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al. (2008) studied the influence of pre-freezing on osmotic dehydration of pumpkin. It was
reported that freezing pretreatment had increased the solid gain considerably compared to

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untreated samples. Similarly, Bchir et al. (2011) applied freezing before the dehydration of
pomegranate seeds osmotically. Pre-freezing provided 3.5 and 1.4 times more solid gain and

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water loss, respectively, than untreated samples. As a result of freeze-thaw ice water
transformation, the cellular structure of fruit pulp was disrupted, thus favored higher solute gain.
The influence of osmotic dehydration on the mango slices followed by freezing at a temperature
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of -18°C during 20 weeks was evaluated. The moisture contents, ascorbic acid, titratable acidity
and lightness were reduced, while total soluble solids were increased during storage (Rincon &
William, 2010).
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8.8. Microwave assisted osmotic dehydration

Literatures on combined microwave vacuum and osmotic dehydration of vegetables and
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fruits is scanty. Some researchers applied microwave vacuum in conjunction with osmotic
treatment for the dehydration of apples, blueberries, strawberries, potatoes, tomatoes and
mushrooms, which lead to the development of superior quality product in terms of taste, color,
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structure, volume and ascorbic acid (Sutar et al., 2012; Heredia et al., 2007; Prothon et al., 2001;
Torringa et al., 2001). This combined process provided a more uniform heating in the mushroom
samples and minimized shrinkage and drying time, whereas enhanced the solute uptake, porosity
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and rehydration characteristics by changing its dielectric properties (Torringa et al., 2001). The
application of microwaves caused a rise in temperature of osmotic solution and product, which
accelerated the evaporation of moisture from food materials. Osmotic pressure is developed
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between the solid matrix of the product and liquid water, thereby increases the mass flow rate.
The overall ratio of water loss to solid gain is higher in microwave assisted osmotic dehydration
than osmotic dehydration alone (Sutar & Prasad, 2011; Li & Ramaswamy, 2006a).
Pereira et al. (2007) studied the influence of microwave power, temperature and air velocity
on the final drying kinetics of osmo-dried bananas. It was found that increasing the power of
microwave minimized the drying time and enhanced the overall quality of final product. Heredia
et al. (2007) treated cherry tomatoes prior to microwave assisted air drying with hypertonic
solutions, formulated with sugar, calcium lactate and salt. Osmotic solutions (27.5% sucrose,
10% salt and water) with 2% calcium lactate in conjunction with microwave assisted air drying
resulted in intermediate moisture and dried tomato products with better quality attributes and
longer shelf life than the untreated samples. Prothon et al. (2001) studied the influence of
microwave-assisted air drying on apple cubes with or without osmotic pre-treatment. They used
sucrose solution as an osmotic agent followed by microwave assisted air drying at various
temperatures (50, 60 and 70ºC). The infusion of sucrose in to the tissue caused reduction in the
drying rate and enhanced the quality of final product. However, the effective diffusivity of
moisture and rehydration capacity was rather lower than the untreated samples.

9. Conclusion
Osmotic dehydration is a method used for the partial removal of moisture from food
materials. In addition, the uptake of solute and leaching of food constituents during the process
resulted in alteration of the composition of original product, thereby led to the improvement of
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some nutritional, functional and organoleptic properties. It has been regarded as the method of
obtaining a minimally processed fruits and vegetables due to the greater sensory resemblance
between the dehydrated and natural product. It also provides certain benefits i.e. minimizing
thermal damage to the nutrients, inhibiting enzymatic browning and reducing costs. It provides a
nutritious and wholesome product which is available round the year. Variables such as variety,
maturity level and geometry of the food materials as well as pretreatments, temperature,
concentration and types of osmotic agent affect the mass transfer during osmotic dehydration.
Application of processes such as pulsed electric field, high pressure, gamma-irradiation, vacuum,
microwave, centrifugal force or ultrasound in conjunction with osmotic dehydration technique

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accelerated the mass transfer and drying rates by the permeabilization of the cell membranes.

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Figure 1
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matrix Physical interface

Cell Water

Gas

Osmotic solution

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Sugar

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Homogenous Modified tissue surface
cellular structure
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Fig. 1. Schematic cellular material representation and mass transfer pattern (Adapted from Shi &
Xue, 2009).
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Figure 2.

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Fig. 2. Schematic representation of mechanism of mass transfer during osmotic dehydration
(Adapted from Rastogi et al., 2000).
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Figure 3.

Kiwifruit 58o Brix sucrose

slices solution

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Continuous After 8 hours
process Pasteurization in plate
osmotic

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Coarse filtering
concentration heat exchanger
(45o: 20oC

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Cleaning of
Drip of
filters at
excess
100oC
solution Refrigeration at 4oC
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Wiping
Restoring of initial
concentration adding
dry sucrose
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Packing

Fig. 3. Flowchart of solution management during direct osmotic treatment of kiwifruit

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slices (Adapted from Dalla Rosa et al., 1995).

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Table 1

Osmotic agents
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Different osmotic agents and their effects in osmotic dehydration process
Remarks References
Sucrose Sugar solution reduces browning by preventing oxygen entrance, Pattanapa et al.,
provides stability to pigments and helps retain volatile compounds 2010; Ferrando
during drying of osmotically treated materials. It proved to be best, & Spiess, 2001
based on convenience, effectiveness and flavor. It tends to crystallize
upon drying. Sweetness hinders its application in vegetable processing.
Corn syrup Sample dehydrated in corn syrup solution had values of solid gain and Aung & Fluger,
solution water loss lower than that obtained from the samples processed in sucrose 1997; El-Aouar
solution. The fact is corn syrup solution had visually higher viscosity and et al., 2006

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molecular weight than sucrose.

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Salt Mostly used for vegetable processing, as it hinders oxidative and non Tadesse et al.,
enzymatic browning. As an osmotic agent, it provides the driving force 2015; Azoubel

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for mass transfer and hinders the surface shrinkage. It has limited use & Murr, 2004
in fruits dehydration due to salty taste.

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Fructo- The osmotic behavior of fructo-oligosaccharide differs from sucrose. This Matusek et al.,
oligosacharide probably is due to its higher molecular weight compared to sucrose, 2008
hence lead to lower diffusion rate.
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Maltose Maltose solutions showed simultaneously higher water loss and lower Ferrari &
sugar gain during osmotic dehydration than sucrose solution. Hubinger, 2008
Honey Recently, honey has been used to enhance the osmotic dehydration Zhou & Jiang,
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process. Honey sugar consists of fructose, glucose, maltose, sucrose 2009

and other carbohydrate. In comparison to single sugar solutions,
honey solution has a high osmotic pressure, thereby permits rapid
water diffusion. It also provides a better plasticizing effect such that
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the processed plant material has a non-brittle texture and better

rehydration properties.
Malto dextrin It is less effective than sucrose in the same concentration. Although Ispir & Togrul,
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maltodextrin has higher molecular weight, it can be absorbed as good as 2009

glucose. High solid gain in case of using maltodexrin can be explained
with its high absorption characteristic.
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Ethanol Application of ethanol as osmotic agent decreases viscosity and freezing Osorio et al.,
point of osmotic solution in cooling and freezing processes. It lowered the 2007
water activity of the product and enhanced the storage stability of the
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product.
High fructose Osmotic dehydration (OD) of cranberries by using HFCS produced Sunjka &
corn syrup maximum water loss and solid gain as compared to sucrose. This happen Raghavan, 2004
(HFCS) due to the higher mobility of viscous HFCS. Its sweetness intensity is
almost similar to that of table sugar, which makes it feasible to use as a
substitute for sugar, especially during OD.
Vacuum impregnated solution having 30-40% level of maple syrup than Rupasinghe et
Maple syrup other sugars lead to best whitening index, textural attributes and reduced al., 2010
water activity in the dried apple slices.
Table 2
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Water activity and dry matter (DM) content of dried fruit (Klewicki et al., 2009).

Fruits Water activity Dry matter content [%(w/w)]

Osmo-convectively-dried apple 0.542 92.4

Osmo-freeze-dried apple 0.219 99.6

Osmo-convectively-dried blackcurrant 0.633 88.3

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Osmo-freeze-dried blackcurrant 0.267 97.2

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Osmo-convectively-dried sour cherry 0.699 71.8

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Osmo-freeze-dried sour cherry 0.294 97.8

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 Table 3 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Mass transport phenomena and structural changes occurring throughout food brining at
different steps in vacuum impregnation process (Chiralt et al., 2001)

Process step Mass transport phenomena Structural changes

Capillary penetration of the brine (Brine Changes in aqueous environment of product
Product immersion penetration front: BPF). Water and salt components i.e. protiens, near the sample
at atmospheric diffusion in the product liquid phase near the surface: changes in the conformation of
pressure sample surface biopolymers.

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Period at vacuum Gas and free internal liquid flow out. Advances Pores expansion occupied by gas. Changes in
of the BPF due to increase of capillary effects. conformation of biopolymers and in their

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Diffusion phenomena coupled with salt water bonding capacity (WBC), according to
penetration lead to the formation of salt-water the resulted salt concentration profile.

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concentration profile.
Period at Advance of BPF due to compression coupling Matrix pores volume reductions: expulsion

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atmospheric with the diffusion of water and salt transport. of free liquid phase can occur; Progression
pressure of conformational changes of biopolymers
and WBC according to the developed salt
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concentration profiles.
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Industrial Relevance
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The osmotic dehydration technique is gaining popularity as a mean of obtaining minimally
processed food. This review paper deals with the kinetics and mechanisms of osmotic
dehydration technique for the preservation of fruits and vegetables. The various factors effecting
osmotic mass transfer rate in food have been reviewed. In this paper, the combine effect of
osmotic dehydration and several other innovative techniques (pulsed high electric field, high
hydrostatic pressure, ultrasound, centrifugal force, vacuum and gamma irradiation) on the quality
and shelf life of fruits and vegetables have been reviewed. These techniques have been employed

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during or after osmotic treatment to enhance osmotic dehydration performance by increasing the
cell membrane permeability. These combined operations reduce the drying time, minimizing

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further energy costs as well as improved the quality of fruits and vegetables during storage.

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Highlights
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 The article summarizes MANUSCRIPT
the application of osmotic dehydration technique for the
processing of fruits and vegetables.
 An overview of the mechanisms and kinetics of mass transfer phenomenon have
been given.
 Benefits and limitation of osmotic dehydration technique has been presented.
 Various factors as well as process control and design which influence the mass

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transfer phenomena have been reviewed.

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 Recent developments in osmotic dehydration process have substantially increased

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the mass transfer rate and reduced the drying time.

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