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    Recent Trends of Nanomaterials For High Voltage Applications - JE Contreras

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    Cha Recent Trénds of Nanomaterials for High-Voltage Applications José E. Contreras’, Edén A. Rodriguez” and Jaime Taha-Tjevina? "Prolee GE ~ Applied Reseach Contr (CTAP).Apaica, Nuvo Laon Mexico, 7Autonomous Universty of New Leon (LANDA. San Nicole defo Garza, Nuevo Leon Mesica. "Department ef Ergnering. Universidad de Monterrey (UDEN). Sam Pedro Garza Gari. Nuevo Leon Metco 39.1 OVERVIEW nergy has been, at least in the last decade, one of the ‘most important issues facing humanity. According to the Intemational Energy Outiock 2016, the worldwide energy demand is expected to increase by approximately 50% from 2012 tp 204) [1.2]. Historically, fossil fads, such as coal, petoleum oil and natural gas, have been the major contuibutors to the warld's energy sector. Inthe following years, challenges to mitigate pollation, global warning, land others will be extical [3]. The inevitable searcity of fos fuels, besides concerns ralated to pollution, global ‘warming, and others, have promoted the development of not nly of alternative sources of energy but also new technologies to attend to current and future world energy needs with sustainability and efficiency. Nonfossil fuels or renewable energy sources, such as wind, water, solar, geothermal heat, waves, or biomass, which are considered a8 “geen” technologies, have dramatically evolved in the last “decades. In fact, renewable energy sources are expected to grow faster than consumption of fossil fuels by an average 2.6% por year betwsen 2012 and 2640 (2. Although some of thom are technologically feasible to ‘obtain clean energy at this time, there are some ies repanding efficioney and coxt, which need t» he attended in order to be completly adapted. and inchided in the electric power grid. ‘Today's electric grid is changing continuously due to the increasing high population growth and other factors such as economic growth, environmental regulations, pub- lic health, and others, Therefore, it demands an evolution of the electric power system to ensure relisble, resilient, affordable, secure, and dean ekcuic power [4]. The grid cof the fture must inchide high-tech apparatus within vative designs, advanced materials, and new tachnologios. m4 Innovation and R&D in topics such as engineering and ‘materials science are essential to accomplish these offorts. Applied rescarch in materials science has led to the devel- ‘opment of advanced materials with outstanding character- istics such as mechanical, electrical. physical. chemical and others [4-6]. Energy sector has been taking advantage of these R&D initiatives 1 enhance the performance of may electric grid components, such as the incorpo- ration of nanotechnology ani nanoscience concepts. Nanotechnology is an emerging discipline with an enor- ‘mous potential to change dramatically the performance of conventional materials and to offer new technological solutions w create new materials with unique properties for specific applications. This discipline is growing in ‘many industry sectors; its market is exposted to grow at & compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of around 1759% during 2016-22 [7]. Nowadays there have been a great rumber of nano-based products which are commercially available and many others which are in an early lab-stage of development. Energy industry has considered several nanoconeepts in many applications targeted t> provide cleaner and more efficient energy [6]. In the last two dec- ades, advanced and innovative solutions have been pro- posed to enhance the high-voltage grid components, based ‘on new materials and aovel nanomaterials [1 4811]. ‘This chapter highlights the recent trends of nanoteeh- nology and nanoscience for high-voltage application in the energy sector. It begins with an inroduetion of nanos tructired materials, definition, methods of fabrication, and benefits reported versus conventional materials. Specific applications of high-tech nanomaterials in elec- trical transformers and outdocr HV insulators are pre- sented and discussed. Finally, a general prospective of nanotecinology concepts for the next generation of high- ‘voltage materials is also proposed. Recent Trends of Nanomaterials for HightVpkiage|AbpDchtions| Chapter | 39 725 39.2 INTRODUCTION TO. NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS Nanotechnology is a science that deals with diverse phe- ‘nomenons, properties, and materials characteristics at a subatomic level. It offers feasible technological altema- tives not only for the improvement to conventional mate- rials, but also for the development of novel materials. Nanotechnology has been applied in diverse fields, such as in medical, nuclear, biological, semiconductor, energy, serospace, and transportation, to mention some [12~I4]. Nevertheless, technology evolution has been rapidly pro- ‘gressing in these fields and, in some cases, the application of ordinary materials and manufacturing processes or slowly developed systems is an area that stil neds to be upgraded. However, emerging strategies for developing the next-generation of materials suitable to comply with the “green” efficiency is a fastevolving field, showing significant development, particularly with regard to the tailoring of properties. From both fundamental and technological perspectives, ‘manipulation and contol of matter on the nanometer scale has become a central focus. Unique, unpredictable, and highly intriguing physical, mechanical, optical, elecwical, ‘and magnetic phenomena result from the confinement of ‘matter into nanoscale features [15]. Morphology control in nanostructures and nanocomponents has become a key issue in the utilization and preparation of electronic or ‘mechanical nanodevices and functional materials (16). ‘There are two general synthetic protocols for nanos- ‘ructured materials; top-down approach and bottom-up approach (Fig. 39.1 (20). The fist approach is known as, “molecular nanotechnology.” the bulk material is brought into smaller dimension by diverse tools, such as mechani cal alloying, mechanical abrasion (high energy ball mill- ing), various tools of patteming-chemical etching and Bottom-up approach 0295, optical lithography, and various methods to create ultra- thin films of materials, e.g., thin film evaporation and sputtering [17]. It involves the building of organic and inorganic structures atom-by-atom or molecule-by- molecule. Bottom-up approach assures high monodisper- sity, possibility of further chemical derivatization, high degree of crystallinity and specificity, chemical integrity, and lack of defects. It is related to size reduction of con- ventional materials at nanometric levels, ic., bulk materi- als are broken down into nanoparticles by mechanical attrition and etching techniques [18,19]. Due to these reasons the bottom-up approach is thought to be more reliable than the top-down approach, 39.2.1 Nanotechnology in Nature and First Applications Nanotechnology is not a new topic at all even though it become more common in the last decades. Nature has extraordinary examples of the manipulation of matter at nanometric levels in plants and animals, which has encouraged the research and development in nanotechnol- ‘ogy and nanoscience [21] In this aspect, the lotus flower is an incredible example of nanotechnology from nature since it has water-repellent surface leaves so they always are clean although this flower grows in muddy waters. ‘This is bacause of a nanosized wax papillae on the upper side of each epidermal cell, so drops of water roll off free of dust and dirt particles, leaving the surface clean. This self-cleaning property of highly hydrophobic surfaces, termed as the lotus effect, has opened the possibilities of fabricating superhydrophobic surfaces for a variety of products [2224]. Another remarkable example is given by nacre, the pearly intemal layer of many mollusk shells, which consists of ordered layers of aragonite plates within FIGURE391. Scheme of bettom- up. and top-down approaches. Adapted from IY. Wong, 1 McDonald, M. TayorPimney, DL Spivak, DA. Kaplan, MI. Buehler, ‘Materials By design: merging pro- teins and music, Nano Today 7 (2012) 488495, mo 726 PART | VII Engineered Nanomaterial in Energy Industry an organif-rgatiix [ahd Chatactertzed for an amazing strength and toughness. Recently, nanoscale crystals of aragonite were found in nacre structure, which signifi- cantly contibute to the bulk properties [25]. On the other hand, there are several investigations regarding nanotech- nology characteristics found in animals, such as that given, from a small lizard called a gecko, which has an impres- sive ability to adhere to vertical surfaces, and even walk upside down on ceilings. This extraordinary climbing skill is because on the sole of a gecko's toes there are some ‘one billion tiny adhesive hairs, about 200nm in both width and length [26,27]. Many insects including may- flies, dragonflies, stoneflies, lacewings, caddisflies, butter- flies, moths, and flies, have superhydrophobic wings, which have an advantage to reduce the dust/particle contamination, and therefore to enhance their flight capability [28] ‘There are references of nanoparticles incorporated within antiques hand-craft pieces, tools, and weapons. Recently, investigations revealed that the beautiful colors, of some very antique Chinese and Japanese ceramic pot- tery came from metallic nanoparticles of gold and copper which fortuitously were incorporated in the colorant [2931]. Other investigations have found that the ancient Damascus blades, which were very attractive and well- valued in Europe in the 17th century due to their wavy- like banding and extremely sharp edge, have cementite nanowires and carbon nanotubes (CNT) in their micro- structure [32.33]. 39.2.2 Benefits on Nanotechnology Nanoscience and nanotechnology have brought benefits to ‘our society by helping to improve and revolutionize many industry sectors, such as medicine, transportation, energy, food, environmental science, etc. These benefits are possi- ble since conventional materials can effectively be stron- ger, better electrical conductors, lighter, more durable, ‘more reactive, etc., through nanotechnology concep. Efforts of weight-reducing, “greener” materials and pro- cesses, enhanced components and devices efficiency, among others, are always continuing due to industria economic trends to optimize and miniaturize designs, ‘making better usage of resources and obtaining more power output, more environmentally friendly materials, and with more profit. Nanostructured materials have achieved a relevant progress due to the technological col laboration between several disciplines and by social, eco- nomic, and political aspocts (34—39]. Investigations have demonstrated that materials performance can be signifi- cantly improved by nanoparticles imcorporation, some examples are: higher electrical and magnetic properties, higher mechanical strength, hardness, ductility, dielectric and thermal capacity, wear resistance, etc. Therefore, relentless opportunities are sought in which these fields could have great impact of nanomaterials addition is an important factor to take in count. For industrialization and application in larger scale of nanomaterials, one of the main reas of enquiry is the final product price in relation to its properties. Since development of nanostructures by itself is a high-cost pro- cess, which has been decreasing over time, in most cases nanomaterials and products are significantly more expen- sive than conventional products, which is mainly due to the technology behind that product or the materials ‘manufacturing. processes involved with it. For instance, (on specific applications where the objective or break- through is to improve a certain property, the cost of mate- rials or components is a critical variable of the product. ‘As long as the utilization of nanomaterials with novel or superb properties provides the solution to a particular issue which cannot be solved with conventional materials, the price becomes less important. 39.3 NANOMATERIALS FOR HIGH- VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS High-voltage transformers are one of the most critical and essential components of the structure and operation of the generation, transmission, and distribution electricity net- ‘work since any fault in these elements will reduce the reliability of the power system and interupt the power supply [40.41]. Typically, electrical transformers can be segmented in two categories, distribution and power TABLE 39.1 Voltage Classes of Distribution and Power Transformers [42,50] Type Class Voltage Rate kV) Application Power tarefonners Tera high vag 345, 500,765 ‘Generation plants, astations High voltage 115/138, 161230 Medium voltage 345, 46, 69, 15/138 Disibaton transformer Distibution vohage 25-35 Trust, commercial, residential Recent Trends of Nanomaterials for High-Voltage Applications Chapter} 39° 727 transformersi(iable 35/1), and they have important differ- ences between each other such as voltage rate, size, ‘manufacturing process, application, materials, etc. ‘An electrical transformer is a static electrical device comprising of a pair of windings, primary and secondary, linked by a magnetic circuit or core [43], which trans- forms the voltage from one level to another. Power trans- formers are huge and costly and involve detailed engineering designs and elaborated manufacturing pro- cesses to integrate all the inner materials, such as electri cal conductors (copper and aluminum), dielectric fluid, solid insulation, electrical grade steel, ete., and its con- struction depends upon the application. ‘Although HV transformers have not suffered signifi- cant changes in operation and functionality in more than 100 years, their technological evolution has been achieved by manufacturers with the aim to offer high-added-value products with higher capacity, reliability, and efficiency. On the other hand, suppliers have developed novel mate- rials with outstanding properties for the core, windings, insulation, and cooling systems. Recently, nanotechnology appears to offer high-value solutions for decisive techno- logical breakthroughs in HV transformers. ‘This section of the chapter includes a literature review of investigations related with nanoconcepts for high-voltage transformers, focusing on the benefits of nanomaterials over conventional materials. Nanotechnology concepts considered for dielectric fluids, solid insulation, conductors, and other applications are highlighted below. 39.3.1 Nanofluids Insulating fluids are one of the main elements of high- voltage transformers. They have two fundamental func~ tions, acting as dielectric insulation and cooling media. Mincral oil (MO) has been widely used as insulating Fluid in high-voltage applications, such as in transformers, mainly because of its excellent properties [44.45]. Recently, environmentally friendly fluids such as natural ester (NE) and synthetic ester (SE), have emerged as an ecological altemative [46.47]. Insulating fluids have been technologically evolving due to the constant need for reliability and efficiency of the high-voltage equipment, therefore several approaches have been considered to improve their performance. Since solid materials possess several orders higher thermal con- ductivity compared to that of conventional fluids, it was in the late 19th century when James Maxwell's idea to introduce conducting particles to fluids was investigated [48]. Later, this technique was investigated and adapted for particles shape and composition by Hamilton and Crosser [49], but neither could predict the improved ther- ‘mal conductivities of nanofiuids since their models did not include any particle size dependence [50]. Since the ‘mid-1990s, with the aid of nanotechnology, Choi coined the tem “nanofluid” [34], where these suspensions of nanosized solid particles (1—100 nm) with optimum layer thickness and filler fraction concentrations were studied for diverse applications [16,39,51~S8]. ‘This nanoconcept has been considered for HV applica- tions, and several investigations reported a remarkable enhancement in comparison with the performance of con- ventional insulating fluids. In 1998, Segal, who is consid- ered as one of the pioneers to incorporate nanotechnology concepts in transformers fluids, developed the first dielec- tric colloidal fluid by the modification of MO with nano- Fe, which shows a superior breakdown voltage (1.4 times) than that of the MO, besides an increment of the lighting impulse to withstand voltage [59,60]. Recently, Nazari et al. have also demonstrated that the addition of nnano-FesO, inereases the dielectric capacity of conven- tional MO [61]. In a similar work, Li et al, found that the lighting impulse breakdown voltage of a NE can be improved up to 15% by adding nano-FexO, [62]. (On the other hand, it has been demonstrated that dia- ‘mond nanoparticles are capable of increasing (70%) the thermal conductivity of MO according Davidson et al. and Taha-Tijerina et al. (38,63,64|. In 2015, Fontes et al. reported that the thermal conductivity of MO can be enhanced by adding multiwalled CNT (+25%) and dia- mond nanoparticles (+ 20%), however its viscosity increased and AC dielectric breakdown decreased with increasing nanoparticle concentration 65]. Similarly, Shukla et al. developed MO-nanofluid-based nanodia- monds (0.12 wt%; <8 nm) with high stability and better thermal conductivity (14.5%) than MO, and with a negligible change in viscosity [66]. In 2010, Xuan et al. reported a significant enhance- ‘ment of 40% on the thermal conductivity of MO by add- ing copper nanoparticles [67]. In another investigation, Choi etal. demonstrated that ALOs/AIN-based nanofluids has a higher heat transfer coefficient (20%) than MO, which was also corroborated in a transformer prototype [68]. Recently, Taha-Tijerina et al. reported that the thermal conductivity of MO increases more than 75% by adding 0.10 w% of exfoliated hexagonal boron nitride (heBN) 2D-nanosheets [12]. It was also demonstrated that the AC breakdown voltage of insulating paper can be enhanced by impregnating with the h-BN/MO nanofluid [69]. In a similar work, Du et al. found that BN nanoparti- cles improve the heat transfer performance and AC break- down voltage (34%) of a NE fluid [70]. Mansour et al. demonstrated that the dielectric capac- ity of MO can be enhanced up to two-fold by adding nano-TiO, [71]. In a similar research, Pugazhendhi reported that AC breakdown voltage of MO increases up to 31% by the addition of nano-TiO2 (0.005 wt%), which is attibuted to the high relative permittivity of the 728 PART | VII Engineered Nanomateral in Energy Industry nanofiller (72). Zhou et al. reported that the AC and DC breakdown voltage and the partial discharge inception voltage of transformer pressboard can be substantially improved when it is impregnated with TiObased nano- fluid in comparison with a MO [73]. In 2016 Katiyar et al. demonstrated tha the addition of 0.1Swt% of ‘amatase-Ti0, nanostructures can enhance (~80%) the breakdown voltage of MO [74]. Jin et al. found that silica nanofluids (0,02 wt%) exhibit higher values of AC breakdown strength (27.4%) in comparison with MO, which is due to hydrophilic char- seteristics of nano-SiO. [75]. Similarly, Rafiq et al. reported an improvement of the breakdown voltage (6.1%) of MO by adding nanosilica (10-20 wt) [76]. In 2016, Karthik et al. demonstrated that SiO» nanoparticles significantly enhance the breakdown voltage (61.4% and 42.4%, respectively) of NEs based on com and coconut oil (771. In summary, investigations regarding insulating nano- fluids for tansformers have been remarkably increased in the last years (Fig. 39.2). Nowadays, nanofluids are con- sidered ‘as the new generation of aivanced insulating fluids for HV transformers [12]. Agglomeration, disper- sion techniques, long-term stability, mass production, and cost are some challenges that will be attended to in the near future. 39.3.2 Nanomaterials for Insula ‘The insulating solid material is a critical element in HV transformers since it can significantly impact the life expectancy of the equipment [41]. It is well recognized that transformer life is fundamentally the paper insulation life [7]. Historically, the wansformer insulation system hhas been based on exliulose since this compound com- prises a very interesting dielectric performance/east ratio, over other insulation materials [43]. Cellulose-based pro- ducts, such as paper, pressboard, laminated high density blocks, ete., are typically used in transformers [79-81]. ‘The insulation system in HV transformers consists of cel- Tulose paper wrapped around the electrical conductors of the winding, besides dielectric fluid and presstoard to insulate the windings from ground. The insulation system (fluid/paper) is expected to last the normal life expectancy of a power transformer, which is generally assumed t© be about 30 years of service [41 Inside the transformer, cel- Tulose insulation is exposed to several conditions such as thermal and mechanical stress, besides other chemical reactions related with oxygen and water, which led to a degradation mechanism of cellulose (41.821. ‘The development of new materials has gained atten- tion in the last years since they offer altematives to increase the performance and reliability of the traditional (© Therma pecarmance 1.0 | @ oscrcenosery Enhancement ratio vs conventional dielectre fluid 2000 2010 2015 FIGURE392 Benefits of nanotechnology for insulting fluids for HV transformers. Recent Trends of Nanomaterials for High-Voltage Application) Chas | | cellulosS-iilatibi. libvGstightions> have been achieved with the aim of developing new high-performance solid insulation including better cellulose pulp, optimized fiber length, thermal upgrading paper, blending of cellulose paper with synthetic fiber and synthetic products or non- cellulose materials [83]. Recently, advanced materials or even nanotechnology concepts to enhance the thermal, electric, and mechanical performance of transformer insulation, have been proposed. One of the most studied nanotechnology concepts for insulation materials is the incorporation of nanoparticles to improve i final perfor- ‘mance. In 2012, Liao et al. reported that the addition of nano-SiO> in a cellulose paper, improved its breakdown voltage 15% over unmodified kraft samples [84]. Similarly, Lizo et al. found that the dielectric breakdown voltage of oi-impregnated cellulose insulation increases 20% when the paper is reinforced with nano-TiO» [85]. ‘Yuan et al. developed a novel insulation by the modifica- tion of kraft paper with montmorillonite (MMT) clay nanoparticles, which shows a superior breakdown strength (13%) than a kraft paper [86]. A similar investi- gation was conducted by Hegian et al. who developed 3 nanomodified pressboard with nano-MMT with a higher ‘breakdown stength (13%) than that of conventional insu- lation [87]. In 2015, Ge et al. reported that nano-SiC has little influence on the permittivity of a kraft insulation pressboard, while its conductivity sises rapidly with the addition of nano-SiC [88]. In 2016, Yan et al. demon- strated that 2 wt% of nano-Al;0s improves both the ten- sile strength (12%) and AC breakdown strength (4.8%) of kraft paper [89]. ‘A new nanocomposite insulation based on cellulose fibers and BN nanombes, which has higher breakdown resistance in comparison with a conventional insulation, ‘was developed and patented by Lucthen and Winkler from Siemens in 2015 [90]. Similariy, Weinberg patented ‘a new aliphatic polyamide insulation material, which includes nanofilers (SiOz, ALOs, and iO3) and stabiliz~ ing compounds to provide better thermal and chemical stability, and higher mechanical performance than con- venticnal insulation [91]. Recently, nanocellulose (NC) has generated a high interest for & range of applications. It is produced by ‘mechanical treatments or chemical modifications on cel- lulose pulp to obtain nanometer-sized cellulose such as cellulose nanofibrils and cellulose nanocrystals [92]. NC has shown extraordinary properties compared with the bbulk material but also with other materials such as Kevlar, carbon fibers, or stainless steel [9394]. In 2014, Hollertz et al. developed and evaluated a nanofibyillated cellulose (NFC) obtained from kraft pulp and the addition of nano-SiO; (Sm), demonstrating that the tensile strengh of NEC samples was significantly improved (65%), and its permittivity and dielectric loss were also 79 increased in comparison to the kraft paper (95). In 2015, Le Bras et al. reported that properties of NFC may have & substantial impact on electrical properties for insulation applications [96]. Harmer et al. from Dupont developed ‘and patented a novel insulsting material based on nanos- ‘ructured cellulose and a hybrid material NOMEX-NC for electrical transformers, which shows higher tensile strength (25%) and a mechanical retention at rupture ‘which exceeds that of conventional paper after the same aging treatment in cil [97]. Research topics on nanotechnology for insulation ‘matetials to be used in HY vansformers, are quite new and still in a development stage (Fig. 39.3). Additional research and projects regarding cellulose reinforcement with different types of nanoparticles besides innovative ‘methods to obtain NC paper and its evaluation at proto lab scale for high-voltage application are expected. On the other hand, developments of noncelhulose nanoiechnology-based insulation materials will continue in the near future. 39.3.3 Nanoconductors ‘Traditionally, copper and aluminum have been used as ‘winding coniuctor of transformers for over a century due to their excellent properties, mainly their electrical and thermal conductivity. Distribution transformers windings are designed and built with Cu and Al conductors, while HY transformers windings are made mainly with copper. ‘There are different conductor shapes used in transformer windings ani the election depends on the voltage and current [98], In distribution transformers, windings are formed by using wire conductors, which must be strong enough to be wound without breakage yet limp enough to azive close-packed windings. High-voltage windings are built with strip, flat enameled copper conductors of vari- ‘ous profiles, depending on the winding type used. ‘Research and development in conductors for HV trans- formers has been focused to obtain new materials with higher conductivity, high efficiency and better mechanical performance, such as new copper alloys, high quality. conductivity Cu, HV windings of aluminum, high-tech enamels, and innovative condinuously wanspesed conductor designs. Nanoscience and nanotechnology have opened new possibilities for high-impact developments in conduc- tor materials An extraordinary example is given by CNTs, ‘which are extremely light, strong, and resilient, and some of thom can be many times more electrically conductive than copper [99]. CNTs have been widely studied as an alternative to replace copper in electrical machine windings due to their unique and outstanding properties [100104]. In 2014, Kurzepa et al. developed and probed a novel and disruptive technology of CNT wirevcoils in a small trans- former protctype, demonstrating that these nanomaterials 730 PART | VII Engineered Nanomaterial in Energy Industry 20 1s Enhancement ratio vs conventional solid insulation {© teenie pctrmance ( ieteticspacty 10 oles 2000 2005 2010 2015 FIGURE 39.3. Benefits of nanotechnology for slid insulting matesals for HV transfamers. ‘may become a serious altemative to replace Cu conductors [105,1061. In 2016, Jaspal et a. studied the performance of NTs as winding material in HV transformers by finite clement method (FEM) technique and its comparison with comventional and aluminum, finding that the maxi- ‘mum winding I7R losses are reduced by 45% and 67% ‘when Cu and Al, respectively, are replaced by CNT [107]. Bjorklund et al. developed and patented a novel electric conductor provided with a polymeric insulation system ‘with nanofillers of C10, or Fe203, which has an excellent voltage endurance performance [108]. Investigations regarding high conductivity copper based on nanoalloys will continue, besides altemative techniques to increase conductivity and mechanical per formance such as nanostructured resins, surface deposi tion by CVD, etc. will also considered. Future research related to nanostructured materials based on CNT will lead the devolvement of feasible altematives to replace conventional copper conductors in HV transformers. 39.3.4 Other Applications 393.4.1 Magnetic Nanomaterials HV transformers use grain-orientated steel materials for the magnetic core, which are usually formed by lamina- tion stacks of iron-silicon alloy covered by an isolation of a high-temperature vamish. The transformer core is collected from stamping in overlap. On such assembly, steel plates are stacked so that cuts of adjacent strips are in different places [109]. Fe-based amorphous metal pos- sesses unique magnetic properties because of the noncrys- talline atomic structure, therefore it was recently considered as an alternative for magnetic cores in disti- bution and power transformers [110,111]. Basic research in this topic is moving towards for new high efficiency and quality materials by reducing thick- ness to reduce losses and surface modification techniques such as chemical treatments and laser scribing for refining the magnetic domains in the electrical steel for high- voltage transformers 112]. Nanotechnology has been also considered to enhance the magnetic performance of elec- trical steel for transformer cores, especially for amor- phous metal materials. Although nanocrystalline Fe-based soft-magnetic alloys emerged almost 20 years ago, there are few systems commercially available [113-117]. Very recently, it was reported the development of a new type of soft magnetic nanocrystalline alloy denominated NANOMET, which has a high iron content and a struc- ture of o-Fe with a grain size diameter of 10 nm, sur- rounded by a layer of nonmagnetic materials [118,119]. In 2015, Takenaka et al. found almost an equal core loss of NANOMET and a Fe-based amorphous alloy, which ‘was attributed to the lower a-Fe nanocrystals in the core (184%) (120). 393.4.2 Nanocoatings ‘Transformers tank integrity is critical for reliability; there- fore, tanks are externally painted to protect the surface Recent Trends of Nanomaterials for High-Voltage Applications|-Clinit@@ | BD against colfo(i@yl/and de¥rddatibn' by-environment condi- tions. Internal walls are also painted with a dielectric oil compatible costing. In recent years, nanocoatings have shown remarkable growth in diverse applications. Investigations have demonstrated that nanocoatings exhib- ited better characteristics than conventional coatings and paints, such as corrosion protection, UV stability, self- cleaning, mechanical and scratch resistance, gas barrier, antimicrobial, fire retardant, etc. [121,122]. These advanced coatings have been considered for transformer applications, for example the company Prism Surface Coatings Pvt. Lid., developed a powder coating system based on nanotechnology [123]. A novel nanocoating ‘with excellent corrosion resistance and surface properties, water repellency, chemical and UV resistance in compari- son with traditional coating systems, has been developed by the company Nanovere Tachnologies, LLC [124,125]. On the other hand, new technologies for other applica tions are in development which could represent innovative solutions to improve the corrosion resistance of transfor- ‘mers tanks, such as the revolutionary technology called Modumetal [126,127]. 39.3.4.3 Nanodevices for M&D High-voltage transformers are one of the most critical component in the grid network, therefore their opera- tion condition becomes very important [128]. Failures in transformers could represent economical, opera- tional, safety, and environmental risks, therefore, a con- tinuous monitoring is essential [41]. Monitoring and Diagnostics (M&D ) systems for transformers include high-tech components and tools with higher resolution and accuracy. Recently, innovative nanotechnology- based solutions have appeared, mainly for the dissolve gas analysis which is one of the most effective diagno- is methods for transformers [129]. In 2004, a pall: dium alloy nanosensor for detecting H2 gas dissolved in the oil was developed by Applied Nanotech Inc., which can be as small as 1mm? and can be easily incorpo- tated inside the transformer for continuous real-time sensing [130]. In 2012 Chatterjee et al. demonstrated that a new gas sensor based on manganese thin films doped with nano-ZnO can detect H, CO, and CH, at different temperatures, therefore the main faults in HV transformers such as arcing, corona, and overheating of cellulose insulation can be predicted [129]. Iftekhar Uddin et al. developed a Hy sensor based on palladium- decorated zinc oxide (ZnO) nanorod array, which shows high response towards dissolved Hy gas concen- tration (5-100 ppm), good repeatability, and stability in MO [131]. Zhou et al. reported a gas sensor based on rnano-SnO3 for on-line monitoring of HV transformers which exhibits good sensibility to methane, ethane, 731 ethylene, and acetylene [132]. In 2015, Lu et al. dem- onstrated that Ni-doped CNT-sensor has a superior gas adsorption capacity and response to aH, CaHa, and CoH in comparison to a CNT-sensor [133]. Recently, Wei et al. developed a novel NiO@SnO> nanostruc- tured chemical gas sensor which exhibits an Hp sensing enhancement in the whole range of concentrations in comparison with pure SnOz sensor [134]. 39.4 NANOSTRUCTURED OUTDOOR INSULATORS Electrical insulators are a very important component in the electric power systems such as substations and distri- bution and transmission lines [135]. These components must achieve electrical, mechanical, and chemical requirements to be reliable for years [136]. Decades of in-service performance have demonstrated that ceramic insulaters show good mechanical and envi- ronmental aging properties; besides they possess excellent resistance to material degradation caused by electrical stress and discharge activities [137]. On the other hand, ceramic insulators possess low hydrophobic surface char- acteristics, allowing high surface leakage currents to flow fon their wetted surfaces [138]. Therefore, polymeric insulators emerged a an alternative due to their better pollution performance [138], however they are more sus- ceptible to chemical degradation under the multiple stres- ses likely to be encountered in service; including stresses due to high operating voltages, UV rays, and pollution contamination. In this section, innovative nanotechnology concepts for HV insulators are reviewed and summarized, ‘Advantages and benefits of nanostructured insulators over traditional insulators are presented covering nanoconcepts for both ceramic and polymeric insulators. 39.4.1 Nanoceramic Insulators Porcelain is considered as the ceramic that has the longest traditions in terms of its use as insulating material in elec- tric engineering due to its excellent properties, such as hardness and mechanical strength, high temperature resis- tance, high corrosion, water resistance, etc. [139]. Triaxial porcelain has been the most popular material for both low- and high-voltage insulators, and it has been used as outdoor insulators in electric power lines for more than 150 years [140]. The term of triaxial is related to its chemical composition which is formed by a mixture of three materials: clay. feldspar, and silica or alumina. Each raw material gives to the porcelain distinct characteristics [141]; the clay gives plasticity to the ceramic mixture; quartz or alumina acts as fillers by maintaining the shape of the body during firing; and the feldspar materials serve 732 PART | VII Engineered Nanomaterial in Energy Industry a flux [142]. The microstructure of fired porcelain is composed by mullite crystals (AleSi;0) and undissolved quart. (SiO2) grains embedded in a continuous glassy phase, which is formed by the feldspar and other low ‘melting impurities in the raw materials (142). Electrical porcelain has technologically evolved and several R&D projects have been carried out to enhance its performance through different approaches, such as, mictostnictural reinforcement, ceramic macropanicles additions, particles size variation, development and applications of new glazes formulations, surface coat- ings, ete. (143~146]. In the last years, manufacturers have considered innovative strategies and new techno- logical initiatives as alternatives to take competitive advantage against industrial competitors, such as, advanced materials or even nanotechnology concepts, based on the extraordinary results in other ceramic sys- tems and porcelain for traditional and dental applications [147—153], Basically, there are two nanotechnology concepts (Fig. 39.4) which have been proposed for ceramic insulators: (1) reinforcement of porcelain body through nanoparticles addition to improve mechanical and electrical characteristics; and (2) surface nanocoat- ings to enhance hydrophobicity and self-cleaning capac- ity of porcelain. ‘The nanoconcept related to the incorporation of nano- particles to improve the properties of porcelain insulators ‘was studied by Goeuriot et al. in 2004 (156,157). They studied the influence of nanosized alumina on the reacti ity and mechanical properties of alumina-based porcelain, FIGURE39.4 Nanotechnology concepts for ceramic insulators [54155 finding that nanoalumina not only allows mechanical rein- forcement of green porcelain bodies, but also improves the bending strength of sintered porcelain by 10% and 15%, respectively. An innovative alternative to improve both the mechanical and dielectric performance of a por- celain insulator through ceramic nanoparticles was studied by Contreras in 2014, who demonstrated that the modulus of rupture (MOR) of a siliceous porcelain can be remark- ably enhanced up to 38% by the incorporation of n-Al,O and n-Z102 [154,158]. Prototype testing comoborated the improvement of the mechanical and dielectric perfor- ‘mance, which was mainly due to nanoparticles promoted the formation of mullita phase formation. In 2016, this nanoconcept was successfully demonstrated at a large scale by a prototype industrial trial, obtaining one of the first nanostructured ceramic insulators for HV applica- tions. Recently, Aigbodion et al. reported a new insulator formulation comprised by ALO; and silicate nanoclay, ‘which fulfilled all requirements to be used as low-voltage porcelain (159). Nanocoatings is the research topic most studied and considered to improve the final properties of ceramic insulators. Zhuang et al. demonstrated that a nanocoating- based nano-TiO> improves the self-cleaning and electrical performance of porcelain insulators [160]. In 2014, Guo et al. reported that the ant-icing performance of ceramic insulators can be improved by the application of a nano- polymeric coating based on n-CaCO, and n-SiO, [161]. Ina similar work, Wu et al. demonstrated that BN nano- particles increase the thermal conductivity (75%) and Dames Nanostructured hydrophobic coating ee ed pees ser Cr ed * Pores body reinforcement incorporation of cera nancperties Recent Trends of Nanomaterials for High-Voltage Applications Chapteri|[39 733 improve tHe Meat dotrbsion and Weather resistance of a Auororesin-based costing, as well as prolonging its ser- vice life [162]. In 2016, Li et al. and Yan et al. found that ceramic insulators coated with a novel hydroxy- terminated polydimethylsiloxane modified nanosilica/car- bbon hybrid cating, exhibit better anti-icing resistance and higher flasbover performance [163,164]. Ramalla et al. developed a novel technique to improve the envi- ronmental resistance of ceramic insulators by the applica- tion of a nanosize powdered coating base SiO2 [165]. Similarly, Li et al. reported a nanostructured coating based on n-SiO> that shows a super-hydrophobic perfor- ‘mance [166]. In 2013, Dave etal. demonstrated the feasi- bility to deposit nanocrystalline hafnium oxide (Hf0:) films using DC magnetron sputtering to increase the hydrophobic surface of ceramic insulators [167]. In a similar work, Portlla et al. proposed a novel nanocon- cept related to the deposition of a nanometric titanium film on the HV insulator surface by sputtering cold plasma technique, which showed a reduction of 8.4% of the leakage current and an increment of hydrophobicity and chemical resistance to weathering by chlorides com- pared with the uncoated insulator (168). Nanotechnology concepts have been proposed and applied to outdoor ceramic insulators at both lab and induswial scale. In comparison with other applications, R&D projects for HV insulators are few, however very interesting results regarding the improvement of mechani cal, electrical, and surface hydrophobic characteristics have been achieved. Nanotechnology represents a feasible alternative to develop new high-tech ceramic insulators. 39.4.2 Nanopolymer Insulators Polymeric materials for high-voltage application have gained increased attention due to their extraordinary properties and characteristics [169-171]. The use of polymeric insulators has dramatically increased in the last 40 years [172]. Polymeric or nonceramic insulators represent the major change in insulator design and materials in many years. They show advantages over porcelain insulators such as an excellent hydrophobic (water-epellent) surface properties under wet condi- tions, good performance in contaminated environment, high mechanical strength to weight ratio, resistance against vandalism, reduced maintenance costs, light ‘weight, and easy handling, etc. Therefore, polymeric insulators have made them attractive to utilities world- wide and are considered to replace conventional ceramic insulators (173). Polymer insulators are composed mainly of a fiber- glass core rod which provides the mechanical function of the insulator and a housing with polymer weather sheds which provides the electrical strength under wet and polluted conditions. Silicone rubber, ethylene pro- pylene diene monomer (EPDM), EPM, and polytetra- fluroethylene (PTFE or Teflon) are the materials commonly used for the protective housing [172]. In some cases, fillers (150 ym) are incorporated to the polymeric matrix to improve the mechanical and electri- cal performance of the insulator. Recently, nanosized fillers (1—100nm) have been investigated and consid- ered as an alternative for insulator applications [174,175]. Silica (SiO;) nanoparticles have been widely considered as filler for polymeric insulators not only due to their properties but also for the low cost. Ramirez et al. demonstrated that SiO, nanofillers have a positive effect in the erosion resistance of silicone rubber in comparison with micro-sized fillers [176]. Germano et al. found that the addition of nanosilica improves by 18% the tracking and erosion resistance of a HTV sili- cone rubber [177]. According Nakamura et al., nano- SiOz fillers improve the erosion and tracking resistance and mechanical strength of silicone rubber insulators [178]. In 2011, Tominaga et al. demonstrated that ero- sion and tracking resistance of silicone rubber can be enhanced by using nano-SiO> instead of aluminum trihy- drate fillers [179]. Loganathan et al. reported that the performance of silicone rubber insulator can be improved in erosion and tracking resistance by the incorporation of n-SiO» [180]. Tarig et al. demonstrated that nanosilica improves the resistance of hydrophobic~ ity loss after accelerated UV weathering tests in silicone rubber insulators [181,182]. Recently, Khan et al. men- tioned that microsilica fillers in RTV silicone rubber have better performance in tracking/erosion resistance in comparison with nano-SiO> fillers [183]. Other nanoparticles have been also investigated. Venkatesulu et al. demonstrated that the erosion and tracking performance of RTV silicone rubber can be improved by adding nanosized magnesium dihydroxide [184], In 2015, Kumar et al. found that the tracking and erosion resistance of silicone rubber can be significantly improved by the addition of small concentrations (1-2 .wt%) of n-Al,O3 and n-BaTiO; [185,186]. Fairus et al, reported an increment of both the dielectric break- down (9.9%) and the permittivity of silicon rubber! EPDM composites for by the addition of alumina nanofillers [187]. Polymeric insulators have emerged as an altemative to replace traditional ceramic insulators. Nanotechnology offers the possibility to improve the mechanical, chemi- cal, electrical, and physical performance, mainly by the addition of nanofillers. Agglomeration seems to be the Principal issue; therefore, future research will be focused not only in the type and concentration of nanoparticles but also on the influence of surfactants and dispersion ‘mechanisms. 734 PART | VII Engineered Nanomaterial in Energy Industry ies FIGURE 395 Narotcchnology concepts eganting materials for HV wansformer (188) 39.5 FUTURE TRENDS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN HV TRANSFORMERS, Nowadays, advanced materials and new technologies, such as nanotechnology, have conducted new develop- ‘ments in energy sector. The future grid needs to have a reliable, affordable, secure, and clean electric power, therefore, its components and devices must guarantee a superior performance. Future HV transformers will include advanced technologies and materials, focusing on the following features: miniaturization, “smart,” effi- ciency, “Green,” and high reliability. Fig. 395 shows the future trends of nanomaterials for HV transformers, including their specific application and main characteris- tics over conventional materials. ‘The success of application of nanotechnology concepts in future transformers will depend on the continous devel- ‘opment of each research topic. It isa fact that a strong link between the industrial sector and academia is very impor- tant and necessary to develop and integrate all nanotech- nology concepts and t successfully accomplish the industrial-scale implementation of the new technologies. 39.6 SUMMARY Energy industry is continuously evolving to successfully fulfill the electricity demand of worldwide population, Technology breakthroughs have led the design and ‘manufacturing of high-tech components with high perfor- ‘mance, reliability, and efficiency. Advanced materials and ‘nanomaterials have emerged in the last decades to revolu- tionize many industrial sectors. The feasibility of nano- technology concepts to improve conventional materials hhas been demonstrated, reporting outstanding results, ‘Therefore, nanotechnology benefits have spread to the energy sector by the incorporation of nanomaterials in HY applications. Nanofluids, which are the main research topic regarding nanotechnology application in transfor- ‘mers, have appeared as very promising altematives to be used as advanced fluids in high-voltage equipment, because of their extraordinary thermal and dielectric per- formance. Moreover, it has been reported that nanorein- forced insulation materials exhibit a superior mechanical, chemical, and dielectric performance than conventional cellulose based insulation. Nanoconductors represent a feasible alternative to replace traditional Cu-based con- ductors, since they possess higher conductivity and ‘mechanical characteristics. Other materials and compo- nents have also been considered for the enhancement of their performance by nanotechnology, such as magnetic steel, coatings, M&D devices, etc. Additionally, nano- technology has improved the performance of high-voltage insulators, which are very important components in the electricity grid. It has been proved that the mechanical, dielectric, and physicochemical characteristics can be Recent Trends of Nanom: For investigation purP upgraded by incorporating nanoparticles. This work demonstrated that materials for HV transformers have dramatically evolved in the last decades, and its progress will continue so these and other nanoconcepts will be adopted at industrial-scale. REFERENCES 1) W. tater, Aptis of Nanaechonben the ers Set, 9, 2008, ‘ Intermtonal Bnergy Oct, Report Numer: DORIA 01642016) US. Energy Infirmaton Admits, May 11,2016. [RE Smalley, Fre shbal ene popes the eawat challenge, MRS ‘Ball 30(6 (205) 412-417 Samsmary Rept (No. ORNLUTM. 2015815), 215, C Festina EO'Salan, A Revew of Inemaiomal Ric Secor Stategies and Raman A Coe Say Advanced Matra 2014 [Advanced Macias for Oar Energy Fate. chepsivresmecep peal downloud pdticatomAtedesMersleanoeyiceny! 1005 AdMklrery pe 2010 -RNCOS, sl Nnoingy Mat Oadenk 2022, RNCOS, 2015. 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