ad [MBA First Semester (Management and Organisational Behaviour) INTU-K UNIT 3 Introduction to Organisational Behaviour According to Stephen Robbins, “Organisational behaviour is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on, behaviour in organisations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organisation's effectiveness”. 3.1.1. Meaning and Definition of Organisational Behaviour Organisational behaviour is the field of study isatic i : ; . f tional Behaviour eee gind groups. nan organisation and ero at of Management: applying this knowledge in the best possible manner, Organisational behaviour is a scientific study of : 2 i isation and hel is ay xpi he toni een ple len rin and organisation in terms of the individual, group, fs in setti isions fe rea . group, the organisation and the entire system as a whole. ‘The fea goal is to accomplish human, organisational and 2) Multi-diseiplinary Approach: Organisational social objectives by building better relationships behaviour has psycitological foundation and inside the organisation. several behavioural and social sciences disciplinaries such as psychology, sociology and Organisational behaviour can be defined as the anthropology significantly affect its functioning. arrangement, working and performance of The different concepts taken from these disciplinaries include leaming, _ perception, organisations, as well as the conduct of individuals motivation, attitude, etc. and groups in the organisation. In short, assessment of people within an 3) Normative Science: Organisational behaviour is organisational set-up is termed as organisational considered to be a normative science because it behaviour. It includes examining, forecasting and helps is soolying the results of different studies i in working of the organisation in such a way that haviour. t y managing the human be! it is compatible with the society. Hence, Organisational behaviour guides the management fraivicual and Social acceptance is also a key regarding how to achieve the organisational goals in ania working and decision-making of an an effective manner by giving relevant importance to 8 hhuman factors. According to Barnard, organisation 4) Science and Art: Organisational behaviour is involves meaningful communication among people. considered as a science as well as an art. Science, | because it involves utilisation of scientific This states that since human factor is the most methods and art, because it deals with the tion, hence, it should behaviour of individuals, inseparable part of the orga be given proper importance. Thus behaviour helps management in ¢ d shaping human behaviour in the best possible 5) Humanistic and Optimistic Approach: Organisational behaviour teaches managers 0 apply humanistic approach towards the manner. employees. It emphasises on the fact that it is ; Luthans, “Organisational very important to meet the need of employees According eae aaa predicting and and motivate them. It also inculcates a positive cae ea ‘an behaviour at work”. work approach by stressing on the inbom controllingIntroduction to Organisational Behaviour (Unit 3) 10s qualities like being inde . predictive and capable of grin movatives epe iv) Whole Person: While hiring an empl iv nema ployee ean giving positive input to the manager also hires things that are associated with him like his nature, likes and Banisational Objectives: dislikes, preferences, background, hobbies, ut helps to combine both ete. But his family life cannot be isolated ividual objectives in such a from his work life, Hence, a manager must ichieved at the same time. try to make the workplace as a home so that F employee feels like home at work. 1.3. ‘oundati isatic 3.1.3. | dations of Organisational v) Caused Behaviour: Psychology teaches us Behaviour that normal behaviour has issues related to Organisational behaviour begins with a specific set need of a person or as a consequence to of fundamental concepts that form a strong base for certain action. The management can motivate organisational behaviour. These are as follows: employees in two ways. Firstly, by showing 6) Focussed towards Or; Organisational behavio organisational and indi way that both can be a them how their action can raise their need aaa fulfilment. Secondly, by threatening them that their undesirable action can adversely organisation i ae essai affect the fulfilment of their needs. Sem vi) Desire for Involvement: An employee who Novation is meaningfully involved in the working of © an organisation feels good about himself Employees herself. Management should provide such — Nature opportunities to employees as it results in sob of Nature of | Mute of] wt of the le ind the Person People ol ‘oes ee th of. the ‘employee snl the Caused vii) Human Dignity: Every person desires to get, Behaviour respect from others. Therefore, employees should also be respected like managers. re Ess |2) Nature of Organisations: Following are the concepts with regard to organisation: = i) Organisation is a Social System: Just like a Dignity social system an organisation also coordinates the activities of its employees in Figure 3.1: Foundations of Organisational Behaviour order to achieve its goals 1) Nature of People: There are certain concepts ity related to the people which are as follows: i) Individual Differences: Management can encourage employees in a better way by only be achieved through combined efforts understanding that all people are different, of the employee and the employer. This and hence, treating every person differently. results in the mutual growth of both the Law of individual differences also taught us employee and the organsation. that each individual is different and unique. Mutuality of Interest: The relation between an employee and the organisation is a symbiotic one. The organisational goals can iii) Ethics: Ethical conduct is essential to obtain ii) Perception: People see different things in and hold valuable employees in this different. ways, i¢. people may have competitive world. Organisations must treat different viewpoints for the same objet. their employees in an ethical way in order to These viewpoints about the environmental succeed. i tion. objects are made clear by right percep! a . es F to Employees: Need of an 3.1.4. Models of Organisational Behaviour iit) Motivation ¢ ‘oye perform well in Models of organisational behaviour are as follows: employee motivates him (0 Pert jon is 1) Autocratie Model: In the organisation following the organisation. In some St Xcellence oF t0 autocratic model, the manager has the authority also required to ae to order the employees to perform a specific task. foster the work quality:MBA First Semester (Management and Organisational Behaviour) JNTU-K Management considers itself as the supreme Power to tell what is right for the organisation and thus the employees must obey their commands. This model results in excessive dependence of the employees on the management which leads to reduced employee morale, poor decision-making ability in the employees and high rate of turnover. Employees start ng their hatred towards the company home and in the society but not in the premises. Another drawback of this model is high human cost. Major features of autocratic model are as follows: Only Management Decides Right or Wrong: Power of decision-making lies only with the management and if the employees do not follow their bosses they would be punished. This theory believes that only management knows what is right or wrong. Employees are assumed to be obedient and resistant to needs and requirements of organisation. This model is same as the McGregor’s Theory X. ii) Power Based: As per the autocratic model the power lies only with the management. ‘The ones in command have the right to issue orders and employees have to obey the command or else they will have to face the consequences, iii) Formal by Nature: Organisations which follow autocratic model have formal managerial orientation and have official authority. People are obligated to follow the instructions. iv) Obedient Orientation of Employees: Under this model, the employee does not respect his manager, but he is dutiful to his boss. v) Employees are Dependent on Managers: The managers have complete power over their employees in such organisations. Thus, psychological result is over dependence of employees on their managers (superiors). Custodial Model: The focus of this model is on the satisfaction, security and welfare needs of the employees, thus leading the employees to depend on the organisation rather than the managers The es get frequent economic rewa a tions which make them happy a it does vee fend to high motivation. The salient feature of custodial model are: i) Resource Base approach, the | Pt resources is essential. For a successful custodial presence of economic 3) Supportive Mode ii) Monetary Affiliations: The prime focus of the management is on payment of salaries and benefits to the employees. Focuses Employee Security: Employees security needs are given much importance in order to motivate them for _ better performance. An organisation can follow the custodial model only when it is in good financial condition to make timely payment of salaries, pensions and other benefits to employees. iv) Employee Dependence on _ the Organisation: The monitory benefits that the employees gain from this model make them dependent on the organisation rather than on the employer. v) Employee Focuses on Rewards and Benefits: In a custodial environment the employee's performance becomes dependent on the rewards and remunerations that they get. The employees feel well maintained and contented but not essentially motivated. As a result, certain employees do not perform well to the extent as they would perform under autocratic approach. This model focuses on getting work done through better leadership than power and money. It believes in creating an environment which helps both the employees and the organisation to grow mutually. It provides the employees a chance to take responsibility and contribute towards the goals of the organisation and develop themselves, It differs from the custodial approach as it focuses on employee's growth and performance rather than on payment of employee's benefit. The psychological result is that the employee develops a sense of belongingness towards the organisation s he participates in its growth and development. Various features of supportive model are as follow: i) Based on Leadership: This model believes in good leadership instead of emphasising on power and money to achieve results. Organisation gives an opportunity to. the employees to develop and give their best and contribute in the growth of the organisation using effective leadership, ii) Leader Supports Employees: Leaders have the quality of bringing out the best in their subordinates. They understand that noIntrodvetion to Organi 4) tional Behaviour (Unit 3) employee is lazy or resistant towards the organisational work but improper working conditions make them so. If an opportunity is given to them, then they can take responsibility, make effort to contribute and improve their performance. ‘The management's focus in this model is to improve the performance of employees by providing them opportunities rather than offering benefits as done in custodial model. iii) Increases Participation: A sense of belongingness towards the organisation develops in the employees because an opportunity to participate is provided to employees by management. iv) Strongly Motivated Employee: Employees in the organisation with supportive model are more directed towards work because their status and recognition needs are properly met. Thus, employees work with vigour and zeal. . Collegial Model: Collegial refers to a group of people with a common goal. In this approach, the management works to develop better team and acts as a mutual contributor not as a boss. The psychological result of this approach is that the employee feels a sense of self-discipline as he owns the responsibility of the work. This condition makes the employees feel their worth in the organisation. The employee is thus inspired towards performing better. Features of collegial model are as follows: i) Based on Employee Cooperation: In the collegial model, the management builds a sense of partnership with the employee and employee feels his value and necessity in the organisation. Since the manager is also seen contributing towards the task, the employees begin to respect their job as well. Hence, manager acts as active participant rather than as an authority. ii) Focuses Teamworl as a trainer and emphi ‘The management acts jises on teamwork. Employees Feel Responsible: Employees when provided with trust react in a very responsible manner. For example, employees provide quality products not because of fear of management or quality inspector but because they feel themselves to be duty-bound. They feel responsible towards the quality standard of their product which in turn will be beneficial to them and 107 to the organisation also. This self-di that the collegial model inculeates in the employees results in quality work. iv) Employees Feel Satisfied: This type of organisational setup acts as a motivator for the employee's self-esteem. They feel a sense of worth and self-awareness by contributing to the success of the organisation, This leads to reasonable ‘enhancement in employee's performance. 3.1.5.Determinants of Organisational Behaviour Key determinants of organisational behaviour are shown in figure 3.2: Environment = Government [Structure Organisational + Competition fs Jobe [=| ehaviour }> Social Pressures] | |» Relationships Figure 32: Determinants of Organisational Behaviour 1) People: The internal social system of an organisation is made up of the people who work in it. This comprises of individuals, large and small groups, informal and formal groups. It is the organisation that exists to serve its people and not vice versa, Today's organisations have changed and have become more diverse than before. Present day ‘employees come up with a broad range of talents, educational backgrounds and _perspectives. Hence, the managers are required to transform themselves with the workforce in order to attain maximum efficiency, 2) Structure: Relationships and roles of people in the organisation are defined by structure. People working in an organisation perform different roles and have different relationships with each other. Division of work is done based on the capabilities and designation of the employees so that organisational goals are met efficiently.108, MBA First Semester (Management and Organisational Behaviour) JNTU.& These may be managers, supervisors, clerks, ete, working in one direction to achieve the crganisational goals in an organised manner. Authority-responsibility relationships are the essence of structure. 3) Technology: Technology plays a vital role in modern ‘organisations. It empowers people for their work and also influences their activities. Since work cannot be done without equipment, hence organisations use technology to build buildings, design machines, develop work Processes and collect resources. Technology in tum helps people to perform better. But technology has some side effects like itis costly and limits people in certain ways, ic., it makes them dependent on machines. So, technology has both pros and cons. 4) Environment: Operations of all organisations take place under intemal and extemal environment. An organisation is a small part of a large system which contains elements such as government, family and other organisations, Changes in the external environment affect the individual organisations such as schools ot factories, It also affects working conditions and people's behaviour and results in struggle for resources and power. Thus, organisations need to adept as pet their environment it while studying human behaviour. 3.1.6. Linkages with Other Social Sciences | Organisational behaviour is an applied behavioural science based on contributions from numerous behavioural disciplines. These disciplines are described as follows: Field of Organisational Behaviour/ Contributing Disciplines to Organisational Behaviour Psychology LI Medicine Anthropology FH Politicat Science Industrial Engineering |~| Economics Psychology is a behavioural science 1) Paychology: Pott aviour of human beings in whick studies 2) 3) 4) 5) ific conditions and predicts how the individual will, react in such conditions, Psychology with its various studies and theories, has brought about immense difference in human behaviour. Theories rélated to leadership, motivation, individual decision-making, attitude, ego state, learning, personality, performance appraisal, job satisfaction, training and development, work design, job stress and conflict resolution have been taken from psychology itself. If used efficiently these theories can bring about changes in the attitude of employees and inculcate a positive approach towards the organisation, Several psychological tests are also undertaken ‘on the prospective employees during the hiring process which help the managers to understand the employees thought process and attitude in a better manner. Apart from this, certain other aspects of human personality can also be ‘measured with the help of this science. Medicine: Medicine is an application of science which is concerned with diagnosis and treatment Of diseases so that health of an individual can be improved. It includes healing of both physical as well as psychological diseases of the person. It observes individual's behaviour and lifestyle Patter while devising a strategy for treatment of chronic diseases. This has led to the development of wellness programmes in the perspective of commercial medicine and these programmes have led to more intense focus on employee's health in the organisation, Sociology: Sociology is a social science which ¢xamines the influence of culture on groups and helps managers to understand group dynamics, communication, customs, position, authority, group processes, conflict resolution, formal organisation theory and group decision-making. Social Psychology: Organisations are group of People with designated jobs and they play an important role in developing human behaviour. Social psychology is a combination of Psychology and sociology, It has helped in, managing changes, decision-making, communicating and developing skills to sustain social norms. Anthropology: This field of applied science studies human behaviour in several cultures and environments to understand the differencesIntroduction to Organisational Behaviour (Unit 3) between them. It is the manager's responsibility to handle and control people from different ethnicities and guide their efforts in the direction suitable for the growth of the organisation, Organisational behaviour teaches about the attitudes and transactions occurring in various cultures. Environmental studies under anthropology helps in understanding human behaviour across cultures so that mergers and acquisitions become easier. 6) Political Science: A stable government helps the business to grow internationally. A stable government at national level promotes international business, financial investments, expansion and employment. Rules and regulations formed by government deeply influence the functioning and decision-making of organisations. 7) Industrial Engineering: Engineering deals with the study of energy and matter and helps in understanding job design. In the early years of studying organisational behaviour, Fredrick Taylor took basic engineering ideas and applied them to human behaviour at work. Since Fredrick was from the engineering background, hence he gave special emphasis to human productivity and efficiency in work behaviour. He provided organisational behaviour with the concept of performance standards, i.e., piece-rate system which was a huge contributor in the growth of organisations. 8) Economics: Organisational climate is affected by economic environment as well. Economic factors such as labour market dynamics, cost- benefit analysis, marginal utility analysis, human resource planning, forecasting and decision- ‘making also influence organisational behaviour. 3.1.7. Scope of Behaviour Scope of organisational behaviour is as follows: 1) Skill Development: For entering and surviving in the new-age, organisation requires certain set of skills, ie., work-related skills and generic skills such as_—_ problem-solving and communication skills. Organisational Organisational behaviour deals directly with the generic skills. Skills related to organisational behaviour are gaining momentum in the current work scenario. 2) 3) 4) 109 For example, CIOs (Chief Informati Officers) today work hand-in-hand with information technology professionals so that they can get a better insight of the business, communicate effectively with colleagues and interact with other departments in a better manner. Soft skills like leadership, business knowledge and communication have started playing a very crucial role in the overall running of the business. Personal Growth through Insight into Human Behaviour: As per Robert P. Vecchio, people study organisational behaviour to attain self- accomplishment that one gets while learning about the behaviour and attitude of others. This ultimately results in improved self-knowledge and self-insight. For example, when people study the factors which drive other people, they also come to know the factors which encourage themselves. Improvement of Organisational and Individual Effectiveness: The study of organisational behaviour provides. information that can be used to solve organisational issues. It also improves organisational effectiveness, ie., the potential of an organisation to be efficient and to meet the requirements of the parties involved. Organisational behaviour improves organisational effectiveness by revealing factors such as employee motivation, communication hurdles and personality factors that enhance or obstruct effective performance. Organisational effectiveness is understood as the extent to which an organisation attains its goals under finite amount of funds and resources, without putting excessive burden on its, employees. According to Hannan and Freeman, “Organisational effectiveness is the degree of congruence between organisational goals and observable outcomes”. Alongwith organisational _ effectiveness, organisational behaviour also __ provides approaches and competencies that improve effectiveness of a person. A person with knowledge of conflict resolution, interpersonal communication and teamwork would prove to be more efficient for the organisation. Sharpening and Refining of Common Sense: Gaining knowledge and information about" MBA First Semester (Management and Organisational Behaviour) JNTU-K, Organisational behaviour is crucial for managers as it teaches them how to deal with their subordinates which cannot be taught through any book. Common sense without the knowledge of organisational behaviour is not enough to manage workforce. Knowledge of organisational behaviour sharpens and widens the sphere of common sense. It decreases the time one might Reed to attain important behavioural knowledge and skills. Common sense tells us that rewarding employees on the basis of performance is an effective way to motivate them for better performance. But the study of organisational behaviour teaches that rewards should be given seldom and not everyday. It also teaches that the kind of reward given to different employees should be modified as per their personalities and priorities. 3.1.8. Importance of Organisational Behaviour Importance of studying organisational behat follows: 1) Helps in Understanding Human Behaviour: Human beings interact differently and this interaction can be understood with the help of organisational behaviour, Hence, organisational behaviour is studied at various levels as per the organisational needs, ie. individual level, interpersonal level, group level and inter-group level. 2) Assists in Controlling and Directing Behaviour: Once the manager has understood human behaviour, his focus should be on controlling and directing the behaviour at all Ievels of interaction, thereby helping the organisation in achieving its goals. 3) Explains Application of Power and Sanction: Managers can use power and sanction to control and direct the behaviour of their employees. Organisational behaviour teaches how to use power and sanction in order to attain the goals of both the employee and the organisation at the same time. Understanding Leadership Concepts: Sreccistional behaviour helps the managers to wy. the theory of leadership in a new vey ective. It identifies multiple leadership Perspecitid helps the manager in choosing the styles an Je of leadership in that most appropriate sty! condition. ur is as 4) 5) Evaluates Communication Process: Effective communication is a giant step towards achieving organisational goals. Half the task is done if employees learn to communicate effectively, Organisational behaviour evaluates communication process and its role in interpersonal dynamics. 6) Helps in Understanding Organisational Climate: Organisational climate refers to the work atmosphere in an organisation that affects behaviour of its people. It comprises of enhancement of satisfactory working conditions and adequate compensation. It also includes effective supervision under which employees get an opportunity to realise personal goals, interpersonal relations and gain a feeling of achievement. Thus, organisational behaviour helps in understanding the organisational climate effectively. 7) Assists in Organisational Organisation in itself is a dynamic w affected by constant changes. Organi Adaptation: that is tions have to familiarise themselves according to the extemal environment and make internal changes accordingly like preparing employees to accept the change. The individuals play an important role in the functioning of the organisation, The members of an organisation must be induced, coerced, or forced to Participate in it. People participate in the organisations when they are going thi organisation going to gain something People tend to identify themselves with the organisation in which they participate. There is @ close affinity between people's motives on the one hand and their identification with the organisation on the other. The degree of their identification with the organisation depends on the nature and intensity of the motives for participating in them, The individual's identification with the organisation is stronger if a number of individual needs are satisfied in it, the organisation goals are perceived as shared. the prestige of the organisation is perceived to be the greater, there is greater frequency of interaction i? the organisation and there is less competition within the organisation,Introduction to Organisational Behaviour (Unit 3) The individual roles are critical to the fulfilment of organisation goals. People cannot work in organisation without any motives, purposes or thinking. They do not work in an automatically or mechanically or in impulsive manner. An organisation is said to have attained equilibrium when it is able to maintain the continued contribution of all its participants — members and others by providing them various kinds of inducements to work for its success. Equilibrium may be achieved at various levels, it may change over time. The scope of the organisation's activities may remain constant or may grow or diminish at another level. ‘The best way to ensure individual roles have maximum impact on the bottom line is to link them to organisational goals. Such connections should be made deliberately, and the process can be designed in away that virtually guarantees business success. It is extremely hard to discuss any aspect of organisational goals without discussing the role of individuals. In fact, an organisation is defined as a systematic arrangement of individuals brought together to accomplish some specific purpose. Even in management perspective, the role of individual is again very important. For example, Schein points out that organisation acts as an abstract entity; however, it acts through the individual behaviour of certain key members in crucial managerial or leadership roles. Similarly, Koontz and Wethrich argue that although management is responsible of defining and controlling functions like planning, organising, staffing, leading and controlling, etc., but these are individuals or groups who ensure that they contribute to given goals and objectives in an effective and efficient way. No business organisation, irrespective of its size, can exist without people, and managers cannot be successful in isolation. As the only active resource necessary to activate and convert the other more passive resources into need-satistying goods and services, people are an essential prerequisite for the formation and continued existence of any business organisation, They contribute individually and collectively to an organisation's achievement o} strategic objectives and its maintenance of a competitive advantage. It is now acknowledged that the value of any company lies ‘between the cars’ of its employees. Therefore, the challenge for any business is to ensure that its people are fulfilling their maximum potential, thus contributing to a successful organisation. um An organisation is clearly a social entity in which managers need to work with and through other People to achieve the goals of the business. Managers therefore need to ensure that the people of an organisation are engaged and committed to striving to do their best for the organisation. 3-34 HUMAN) BEHAVIOU 3.3.1. Concept of Human Behaviour Human beings are a combination of physiological system (i.c., nervous, digestive, circulatory and reproductive system) as well as psychological system (ic., perception, values, learning capabilities, personality, feelings and needs). Individual behaviour or human behaviour is the set of actions performed by an individual, Performance of an organisation depends on the individual behaviour. ‘The study of individual behaviour enables a person to determine how people behave in an organisational setting, the manner in which they communicate with each other and also an understanding of their own behaviour. Human behaviour is affected by numerous factors like attitudes, culture, emotions, ethics, values, co- ordination, authority, hypnosis, coercion, persuasion and genetics. Human behaviour (as well as behaviour of organisms) can be categorised as common, unusual, acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. Certain factors like personality traits, instincts, internal feelings, etc., are inherited by the person whereas other factors like weather conditions, programmes providing information, behaviour of others, etc., make up his external environment. Both these internal and external factors affect an individual's behaviour. 3.3.2. Need of Human Behaviour Following are the reasons due to understanding human behaviour is essential: 1) Provides Motivation: It is very important for managers to understand the manner in which employees behave in the organisation. It is the responsibility of — managers to ensure accomplishment of organisational _ goals. Therefore, understanding of human behaviour is necessary for managers to become aware of how to motivate and encourage employees for better performance. 2) Provides Guidance: Managers need to channelise the efforts of their subordinates in the Understanding which2 Tight direction so as to exploit their maximum Potential and help them in accomplishment of both individual and organisational goals. Thus, understanding human behaviour helps managers in providing guidance and direction. 3) Conduct Performance Reviews: Understanding human behaviour helps managers to conduct Performance reviews that enable them to Tecognise and resolve issues and encourage iprovement. 4) Communicate Successfully with Others: Each employee has his own mind-set and perception. Hence, study of human behaviour enables managers to interact efficiently with their subordinates and understand their viewpoints. 5) Manages Changes in a Positive and Efficient Manner: People come across many changes in their day-to-day working. It becomes the management's duty to handle these changes Positively and efficiently so that they do not hinder the operations of the organisation. This can only be achieved successfully when managers know the behaviour of their team members 6) Provides Learning Experience: Monitoring human behaviour and predicting how a person will behave in future is an interesting and exciting learning experience. Although human behaviour is complex, but at many times people behave in a very predictable manner that can be comprehended accurately. 3.3.3.Foundation of Human Behaviour Behaviour is the end-product of interaction between environmental and individual characteristics. Factors, which determine the foundation of individual behaviour are shown in figure belo —— MBA First Semester (Management and Organisational Behaviour) INTU-K influences the performance. Following are the personal factors that affect the human behaviour; i) Age:Age is a very important factor that influences the human behaviour during different stages of the lifecycle. Various outcomes related to age factor are performance, productivity, absenteeism and efficiency. ii) Gender: The male and female employees in the organisation depict gender. Contrasting the traditional conditions, in the present work scenario, male and female employees have equivalent rights and duties in the organisation. iii) Education: Systematic knowledge and learning is called education. It brushes a person's knowledge, ability and talent. When an employee is educated, his expectations and talent increases the job satisfaction, productivity and job enrichment. iv) Abilities: According to Stephen P. Robbins, “Ability refers to an individual's capacity to perform the various tasks in a job”. It has a great impact on the performance and satisfaction level of employees, ¥) Marital Status: Marital status determines wheter a person is married or not. Married employees are believed to be stable, mature and good decision-makers whereas bachelors are believed to be unstable and immature. Number of Dependents: This denotes the number of people dependent on the employee. This is believed to affect the behaviour of people in context of satisfaction, dissatisfaction, absence and skill enhancement. An employee with fewer dependents will give more time for leaming new techniques in the job; thereby he will be attaining job enrichment and job satisfaction. Creativity: The cognitive activity that vi) provides new and improved methods of Personal | [ Psychologica | [Organisational] [Environment finding solutions to a problem is called | Factors Factors = Factors creativity. Creativity is the source of Fenonany FBT Eeconie inventions, important advancements _ in Age Perepion | Ortnisaion | Socal Noms, science, music, art and literature, Hence, i is —s “Aniades ‘Stmture and [Cult and considered as an exceptionally important trait. uci ales om te Fotos Abilities Leaning |, Den | HEME" 5) psychological Factors: A. person's mental Marital Samus [ yftvation [Reward Spaein features and attributes that influence his Number of Work-Related behaviour come under psychological factors, Dependants Behaviour which are as follows: Creativity i) Personality: Personality is a comparatively Personal or biological factors a dividual behaviour and constant feature that influences a person's a of ini SS el 1) Personal Fact d symbolise the areIntroduction to Organisational Behaviour (Unit 3) 3) behaviour. It determines in a unique manner regarding how a person feels, thi regarding feels, thinks and ii) Perception: The manner, in which classify, infer, retrieve and reast Pts information, is called perception. In this way, an individual is able to draw information from the environment. iii) Attitudes: The calculative remarks or judgements «regarding people, objects or events is called attitude. iv) Values: The fundamental beliefs about the way one should behave or communicate are called values, Values affect an individual's personality as well as his perception. For example, if an individual values honesty and transparency, then he would try hard to be honest and transparent. v) Learning: It is a psychological process that influences human behaviour. It is a rather permanent change that can be observed in the behaviour of an individual which comes with experience. It is a continuous and recurring process. When an individual learns or experiences something new, it works as a feedback for the person and shapes his behaviour at the time of any similar situation in the future. vi) Motivation: A psychological process that takes place as a result of needs and wants within a person is called motivation. It directs the individual behaviour towards the achievement of goals. Organisational Factors: All the _ systems, processes and activities that establish an organisational culture are called organisational factors. They have a profound impact on the shared expectations, beliefs and values of the employees, Various organisational factors are as follows: i) Physical Facilities: Physical facilities like lighting, air-conditioning, ventilation, space, decoration, equipments given to employees, etc, also affect the employee's performance and his approach towards his work and the organisation. ii) Organisation Structure and Design: Organisational configuration like line, staff, functional organisation, duties and responsibilities of organisation towards its "3 employees, constitute the organi structure, It stresses upon the responsibility, Power and unity of command that each employee has within the organisational set-up. Leadership: Leader plays a pivotal role in an organisation as he is responsible for providing guidance, direction and supervision to the employees, iv) Reward System: Reward system is an important motivational factor that boosts ‘employee's performance and improves his behaviour. Rewards given by organisations can be both monetary as well as non- monetary. v) Work-Related Behaviour: The position that an individual holds in an organisation also affects his work-related behaviour. 4) Environmental Factors: Environment works as the stimulus to. which individuals respond, thereby transforming the entire human behaviour process into a stimulus-response process. Environmental factors that affect human behaviour are as follows: i) Economic Factors: Certain economic factors establish the human behaviour. Economic environment dominates the working of an organisation directly as well as indirectly. As a result, economic factors form the economic environment of the organisation. ii) Social Norms, Cultural and Value Factors: The norms set by the society regarding the fundamental morals, perceptions, preferences, work ethic culture, interests, etc., are called social norms. Cultural factors teach about traditions, customs and behaviours of individuals. Value factors make the person feel morally strong. The basis of value factors are beliefs, economic conditions of the person and his behaviour, Political Factors: Political factors influence investments, fiscal policy and job opportunities within a country. These factors are hence an important determinant of an individual's behaviour. 3.3.4. Perspectives of Human Behaviour ‘The study of human behaviour and human dynamics are absolutely essential for anyone to cultivate positive relations with others and avoid unnecessary conflict. The study of human behaviour andna ‘MBA First Semester (Management and Organisational Behaviour) JNTU-K dynamics needs to be part of any organisation, Having ‘a grasp of human dynamics and self- awareness can help managers cope with one’s emotions and positively deal with staff. Anyone may wonder why there are so many different psychology perspectives and whether one perspective is correct and others wrong. Most psychologists would agree that no one perspective is correct, although in the past, in the early days of psychology, the behaviourist would have said their perspective was the only truly scientific one. Some major Perspectives are as follows: Perspectives of Human Behaviour Behavioural Approach | Psychoanalytical Approach Humanistic Approach Biological Approach 334.1. Behavioural Approach Behaviourists regard all behaviour as a response to a stimulus. They assume that what we do is determined by the environment we are in, which provides stimuli to which we respond and the environments we have been in the past, which caused us to learn to respond fo stimuli in particular ways. Behaviourists are tunique amongst psychologists in believing that it is lnnecessary to speculate about intemal mental Processes when explaining behaviour ~ it is enough to know which stimuli elicit which responses. Behaviourists also believe that people are bom with only a handful of innate reflexes (stimulus-response units that do not need to be learned) and that all of a Person's complex behaviours are the result of Jearning through interaction with the environment, They also assume that the processes of leaming are common to all species and so humans leam in the same way as other animals, The behaviourist approach is deterministic — people's behaviour is assumed to be entirely controlled by their environment and their prior learning, so they do not play any part in choosing their own actions. The approach takes the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate, believing that apart from a few innate reflexes and the capacity for learning, all complex behaviour is learned from the environment. Their insistence that all learning can be accounted for in sof Iaw-govemed processes like classical and swerant conditioning, reflects a nomological ‘operant approach to studying human behaviour (although behaviourits ‘never ignore individual differences, since every person's history of leaming is unique), ‘The behaviourists’ view that all behaviour, no matter how complex, can be broken-down into. the fundamental processes of conditioning makes it a highly reductionist approach to psychology. Explanation of Human Behaviour in Behaviourist Approach Behaviourists explain behaviour in terms of the stimuli that elicit it and the events that caused the Person to learn to respond to the stimulus that way, Behaviourists use two processes to explain how people learn: 1) Classical Conditioning: In this approach people eam to associate two stimuli when they occur together, such that the response originally elicited by one stimulus is transferred to another. The person learns to produce an existing Tesponse to a new stimulus. For example, Watson and Rayner conditioned a young boy CLitlle Albert’) to respond with anxiety to the stimulus of a white rat. They achieved this by Pairing the rat with a loud noise that already made Albert anxious. The anxiety response was transferred to the rat because it was presented together with tie noise, The response also generalised to other stimuli that resembled the fat, including a rabbit and a fur coat. Over time, Gontitioned responses like this gradually diminish in a process called extin 2) Operant Conditioning: In 1 learn to perform new. behavior ction, Approach people urs through the beneauences of the things they do. If a behaviour they produce is followed by finforcement then the likelihood ef the behaviour bei s in future (the behaviour is strengthened). A consequence can be reinforcing in two ¢ reinforcement) or they avoid“ something bad Finforcement). Conversely, if behaves ie followed by a punishment then the like that behaviour being repeated tn fone ot (the behaviour is weake conditioning only existing response conditioning future decreases ned). Whereas classical allows the person to produce S10 new stimuli, operant allows them to learn new responses. Studying Human Behaviour in Behaviourist Approach Much behaviourist research involves. studying learning in animals under laboratory ‘conditions using experimental methods, Animals are usedIntroduction to Organisational Behaviour (Unit 3) because behaviourists assume they learn in the same way as people but are more convenient to ste Laboratory settings are favoured bec researchers {0 control very precisely the conditions under which learning occurs (e.g., the nature. and availability of reinforcement and Experimental methods are used inferences to be drawn relationships between the vari to study. use they allow Behaviourists also. s human learning in the Iaboratory (as in the study of Little Albert) but more often behaviourist research using humans is centred on attempts deliberately to change behaviour in a real-world setting (¢.g., the behaviour of children in a school or psychiatric patients in a hospital). As with the laboratory research, an attempt is made to control the conditions that influence learning, some of them are deliberately manipulated in order to assess their effect on a particular set of target behaviow An example of this type of research is Allyon and ‘Azrin's study of the effect of a token economy on psychiatric patients. They were attempting to overcome the passivity “and other behavioural problems often displayed by patients in psychiatric hospitals. They drew-up a list of behaviours they wanted to promote (e.g., making beds, eating meals) and arranged for patients to be given a token every time they carried-out a target behaviour. The token could be exchanged for positive reinforcers such as cigarettes or chocolate. Allyon and Azrin found that postive reinforcement led to a significant inerease in the number of target behaviours the patients Produced. 33.4.2. Cognitive Approach Cognitive psychology studies our mental processes cr cognitions. These mental processes that cognitive Psychologists focus on include attention, perception, memory and thinking. The main assumption of the Cognitive approach is that information received from Our senses is processed by the brain and that this Processing directs how we behave or at least justifies how we behave the way that we do. Cognitive comes from the Latin word co Meaning to Apprehend or understand. The cognitive approach developed largely as a reaction to the behavioural approach. Cognitive psychologists argue that individuals do not passively respond to stimuli, but actively process information in their brain before Fesponding to the information. They are interested in What happens in the mind between the stimulus and the response. They look at topics such as perception, us memory, thought, language and attention. They try to explain behaviour in terms of these mental processes, Cognitive psychology is used in many. different Ways, such as suggestions on how to improve our ‘memories, improving performance in situations that ute concentration, such as air trafic controllers 80 on, Cognitive psychologists assume that behaviour is the result of information processing. By describing thinking as information Processing, cognitive Psychologists are making a comparison between nds and computers (i.e., they are adopting a computer metaphor for the mind). This is useful because minds and computers have some attractive similarities ~ both have inputs, outputs, memory stores and a limited capacity for how much information they can process at any one time. Just as a computer's behaviour is determined by what information it is given and how it has been programmed, so a person's behaviour is determined by: 1) The information available in their environment; 2) The ways they have leaned to manipulate (process) information; 3) The capacities for information processing inherent in the types of brain people have. Cognitive psychologists are divided on the issue of free will. Some believe people can choose their actions; others are more deterministic and suggest that we can no more decide on our own behaviour than a computer can. In the nature-nurture debate, cognitive psychologists take an _interactionist position, believing that our behaviour is influenced by learning and experience (nurture) but also by our brains’ innate capacities as information processors (nature). The approach is basically nomological in outlook, as its focus is on establishing the information processes that are common to all people. Cognitive psychologists are generally reductionist although they vary about how far psychological processes should be broken-down when explaining them. Some suggest that cognitive processes can be broken-down ultimately into biological processes, whereas others believe there is a level beyond which it makes no sense to reduce cognitive processes to a more fundamental level, Explang Approach Central to the cognitive view of people is the idea that they actively ty to make sense of their environment by imposing order and meaning on the things they encounter. Cognitive explanations of m of Human Behaviour in Cognitive116 behaviour are based around the ways in which people Organise and process information relevant to Particular ways of acting. For example, in attempting to explain atypical behaviours like Phobias, a cognitive psychologist would start from the assumption that the atypical feelings (anxiety) and behaviour (avoidance) reflect atypical or faulty processing of information about threats. A person with arachnophobia, in this view, — processes information about spiders as threatening even when they pose no threat. A cognitive psychologist might explain this in terms of schema-driven processing. Schemas are ways of organising knowledge and experience of the world into generic ‘templates’ that are used to make sense of objects, situations and people we encounter, It might be that an arachnophobe’s schema for spiders contains the information that they are dangerous and to be avoided. As a result, whenever they encounter a stimulus that looks like a spider, they will react with alarm. Cognitive psychologists try to build-up cognitive models of the information processing that goes on inside people’s minds, Here, too, they are guided by the computer metaphor such that the mind is assumed to be organised into ‘modules, each of which has a particular function and its own ways of processing information. A cognitive model of the memory system would suggest that it has two main components, one for dealing with the information that we need to process now (working memory) and another for storing all the information we have acquired in the past and might need again in the future (long-term memory). These components are assumed to be interconnected, because current information processing may need to draw on past experience and because the outcome of current information processing might need to be stored for future reference. The memory system would be connected to other information processing systems, e.g., those for making sense of incoming information and planning speech and behaviour. One of the aims of cognitive psychology is to clearly specify all the different information processing modules in the human mind in terms of their features and relationships with each other. ing Human Behaviour in Cognitive Approach Paper follow the example ei behaviourits in prefering objective, contralle ntfe mehods for ivestigatng behavior: Tey its of their investigation asthe bass for ea ences about mental processes. One alt rsnitive research involves conducting case strand of studies of people with brain damage. sciet MBA First Semester (Management and Organisational Behaviour) INTU-& Comparing their performance on mental tasks with that of uninjured people can help psychologists to understand which parts of the brain are used to Process which sorts of information. Other cognitive research may involve manipulating either the information available to people (inputs) or the ways they process it (processes) and seeing what effect this has on some aspect of behaviour (outputs), Laboratory experiments are often used for this as the laboratory situation gives better opportunities than field settings for careful manipulation and control of information processing and precise measurement of cognitive performance. ‘An example of this type of research is the experiment into levels of processing carried-out by Craik and Tulving. They presented participants with a series of words on a screen and manipulated the way the words were processed by asking questions about their appearance, sound, or meaning. They found that PPs recognised more of the words they had processed the meaning of than those they had processed the appearance of, suggesting that deeper processing of information leads to more durable memory traces than shallow processing does. Psychoanalytical Approach ’sychoanalytical _psycholo; assume that our behaviour is determined by unconscious forces of Which people are unaware. Each manifest (surface) thought, utterance, or behaviour hides a latent (hidden) motive or intention, The latent motives for our behaviour reflect our instinctive biological drives and our early experiences, particularly before the age of five. Most particularly, itis the way we are treated by our parents as children that shapes our adult behaviour. The psychoanalytical approach rejects the idea that People have free will, A person's behaviour is determined by their unconscious motives which are shaped by their biological drives and their eatly experiences, making this a deterministic approach. With reference to the nature-nurture debate, the Psychoanalytical approach takes an interactionist Position ~ it agrees that we are driven by innate. biological instincts (nature) but also maintains that the expression of these is heavily modified by our upbringing (nurture), The psychoanalytical approach also occupies the middle ground in the debate between nomological and ideographic approaches 10 psychology. Whilst Freud argued that human behaviour is governed by universal processes that apply to everyone (thetoxnatuction 10 Organisational Beh ‘our (Unit 3) yehe, the psychosexual stages), reflecting a nomological understanding, psychoanalytical psychologists agree that the exact ways in which these processes manifest themselves in the individual js unique in every case, Their case-study approach to research reflects this uniqueness and exemplifies an jdeographic way of studying people. However, because the psychoanalytical approach generally explains complex behaviours as manifestations of more primitive biological drives, it is widely regarded as a reductionist approach to psychology rather than a holistic one. Explanation of | Human Psychoanalytical Approach This approach depends on conflict model of humans. By using clinical techniques of free association and psychotherapy Freud felt that behaviour is not always consciously explained. “Unconscious” is the major factor which guides the individual's behaviour. Freud felt that the individual's behaviour depends on three facto 1) ID: By ID it means pleasure, To certain degree of having ID in an individual is constructive but may also lead to destructive tendencies like being aggressive, dominating, fighting and generally destroy. This kind of instinctive is more dominating in childhood. But once individuals develop and mature they learn to control the ID. But it is always unconscious. Throughout life the ‘ID’ becomes important source of thinking and behaving. Behaviour — in 2) Ego: Ego represents “conscious” stage in one’s behaviour. Though Id comes in conflict with ego, the ego depends on the super ego. 3) Superego: It represents “conscience”. An individual is not aware of the superego’s functioning. The conscience is dependent on two factors that is cultural values and moral of a society. Superego's development depends mostly on parent's influence. Once the child grows up the child will unconsciously identifies with Parents value and morals. Studying Human Behaviour in Psychoanalytical Approach Psychoanalytical psychologists study human behaviour by looking for the hidden meanings in the things that people think, do or say. This requires them to gather large amounts of qualitative data about people, which is usually done through the use Of the individual case-study method. The subject of the case study is often a person who is suffering from 4 psychological disorder and who is being treated nT with psychoanalysis. The analyst gathers information from the things the person says or does in therapy (including free association and dream descriptions). The material is examined in order to identify repeating ideas and themes which might reflect unconscious motives and memories. The researcher ‘must interpret the material by discovering how it is symbolic of issues in the subject's unconscious. For example, repeated dreams about authority figures like police officers might reflect an unconscious concern with the person’s parents. Although much psychoanalytical research uses patients in analysis, almost anything people do or produce is capable of being analysed in symbolic terms, so some researchers examine, e.g., works of literature, paintings, or even advertisements in terms of their unconscious symbolism. ‘An example of psychoanalytical research is Freud’s case study of ‘Little Hans’, who had a phobia of horses, Freud interpreted the boy's phobia as being a displaced fear of his Father and his fear of being bitten by a horse as a manifestation of his castration anxiety. Freud identified a number of symbolic links that Hans had unconsciously made between his father and horses and used his analysis as evidence for the existence of the Oedipus complex in boys. Evaluation of Psychoanalytical Approach Many criticisms of the psychoanalytical approach centre on its methods. The need for interpretation of the material gathered means that psychoanalytical psychologists are often accused of researcher bias — they tend to favour interpretations of the data that support what they already believe. The fact that two ifferent researchers can reach completely different interpretations suggests that the methods lack objectivity. Other critics point to the fact that the psychoanalytical approach relies heavily _ on theoretical constructs whose existence is difficult to prove (e.g., the unconscious mind). It is claimed by some that the lack of objectivity in the methods and the dependence on unobservable constructs makes the theory impossible to test in an empirical manner, giving Freud’s approach more the status of a religion than a science. Defenders of the psychoanalytical approach point to the fact that it is unique among the approaches in recognising the complexity of human motives and the irrationality of, much human behaviour. They also point-out that the approach led to the development of treatments for psychological disorders (‘the talking cure’) that have helped many people live more productive andMBA First Semester (Management and Organisational Behaviour) JNTI us ‘isfying lives than they might otherwise eo had. 1 cou len be aid iat, even if someone Tee Freud's theories, his contribution to psychology is uunarguable, Many of Freud's insights - the importance of childhood, or the idea that we are influenced by unconscious processes, e.g., remain very influential even after most of his theoretical concepts have been rejected by the mainstream. 3.3.4.4, Humanistic Approach Humanistic psychology isa psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole person (know as holism).Humanistic psychologists Jook at human behaviour not only through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving. “Humanistic psychologists believe that an individual’s behaviour is connected to his inner feelings and self-image. The humanistic Perspective centers on the view that each person unique and individual and has the free will to change at any time in his or her lives. The humanistic perspective suggests that we are each responsible for our own happiness and well-being as humans. We have the innate (ie. inborn) capacity for self-actualization which is our unique desire to achieve our highest potential as people. Because of this focus on the person and his or her personal experiences and subjective perception of the world the humanists regarded scientific methods as inappropriate for studying behaviour. Two of the most influential and enduring theories in humanistic psychology that emerged in the 1950s and 1960s are those of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. 3.3.4.5. Biological Approach The biological approach believes that most behaviour is inherited and has an adaptive (or evolutionary) function. For example, in the weeks immediately after the birth of a child, levels of testosterone in fathers drop by more than 30 per cent. This has an evolutionary function, ‘Testosterone. deprived men are less likely to wander off in search of new mates to inseminate. They are also less aggressive, which is useful when there is a baby around. Biological psychologists explain. behaviours in neurological terms, i.e., the physiology and structure f the brain and how this influences behaviour. Many biological psychologists have concentrated on so vsenal behaviour and have tried to explain it, For aoe iological psychologists believe that cereus js affected by levels of dopamine (a schi neurotransmitter). UK ee 3.4.1. Meaning and Definition of Perception Perception refers to the stimuli that our senses gain from the surrounding. However, it includes the entire process of analysing the environmental stimuli and deciding the actions to be taken accordingly, Perceptual process helps people to gain insight about those components of the environment that are crucial for their existence. Perception comprises of five senses which are touch, smell, taste, sight and sound. Further, it includes cognitive processes that are needed to derive information like detecting the face or recognising the voice of a person, Perception is the mechanism which enables a person to understand and organise his thoughts and ideas pertaining to his environment. This complex psychological process ‘might not be the same for two different persons, Behaviour of a person depends on how he perceives reality rather than what the reality actually is, Hence, Perception is an important factor in an organisational Setup. In an organisation, people respond according to their perception ubout the fact rather than the actual fact. As a result, the judgement might not be neutral According to S.P. Robbins, “Perception may be defined as a process by which individuals organise and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment”, According to Joseph Reitz, those processes by which information about his enviror feeling, tasting, and smelli “Perception includes all an individual receives ment ~ seeing, heari According to Kolasa, “Perception is selection and organisation of material which stems from the outside environment at one time or the other {0 Provide the meaningful entity we experience”. 3.4.2. Components of Perception Human body has five sensory organs, i.e, eyes, nose, skin, tongue, and ears. Various. actions, communication (verbal or written), taste, smell, physical contact with people or objects stimulate these sensory organs, When a human being. pays attention and identifies these stimuli, the process ofIntroduction to Organi jonal Behaviour (Unit 3) perception begins. The messages are then converted into action and then behaviour. Following are the components of perception: 1) Stimuli: Stimulus means receiving information whose outcome is sensation, The senses and their stimulation influence an individual's behaviour and knowledge. Apart from the physical senses like seeing, touching, hearing, tasting, and individuals possess gut feeling and intuitions known as sixth sense. A wide range of stimuli, such as feelings, information, action, consideration, etc., affect these senses, ‘Stat Attention | [Recognition] [Transaton prover eneoamen| | Pa = i) Physical [> Sensory and bay iators tp} Response {i) Socio-cultural Neural |”) and Physical | >) Organism iD Serene | [Mechnisms| |‘Oreansms | | Delon: by Covert neat Enviroment i) Semor ip Set t Buildi ing Employee Eifor| Satisfaction penning Ove Eapecation and |g ‘Aeton Oe Perfomance satsiocion |] Pres Evaluation Reacion Cover Retrospection AMcsial Ss Figure 33: Components of Perception 2) Attention: Individuals do not pay attention to all the stimuli. Only few are attended by them and rest are ignored based on individual's acceptance ability and stimuli’s intensity. The recipient of the message during the attention process gets indulged in analysing the stimuli and both his neural and sensory mechanisms are affected. The attention process is an important part in an organisation as it teaches them to behave or react in a specific manner. 3) Recognition: Whether the stimuli should be realised or not is determined in the recognition Perception consists of two stages ~ ing stimuli, and converting it into action. However, prior to getting converted into action or behaviour, the stimuli have to be well recognised by the individual as per his mental acceptance level. 4) ‘Translation: Perception remains just a mental activity before translation. Here, translation can so be called evaluation. In this stage, the individual evaluates the stimuli before transmitting it into behaviour or action. For example, a batsman after evaluating the speed, 19 bounce, and type of the incoming ball decides to hit it accordingly. Here, the stimulus is evaluated and converted into action. 5) Behaviour: Behaviour takes place as a result of the cognitive process. It is the response of an individual to change in stimuli, The actions and reactions by an individual reveal _hishher Perception which influences the behaviour. The response is overt and covert, While perception’s overt behaviour is evident from the individual's physical activities, the covert behaviour can be witnessed through hishher mental evaluations, self-esteem, and thought process. 6) Performance: Higher levels of effectiveness can be obtained with the help of correct behaviour. Other employees can treat high performers or effective individuals as a stimuli or source of motivation. To motivate the employees, a performance-reward relationship is maintained. 7) Satisfaction: The gap between performance and expectation signifies the degree of satisfaction. If performance matches expectation, it leads to satisfaction, Whereas if performance exceeds expectation, individuals feel delighted. 3.4.3. Principles of Perception Following are the principles of perception: 1) Figure Ground Relationship: Figures (distinct components of emphasis) and ground (the background on which the figures rest) are the ‘two ways in which elements are perceived. 2) Law of Pragnanz: Individuals consider confusing or complicated things as something simple. 3) Uniform Connectedness: Components that are similar in appearance are said to be more connected than those dissimilar in appearance. 4) Good Continuation: Components that are organised in a defined manner are interpreted as more connected than those not organised properly. 5) Closure: A single and familiar pattern is noticed first by human beings when they see a sophisticated pattern of elements or factors. 6) Common Fate: Individuals treat the components that work in a similar direction as more connected than those that work in separate directions or are static.120 yD 8) 3.4.4, MBA First Semester (Management and Organi Proximity: Components that are in a closer Proximity are treated as more connected than those that are placed far away. Similarity: Components that are same are Supposed to be more connected than those that are not same. Factors Influencing Perception Different people looking at the same thing might perceive it in different ways, There are certain factors that influence an individual's perception. These factors are shown in figure 3.4: dD Characteristics of the (Characteristics of Perceiver Situation + Needs and Motives + Self-Concept + Beliefs Past Experience — |____s/ Perception © Current Psychological State t + Expectations (Characteristics of the ‘Target or Perceived + Size + Intensity + Frequency + Status * Contrast Figure 3.4: Factors Influencing Perception Internal Factors (Characteristics of the Perceiver): Internal factors —_ influencing perception are as follows: i) Needs and Motives: A person's need is influenced by his perception. Need is the feeling of uneasiness when a person desires something or he knows that something is missing in his life. People experience stimuli differently as per their needs. People having diverse needs choose diverse objects for responding or remembering things. Self-Concept: A person's point of view about his surroundings is influenced by his views about himself. His self-concept shapes the way he perceives things. ii) Beliefs: A person’s ideologies and beliefs ‘a strong impact on his perception of s, he views an object or event not ‘but as how he believes it to be. iii) have things. Thu! as how itis ce: Past experiences, whether Lae aoe ‘influence the way a person g00d oF present situation. Ifa person i obs 2) jonal Behaviour) JNTU-K, hurt or betrayed by a close friend in the past, he tends to take time in‘ trusting any new relationship. Current Psychological State: A. person's present mental state has a profound impact ‘on how he sees the world. During stress, person would perceive the same situation in a different manner than when he was happy. vi) Expectations: Expectations play an important role in a person's perception. For example, a technical, manager does not expect technical information from his non- technical staff. External Factors (Characteristics of the Target or Perceived): External factors influencing perception are as follows: i) Size: The size of the perceived stimulus plays a very vital role in attracting the perceiver towards it. The bigger the size of the stimulus, the higher the chances that it would attract the attention of the perceiver towards itself. Bigger objects dominate the view anid hence, are more capable of attaining perceptual selection. ii) Intensity: The degree of intensity is also crucial in perceptual selection, i.e., the higher the intensity, higher are the chances of Perceptual selection. For example, a message will be more noticed if it is highlighted, underlined and boldly displayed. ili) Frequency: Repetition enhances the sensory aleriness of a person. It means that if an external stimulus is repeated several times it gets more attention than if displayed only once. Hence, stimulus having a higher frequency of repetition has greater chances of getting selected for attention, iv) Status: The status of the perceiver also influences the perception. Employees get more influenced by high status people as compared to low status people, Contrast: Stimuli that mix with the environment is not as attractive as those which contrast with their surrounding environment. Factor different from the rest of the surroundings, causes a contrasting effect. This principle states that an external stimulus which stands apart from the crowd gets more attention, SOE RYIntroduction to Organisational Behaviour (Unit 3) 3) Characteristics of Situation: The situation also influences perception to a great extent. For example, the time of viewing an object, the location, light, sound, heat or cold or any kind of situational factor affects a person's perception. 3.4.5. Perceptual Process ‘The process of perception comprises of numerous sub-processes. Individual can adopt an input. throughput-output approach which states that the input in the envirdriment when processed produces perceptual output. Environmental stimuli such as people, subjects and incidents are termed as inputs. ‘The mechanisms used for conversion of these inputs such as selection, organisation and interpretation can be considered as throughputs, Beliefs, emotions, attitudes, ete. which influence a person's behaviour can be called as perceptual outputs. Inputs can also be classified into two types. One is physical stimuli that a person gets from the extemal surrounding. The second type is taken up by the person himself in the form of pre-disposition (hope, intentions and knowledge) and is based on prior experiences. ‘These two types of inputs provide every individual with a very special and exclusive image about the world which differs from the rest of the people. This perception of the world is unique for each individual as each individual has distinctive needs, wants, desires, beliefs, skills, etc. This is the reason why two people do not see the world in the same manner. The phases in the perceptual process include selectivity/selection, organisation and interpretation as shown in figure 3.5: Exposure Selectivity/Selection. |-——>] Attention v Organisation Categorisation ¥ Interpretation —_ |-———>| Inference Figure 3.5: Perceptual Process 3.45.1. Perceptual SelectvitySelection : Everyday we meet with numerous stimuli out o Which we select only a few. Perceptual selectivity is the selection of certain stimuli from the environment and rejecting the others. This selection choice depicts Our values, beliefs and needs. 2 If an individual is not skilled for perceptual selectivity, then he will be incompetent in processing the information as well. Two related processes which help selectivity are as follows: 1) Sensory Activation: Sensory activation states that there are only certain types of stimuli which activate our senses while others which are not loud, bright or strong, might go unnoticed. enhancing 2) Sensory Adaptation: Sensory adaptation means people tend to adapt themselves to the environment with which they are in regular contact. For ‘example, a person forgets the sound of a radio or television while doing routine activities. Hence, the above two processes prevent certain stimuli from entering our perceptual systems, Stimuli which are left behind compete to gain focus, Certain internal as well as external factors play an important role in stimuli selection. 3.4.5.2. Perceptual Organisation ‘Once the stimulus is received, a number of activities occur in the perceptual process. Perceptual organisation relies on these activities. A person generally does not observe the amount of light, sound or colour linked to any event but he certainly observes an organised pattern, stimuli or object attached to it. ‘The following factors affect perceptual organisation: 1) Figure and Ground: The most essential type of perceptual organisation is the figure-ground principle. It states that when a person perceives any object (thing or person), it occupies a separate space in the psychology of the individual. 2) Perceptual Grouping: By grouping, the individual stimuli can be divided into significant samples. Factors affecting perceptual grouping are as follows: i) Similarity: This principle states that objects which look similar are perceived to be a part of the same group. For example, workers, who wore the same uniform, might have different personalities; still they are perceived as the same. ii) Proximity: This principle states that stimuli located near each other are perceived as a collective pattem, For example, at workplace employees belonging to a department are usually perceived as a team due to their closeness.122 3) 4) iii) Closure: People have the tendency to Perceive objects as a whole even when a part of them is missing as their perceptual process ‘ignores the gaps created by sensory inputs. For example, while working on a project, the manager perceives that the entire team has agreed to it completely while, in fact, a few workers might have disagreed with it. Another example is shown in the following figure where some parts of the figures are incomplete, but as we are familiar with these shapes we are able to identify them as a whole. iv) Continuity and closure are nearly similar but has a minute difference. Closure provides the missing stimuli, while continuity principle states that a person may tend to observe consistent arrangement of lines rather than perceiving it as an idual entity (figure 3.6). Continuity might result into monotonous thinking. o®®e, @e @ ® @ a @ @ 6 e° o @e® Figure 3.6: Continuity v) Common Fate: This principle states that object that moves or works in a same way are treated as a unit, For example, a flock of birds, a herd of cattle, etc. Perceptual Constancy: Perceptual constancy is more complicated than perceptual organisation. The world is a very complex and an ever g place and constancy gives the snail sense of stability. World would become an unorganised and hectic place in absence of constancy. ‘ontext: Perceptual context is the Perce Cam: Pen one isation. A simple stimuli, object, situation, Oren derives. meaning. from perceptual oF persoT ne context in which managers an coe apserve various elements is provided by worke MBA First Semester (Management and Organisational Behaviour) JNTU-& organisational culture and organisational structure. For example, gestures like a raised eyebrow, a pat on the back, a handshake, a verbal ‘order, or a new policy conveys a special message to the employees. 5) Perceptual Defence: Perceptual context and Perceptual defence are closely related to each other. People can be defensive towards stimuli or towards dangerous situation. Perceptual defence is very essential in analysing relationships between union-management and supervisor. subordinate. It is confirmed by many studies, These studies conclude that people must try to ignore incompatible, dangerous and improper rations, 3.4.5.3. Perceptual Interpretation Selection and. organisation of data is followed by its, interpretation. Perception is believed to occur only after the data is interpreted because it gives meaning to the received and interpreted data. Every individual interprets stimuli in his own manner which is usually influenced by his past experiences. Stimuli are usually vague and hence can be interpreted in a manner which fulfils every individual's personal needs, intentions and interests The gap between a person’s interpretation and reali depends on how clear the stimulus is in the Perceiver's prior experiences and his thought Process, 3.4.6. Importance of Perception Perception is important due to following reasons: 1) Helps in Understanding Human Behaviour: Every individual observes the world in a different way and deals with the problems differently. An object might not be perceived it the same manner as it really is. If a person Purchases fruits from a particular vendor it is not due to the fact that vendor is selling the best fruits in the whole market but because the person Perceives him to be doing so. It is due to the Perception, that a job, which one Person finds suitable and satisfying, might not appear as good (0 the other. Thus, perception plays an important role in understanding human. behaviour. 2) Helps in in recasting Behaviour: Different duals behave differently when fa ig the we situation as they view the same situation fferently. A’ person's behaviour can be Predicted by understanding his current situation and current perception about the environment.