Daily and Annual Cycles of Temperature

Daily Cycles of Air Temperature

At the Earth's surface quantities of insolation and net radiation (Balance between

incoming and outgoing shortwave and longwave radiations).

Mathematically expressed as:

Q* = (K + k)(1 - a) - LU + LD
where Q* is surface net radiation (global annual values of Q* = 0, because input equals output, local
values can be positive or negative),

K is surface direct shortwave radiation,

k is diffused shortwave radiation (scattered insolation) at the surface,

a is the albedo of surface,

LD is atmospheric counter-radiation (greenhouse effect) directed to the Earth's surface,

and LU is longwave radiation lost from the Earth's surface.

undergo daily cycles of change because the planet rotates on its polar axis once every 24
hours. Insolation is usually the main positive component making up net radiation. Variations
in net radiation are primarily responsible for the particular patterns of rising and falling air
temperature over a 24 hour period. The following three graphs show hypothetical average
curves of insolation, net radiation, and air temperature for a typical land based location at
45° of latitude on the equinoxes (Two days during the year when the declination of the Sun is at the
equator. The September equinox (One of two days during a year when the declination of the Sun is at the
equator. The September equinox denotes the first day of fall in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern
Hemisphere, this date marks the first day of spring. During the September equinox, all locations on the Earth
(except the poles) experience equal (12 hour) day and night. The September equinox occurs on either September
22 or 23.occurs on September 22 or 23). The March equinox (One of two days during a year when
the declination of the Sun is at the equator. The March equinox denotes the first day of spring in the Northern
Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, this date marks the first day of fall. During the March equinox, all
locations on the Earth (except the poles) experience equal (12 hour) day and night. The March equinox occurs
on either March 20 or 21. occurs on March 20 or 21). On these days, all locations on our planet (except the
poles) experience equal (12 hour) day and night). and solstices (Dates when the declination of the Sun is at
23.5° North or South of the equator. For the Northern Hemisphere this date falls on June 21 or 22 ( Summer
Solstice)). In the Southern Hemisphere the date is December 21 or 22 (Winter Solstice). (Figures 7l-1, 7l-
2, and 7l-3).
 Insolation

Hourly variations in insolation received for a location at 45°

North latitude over a 24 hour period.
In the above graph, shortwave radiation received from the Sun is measured
in Watts. For all dates, peak reception occurs at solar noon when the Sun attains its
greatest height above the horizon.

Net Radiation

Figure 7l-2: Hourly variations in net radiation for a location

at 45° North latitude over a 24 hour period.
 

Units in Figure 7l-2 are the same as the insolation graph above. The net

radiation graph indicates that there is a surplus of radiation during most of the day
and a deficit throughout the night. The deficit begins just before sunset when
emitted longwave radiation from the Earth's surface exceeds solar insolation and
longwave radiation from the atmosphere.

Temperature

Figure 7l-3: Hourly variations in surface temperature for a

location at 45° North latitude over a 24 hour period.

The relative placement of the temperature profiles for the various dates correlates
to the amount of net radiation available for daily surface absorption and heat
generation. The more energy available, the higher up the Y-axis the profile is on
the graph. September equinox is warmer than the March equinox because of the
heating that occurred in the previous summer months. For all dates, minimum
temperature occurs atsunrise. Temperature drops throughout the night because of
two processes. First, the Earth's radiation balance at the surface becomes negative
after sunset. Thus, the surface of the Earth stops heating up as solar radiation is not
being absorbed. Secondly, conduction(Conduction consists of energy transfer directly
from atom to atom and represents the flow of energy along
a temperature gradient) and convection(Convection involves the transfer of heat energy by means of
vertical mass motions through a medium).transport
heat energy up into the atmosphere and
the warm air that was at the surface is replaced by cooler air from above because of
atmospheric mixing. Temperature begins rising as soon as the net radiation budget
of the surface becomes positive. Temperature continues to rise from sunrise until
sometime after solar noon. After this time, mixing of the Earth's surface by
convection causes the surface to cool despite the positive addition of radiation
and heat energy.
 
Annual Cycle of Air Temperature

As the Earth revolves around the Sun, locations on the surface may under go
seasonal changes in air temperature because of annual variations in the intensity
of net radiation. Variations in net radiation are primarily controlled by changes in
the intensity and duration of received solar insolation which are driven by
variations in daylength and angle of incidence. The discussion below examines
how changes in net radiation can effect mean monthly temperatures for the
following five locations:

o Manaus, Brazil, 3° South latitude (Figure 7l-4).

o Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, 20° South latitude (Figure 7l-5).
o Albuquerque, USA, 35° North latitude (Figure 7l-6).
o London, England, 52° North latitude (Figure 7l-7).
o Fairbanks, USA, 65° North latitude (Figure 7l-8).

Manaus, Brazil - 3° South, 60° West

Figure 7l-4: Monthly variations in net radiation and average

monthly temperature for Manaus, Brazil.

At Manaus, values of monthly net radiation average about 135 Watts per square

meter. Monthly variation in net radiation is only about 35Watts over the entire
year (Figure 7l-4). Two peaks in net radiation are visible on the graph. Both of
these peaks occur during the equinoxeswhen the height of the Sun above
the horizon is at its maximum (90° above the horizon). Minimum values of net
radiation correspond to the time of the year when the Sun reaches its minimum
height of only 66.5° above the horizon at solar noon. Because of the consistent
nature of net radiation, mean monthly air temperature only varies by 2° Celsius
over the entire year.

Bulawayo, Zimbabwe - 20° South, 29° East

Figure 7l-5: Monthly variations in net radiation and average

monthly temperature for Bulawayo, Zimbabwe.

Net radiation at Bulawayo has a single peak and trough over the one year period
graphed. This pattern is primarily controlled by variations in the intensity and
duration of incoming solar insolation (Figure 7l-5). During the December solstice,
the Sun reaches its highest altitude above the horizon and daylength is at a
maximum (13 hours and 12 minutes). The lowest values of net radiation occur
around the June solstice when the Sun reaches its lowest altitude above the
horizon and daylength is at a minimum (10 hours and 48 minutes) in the Southern
Hemisphere. Monthly temperature variations follow the monthly change in net
radiation. Net radiation represents energy available to do work. When received at
the Earth's surface much of this energy is used to create sensible heat.
 Albuquerque, USA - 35° North, 107° West

Figure 7l-6: Monthly variations in net radiation and average

monthly temperature for Albuquerque, USA.

At Albuquerque, maximum net radiation occurs in May. The timing of this peak
roughly coincides with the June solstice when daylengths are at their longest and
solar heights are their greatest (Figure 7l-6). However, monthly temperature
variations do not mirror the changes in net radiation exactly. Peak monthly
temperatures occur about two months after the net radiation maximum. This lag is
probably caused by the delayed movement of stored heat energy in the ground into
the atmosphere. Minimum monthly temperatures do coincide with the lowest
values of net radiation which occur during the December solstice.
 London, England - 52° North, 1° East

Figure 7l-7: Monthly variations in net radiation and average

monthly temperature for London, England.

The annual patterns of net radiation and mean monthly temperature for London are
quite similar to those already described for Albuquerque (Figures 7l-6 and 7l-7).
London does, however, experience a greater annual variation in net radiation. This
greater variation can be explained by the effect increasing latitude has on annual
variations of insolation. During the winter months, outgoing longwave
radiation actually exceeds incoming insolation producing negative net radiation
values. This was not seen in Albuquerque. The variation in monthly mean
temperature is also less extreme in London when compared to Albuquerque.
Intuitively, one would expect London to have a greater annual change in
temperature because of the greater variation in net radiation over the year.
However, London's climate is moderated by the frequent addition oflatent
heat energy from seasonal precipitation.
 Fairbanks, USA - 65° North, 148° West

Figure 7l-8: Monthly variations in net radiation and average

monthly temperature for Fairbanks, USA.

Of the five locations examined, Fairbanks has the greatest variations in mean

monthly temperature. Fairbanks is also the coldest of the climates examined
(Figure 7l-8). This is primarily due to the fact that during six months of the year
net radiation is negative because outgoing longwave radiation exceeds
incoming insolation. Fairbanks also receives the least cumulative amount of net
radiation over the entire year. Mean month temperature is at its maximum in July
which is one month ahead of the peak in net radiation.