IME 8310 – INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

Figure 1 shows a Brayton cycle for electrical power generation. A pump, P1, provides fuel to a combustion
chamber, CC. This pump is actioned by a speed driver, SD-01. Also, a compressor, C1, provides an air
stream to the combustion chamber, where the mixture of fuel and air is burned and sent to a turbine, T1.
Finally, a 4-poles generator, G1, converts the shaft rotation into electrical power.

SD SC
01 01

Fuel
CC
P1

ST
01

F (Hz)
C1 T1
~ VAC
G1

Air Exhaust
Gasses

Figure 1 – Illustration of Brayton cycle for power generation.

The generated electrical power must have a tension of 𝑉 = 110𝑉𝐴𝐶 with a nominal frequency of 𝐹 =
60𝐻𝑧 to fulfill the minimum quality requirements to obtain commercial energy. The deviations of the
frequency from this desired value must be minimized along the operation time. Moreover, this frequency
is directly related with the shaft speed, 𝑠 (measured in 𝑟𝑝𝑚), through the following equation:
𝑟𝑝𝑚
(120 )𝐹
𝑠= 𝐻𝑧
𝑛𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

where 𝑛𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 is the number of poles of the generator. Thus, a speed control loop is installed so that the
frequency can be maintained at 60𝐻𝑧. As can be observed in Figure 1, this control loop comprises a speed
transmitter, ST-01, which has a range of 500 − 4000 𝑟𝑝𝑚, and a speed controller, SC-01. The speed
transmitter signal may be noisy because of the sudden changes that take place in the shaft’s speed.

Regarding the fuel pump, its speed, 𝑠𝑝 (in 𝑟𝑝𝑚), is a function of the controller output signal according to
the following equation:
𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑚
𝑠𝑝 = (5000 )
%𝐶𝑂 100
Furthermore, the flow given by the pump, 𝑓𝑝 (in 𝑔𝑝𝑚), can be modeled as follows:
 𝑠𝑝 2
𝑓𝑝 = 𝑘 ( ) , 𝑘 = 11.1𝑔𝑝𝑚/𝑟𝑝𝑚2
1000
The bias of the controller output is 𝑚̅ = 50%𝐶𝑂, causing a flow of 69.375 𝑔𝑝𝑚. After carrying out a step-
change in the controller signal, the pump flow changed from 69.375 𝑔𝑝𝑚 to 80.9 𝑔𝑝𝑚. The response of
the frequency after this step test is plotted in Figure 2, and the corresponding data is recorded in Table 1.
Table 1 – Response of the frequency after step test.

t t
F (Hz) F (Hz)
(min) (min)
0.00 60.00 9.95 60.96
1.24 60.02 11.19 60.98
2.49 60.38 12.43 60.98
3.73 60.61 13.68 60.99
4.97 60.75 14.92 60.99
6.22 60.84 16.16 61.00
7.46 60.90 17.41 61.00
8.70 60.94 18.65 61.00

Figure 2 – Response of the frequency after the step test.

The main disturbance to the system is the torque demand, 𝑇 (in 𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚), with a steady-state value of
15 𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚. The transfer function relating the interaction between this disturbance and the frequency is
shown below.
−0.5
𝐺𝑇 (𝑠) =
2𝑠2 + 3𝑠 + 1
The units of the gain of this transfer function are 𝐻𝑧/(𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚).

1. Draw a block diagram of the closed control loop, showing all transfer functions and indicating the
units of all signals.
2. Recommend a type of controller. Provide the tuning parameters for this controller.
3. Regarding the loop response after step changes in setpoint, will this response be monotonic or
oscillatory? Stable or unstable? To simplify calculations, neglect the dead time term (𝑒 −𝑡0 𝑠).
4. If only the proportional mode of the controller you recommended were used, and a change in the
Torque demand of +4 𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚 took place, calculate the offset that would be obtained. Give this
result in %𝑇𝑂 and in 𝑟𝑝𝑚 of the turbine’s shaft. Also, convert this offset into frequency units.
Solution:

1. The transmitter gain is:

100%𝑇𝑂
𝑘𝑇 = = 0.0286%𝑇𝑂/𝑟𝑝𝑚
(4000 − 500)𝑟𝑝𝑚
The gain to convert from frequency to speed will be:
𝑟𝑝𝑚
(120 )
𝑘𝑓−𝑠 = 𝑠 = 𝐻𝑧 = 30𝑟𝑝𝑚/𝐻𝑧
4
The pump speed is given by:

𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑚
𝑠𝑝 = (5000 ) (1)
%𝐶𝑂 100

while the fuel flow is given by:

𝑠𝑝 2
𝑓𝑝 = 𝑘 ( )
1000
Replacing equation (1) into the latter equation yields the following expression relating the fuel
flow and the controller output:
𝑟𝑝𝑚 2
𝑓𝑝 = 𝑘 [(0.05 ) 𝑚]
%𝐶𝑂
Recalling that 𝑘 = 11.1𝑔𝑝𝑚/𝑟𝑝𝑚2 , the above equation becomes:
2
1
𝑓𝑝 = (11.1𝑔𝑝𝑚) [(0.05 ) 𝑚] (2)
%𝐶𝑂
̅ = 50%𝐶𝑂, produces a flow 𝑓 ̅ =
We were told that the nominal controller output, 𝑚
69.375 𝑔𝑝𝑚. This can be verified by replacing 𝑚
̅ = 50%𝐶𝑂 into Eq. (1). We were also told that
a step-change (unknown to us, so far) was made, producing a final steady-state flow of 𝑓 =
80.9 𝑔𝑝𝑚. In order to determine the magnitude and direction of the change, ∆𝑚, made to the
controller output, Eq. (2) can be used as follows:
2
1 1%𝐶𝑂 80.9 𝑔𝑝𝑚
80.9 𝑔𝑝𝑚 = (11.1𝑔𝑝𝑚) [(0.05 ) 𝑚] → 𝑚= √ = 54%𝐶𝑂
%𝐶𝑂 0.05 11.1𝑔𝑝𝑚

Then:
∆𝑚 = 54%𝐶𝑂 − 50%𝐶𝑂 = 4%𝐶𝑂
This step-change in the controller output caused a total steady-state change of ∆𝐹 = 1𝐻𝑧 in the
frequency, as can be observed from Table 1 and Figure 1. This change in the frequency can be
converted into speed change as follows:
∆𝑠 = ∆𝐹 ∙ 𝑘𝑓−𝑠 = (1𝐻𝑧)(30𝑟𝑝𝑚/𝐻𝑧) = 30 𝑟𝑝𝑚
Moreover, this change can be converted into %TO as follows:
𝑇𝑂
∆𝑐 = 𝑘𝑇 ∙ ∆𝑠 = (0.0286% ) (30 𝑟𝑝𝑚) = 0.86%𝑇𝑂
𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝐶(𝑠)
Now, the gain of the process transfer function, 𝐺1 (𝑠) = , can be calculated as:
𝑀(𝑠)

∆𝑐 0.86%𝑇𝑂 𝑇𝑂
𝑘1 = = = 0.21%
∆𝑚 4%𝐶𝑂 %𝐶𝑂
From Figure 1, it is noticeable that the process transfer function can be modeled as a FOPDT
function. We already have its gain, and, to determine the time constant and dead time, we will
use the Fit 3 method. Accordingly, we must first determine the times when, respectively, 28.3%
and 63.2% of the total change in the response variable (i.e., the speed or the frequency) had taken
place.
When the 28.3% of change had occurred:
𝐹|28.3%∆𝐹 = 𝐹̅ + 0.283∆𝐹 = 60𝐻𝑧 + 0.283(1𝐻𝑧) = 60.283𝐻𝑧
The corresponding time when the above frequency value had taken place can be determined
through interpolation, using data from Table 1:
𝑡1 − 1.24𝑚𝑖𝑛 60.283𝐻𝑧 − 60.02𝐻𝑧
= → 𝑡1 = 2.15 𝑚𝑖𝑛
2.49𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 1.24𝑚𝑖𝑛 60.38𝐻𝑧 − 60.02𝐻𝑧

When 63.2% of change had occurred:

𝐹|63.2%∆𝐹 = 𝐹̅ + 0.283∆𝐹 = 60𝐻𝑧 + 0.632(1𝐻𝑧) = 60.632𝐻𝑧
The corresponding time when the above frequency value had taken place can also be determined
through interpolation, using data from Table 1:
𝑡2 − 3.73𝑚𝑖𝑛 60.632𝐻𝑧 − 60.61𝐻𝑧
= → 𝑡2 = 3.925 𝑚𝑖𝑛
4.97𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 3.73𝑚𝑖𝑛 60.75𝐻𝑧 − 60.61𝐻𝑧
The time constant will be:
3
𝜏= (𝑡 − 𝑡1 ) = 2.66 𝑚𝑖𝑛
2 2
and the dead time will be:
𝑡0 = 𝑡2 − 𝜏 = 1.27 𝑚𝑖𝑛
The process transfer function will be:
0.21𝑒 −1.27𝑠
𝐺1 (𝑠) =
2.66𝑠 + 1
Regarding the Torque demand (the main disturbance), the transfer function explaining its effect
on signal 𝑐(𝑡) will be:
 𝐺2 (𝑠) = 𝐺𝑇 (𝑠) ∙ 𝑘𝑓−𝑠 ∙ 𝑘𝑇
−0.5𝐻𝑧/𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚
𝐺2 (𝑠) = [ ] (30𝑟𝑝𝑚/𝐻𝑧)(0.0286%𝑇𝑂/𝑟𝑝𝑚)
(2 min2 )𝑠2 + (3 𝑚𝑖𝑛)𝑠 + 1
−0.43%𝑇𝑂/𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚
𝐺2 (𝑠) =
(2 min2 )𝑠2 + (3 𝑚𝑖𝑛)𝑠 + 1
Without regarding the units (which we know are correct):
−0.43
𝐺2 (𝑠) =
2𝑠2 + 3𝑠 + 1
Now that all transfer functions (other than that for the controller) have been determined, the
closed-loop block diagram can be built:

2. Since the transmitter signal might be noisy, the derivative mode should not be used. Thus, a PI
controller is recommended. The frequency deviations along operation time must be minimized.
Therefore, minimum IAE response tuning must be used. Moreover, since the setpoint will remain
constant, minimum IAE response tuning for disturbance inputs will be used, and the tuning
parameters will be:

0.984 𝑡0 −0.986 0.984 1.27𝑚𝑖𝑛 −0.986

𝑘𝑐 = ( ) = ( ) = 9.7%𝐶𝑂/%𝑇𝑂
𝑘 𝜏 0.21%𝑇𝑂/%𝐶𝑂 2.66𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜏 𝑡0 0.707 2.66𝑚𝑖𝑛 1.27𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.707
𝜏𝐼 = ( ) = ( ) = 2.6 𝑚𝑖𝑛
0.608 𝜏 0.608 2.66𝑚𝑖𝑛

3. Regardless of whether a setpoint or disturbance input is considered, the loop stability will depend
on the roots of its characteristic equation:
1 + 𝐺𝑐 (𝑠)𝐺1 (𝑠) = 0
 1 𝑘1 𝑒 −𝑡0 𝑠
1 + [𝑘𝑐 (1 + )] [ ]=0
𝜏𝐼 𝑠 𝜏𝑠 + 1
Neglecting the dead time term:
1 𝑘1
1 + [𝑘𝑐 (1 + )] [ ]=0
𝜏𝐼 𝑠 𝜏𝑠 + 1
1 0.21
1 + [9.7 (1 + )] [ ]=0
2.6𝑠 2.66𝑠 + 1
2.6𝑠 + 1 0.21
1 + [9.7 ( )] [ ]=0
2.6𝑠 2.66𝑠 + 1
(2.6𝑠)(2.66𝑠 + 1) + [9.7(2.6𝑠 + 1)](0.21) = 0
The above equation can be re-written as:
6.92𝑠2 + 7.9𝑠 + 2.04 = 0
The roots of the above polynomial are:
𝑟1 = −0.75, 𝑟2 = −0.4
Since both roots are real and negative, the response will be monotonic and stable.

4. If only the proportional mode were used, the controller’s transfer function would be:
𝐺𝑐 (𝑠) = 𝑘𝑐 = 9.7%𝐶𝑂/%𝑇𝑂
The closed loop transfer function for disturbance input (i.e., for the torque demand) would be:
−0.43%𝑇𝑂/𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚
𝐷
𝐺2 (𝑠) (2 min2 )𝑠2 + (3 𝑚𝑖𝑛)𝑠 + 1
𝐺𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐹 (𝑠) = =
1 + 𝐺𝑐 (𝑠)𝐺1 (𝑠) (0.21%𝑇𝑂/%𝐶𝑂)𝑒 −(1.27𝑚𝑖𝑛)𝑠
1 + (9.7%𝐶𝑂/%𝑇𝑂) [ ]
(2.66𝑚𝑖𝑛)𝑠 + 1
and its gain is:

𝐷 𝐷
−0.43%𝑇𝑂/𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚
𝑘𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐹 = lim 𝐺𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐹 (𝑠) = = −0.142%𝑇𝑂/𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚
𝑠→0 1 + (9.7%𝐶𝑂/%𝑇𝑂)(0.21%𝑇𝑂/%𝐶𝑂)
Then, offset, after a torque demand change of +4 𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚, is computed as follows:
𝐷
𝑒 = −∆𝑇 ∙ 𝑘𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐹 = −(4 𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚)(−0.142%𝑇𝑂/𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚) = 0.57%𝑇𝑂
To convert this offset into speed units (𝑟𝑝𝑚):
0.57% 0.57%
𝑒= = = 19.93 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑘𝑇 0.0286%𝑇𝑂/𝑟𝑝𝑚
and, finally, to convert the above offset into frequency units (𝐻𝑧):
−19.93 𝑟𝑝𝑚 19.93 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑒= = = 0.66𝐻𝑧
𝑘𝑓−𝑠 30𝑟𝑝𝑚/𝐻𝑧