Shoemaking Manual SHOES AND HOW THEY ARE MADEShoemaking Manual SHOES AND HOW THEY ARE MADE Copyright, October 1957, by United Shoe Machinery Corportion UNITED SHOE MACHINERY CORPORATION RESEARCH DIVISIONPace 1. SHORMAKING AND SHOR MANUPACTURE * 1 SHOEMAKING--- = 1 |A. S90 Areas and Location Points a, BL Show Bloments! “Tho Upper and Bottom — =e! Upper Leather and Sole Leather 25 5. The Shoe Upper =o Upper Fastenings —--~ Ba FL The Outside of the dice se G. Reinforcements, Stays and Doobiers === 0 HL The Lining eeu 1) Counters sud Box Tooe St J, Tho Shoe Bottom =a Knees and Ornaments - a Mi SHOE SIZES AND WIDTHS 8 IV SHOE PROCESSES ~ 18 V SHOEMAKIG PROCEDURE a a BL Order Processing snd Scheduling a . Gpper eating 2 D. Upper Fitting 25 B Sck Fiting 2 F Lasting Fa bottoming 20 m= E 28 1 Bottom Finish 30 4, Treoing and Packing 30 Summary a VI SHOE MANUFACTURING a ‘A. General Characteristics ~ 3 1B Some Statition on te Show indastey 2 Chow Conte 38 YI ECONOMICS OF MACHINERY DEVELOPMENT eo ‘A. ‘The Brofit Roqurement , Themachine mustbe profitable for USC tomamatacture and disteibute on terme ‘shlch the mansfacturer ean alford ‘To evaluate these requirements it is neces~ taty to haven undorstanding of each ecoee= Iie factory ae the following A, The various ways in which shoe manu- {curing ts conducted and the. reasons The elements of shoe cost. What ob- {iteles must be overcome’ in ender to Dravida s mora economical result e. Some of the shoe manufacturer's prob- Teme ia produetagshoea within certain ‘rive limita, ‘The necessary compro~ Iises between the ict produc nd the Droduct be can alford to make, 4. The siza of tho markst, now and in the fore, fo tha machine unter conedara= tion. "Tae explanation of trends In shoe Styles and methods, and the reasons for Sferent shve procesose and conatrae I SHOEMAKING Scope ofthe Subject |A. What isthe scope of the footwear iets? 1. Fodtwenr for all purpost A. Dress shoes, for street, leisure, or evening wen. b. Work shoes, for farm, industrial, and military purposes. Boots, for riding, hosting, logging, ete 4. Ametie, for skating, skiing, bowling, nd field sports. ©, Moccasins and Sandal, for indoor and ovtdoor wear 1 addition, many types of vulcanized rubber foctwear, sneakers, basketball shoes, and Waterproo! footwear sae sonte USMC mseh- ‘nes, and general familiarity with this Held Is desinabe 2. Shoes to fit al sizes off aisles. from babies to 3. Shoes to fit all"sizes of pocketbooks", Le. low, medium and hgh priced merehandioe 1B, Mow are shoes made to meet this variety and ange of requirements? 1 Style, fonetional, and cost requirement met by A.variety of manufacturing procesces. (Thece aro offen grouped according to rethodsof attaching the sale tothe shoe, Asdescvibedin delat later in this woos)b. Avarietyof shoe constructions 1m each Process . Avariety of shoe materials 4, Continaed development and introduction ‘onatractions, aad 2, Foot fiting requirements are mot by making the shoes over wondes forme (laats)in wide ange ofshapee, sizes, acl widths. ‘The last Shape is also style feature. What subjects ae involved inthe aking” st of shoe 4. The anatomy ofthe fot. 4, Howit ieconstructed, How i fenetions 2, The design and manufacture of lasts. A. Designing for foot fitting, fo styl, and for use as 2 tool in shoeing. b, Grading, oF the relationship between dt- Imenalonefor diferent esos snd widths tt last snd different heights of heels 3, The design of upper paleras to fit the last A. Designing for last iting, and sey syle Grading of palterae to correspond with last grading and shoeing 4, The desiga and manufacture of patterns and 8. Shoe parts and materials a. The tanning of gole leather and ‘upper {beige and aynthetles-snd ther effects fn ehoemaking procedures cc. The purpose and funetion of shoe parts {nd materiale 4. The manufacture of such parts as heels, counters, and soles, 6, Shoe processes and constructions. 4, Thelr purposes and methods of proc dare 1. Shoe operations. 4. Their purpose, correct procedure, and the stfets of incorvect procedure. 8, Shoe machines. 4S. Their operation, adjustaiity, and a- Aapeablity for various classe of wore. 9, Beonomies. 8. Variations tm procedures and quality ‘tandaeds in accordance with the price trade ofthe product SOURCES OF INFORMATION Last making, pattern design, leather pur- chasing and cuting, ond the manslatare of fot ‘wear of specific ys and grades in specific pro- esses are specialized types uf work requiring de tailed kowleago, muchef which has tobe acquired Ddyemerience ratharthanby instruction. Few shoe: ‘makers, ir any, know all tere isto know about all cl these subjecte, Good sheematers, however, Ihave a genarel knowledge of all of these eubjects ‘which complements their intimate inowtedge c the ‘ranches of shoemaking inwhich they are moat ox pert. Simllarly, men in the USMC Research Div {Sion should be aware ofall te various aspects of Shoewakieg, know something abou! them, yet real fe that "2 ite knowledge iss dangerous thing When more speci Information 1s needed in the course of Work it is advisable to consult other Sources for both printed matter onthe ebjoct and {he accumulated exporience of experts in specific branches of shoenaking For many yoars, toxt books covoring the en- tire field otshoomaking have been inuge n English trae schools. Books by Plucknet, by Swaysland, Abd ove by J. H. Thornton published in 1658, are fvallable fn the Boaton office. Nothing quite com: erable has been published in thie country, bat Idch ofthe formation contained in the Thoaten book isapplicable tothe shoe industry inthe Une Stites, Raferonce la made to Thornon's book in {olloning chapters ‘The "Shoemaker's Handbook", published by ‘USMC, covers some subjects very completely and graphically, bo is Incomplete In tegerd to a num= her’ of subjects which might nave been included. FRaforence ts algo made to this book in following Chapters. "How Modern shoes are Made", ao Published by USMC, ontaina concioe descriptionsof various shoe processes with illustrations of Shoes in various stages of construction, ‘A tories of loctures onshoomaking was pre pared and delivered by USMC personnel. during T3i6 and 1917. These lecteres are available ts printed form, but as they do not contain reproduc tong of sides referred fo by the lecturer, ome fof thelr valve is loat. Some of thie material, with Ihustrations, has been used inthis book Refer tence also thade to other loctures nd other USMC publications whieh areavatlable at bots Boston and Beverly ‘Aver some ofthe fundamental of shoemak sng have been aasinilated, other avaliable materia Will be of specific interest. Examples of this are Beverly exhibits of shoe machine parts and siP~ plies and Boston charts showing trends in shoe, ‘reduction, shoe processes, cperations, and mach Ines, Material prepared for litigation in alno = ‘allabe for study. Included in this material are (he followin’ 1. Cases of shoes made by various processes, ‘Showing individual shes. at progressive ‘stages of construction. ‘These ‘should be ovdfor reference when reading dcriptions ‘of shoemaking procedures. such reference ‘rt help to establish the sequence af opera. Ton, asd will show what is accomplished uring eash operation. As shown in "Hom ‘Modern Shoesare Made”, thisexniit ts nee~ ‘essary confined Uo one standard constie. {ion for each process, and cannot show al the variations in constraetion and combina tions of processes that will be encountered later. 2. Machine histories of individual USMC mach- tes. "These accounts ail be very Inform tive concerning the functon and operation of the machines, and eostan much more de- {alled Information than could appropritely De included in this book. The history of 2 machine's evolution, vom its initial form {othe present commercial model in sany tases will show how continued machine ia provement is necessary in order to mec! ‘ew and changing requirements ofthe inds- Uy. “Copies ofthe machine histories are a= ‘allape at Boston and Beverly 3. Automatic machine reports, Developments In previous years, some successful, ane some unsuccessful, are described In a two: ‘olume history. Volume Ideveribes tha large Seale development dung tho 1820's of like ‘of automatic machinery for making men's Melt shoes. Volume I describes other ma ‘hires of an automatic or semi-aitomatic nature. Much can be learned from these Feports in regard to the difficulties to be Cvercome inthe course of sock developments, End the Conditions necegsary for successful reaulte, ‘The "Red Book", published annually by the “american Shoemaking” magazine, is % pocket ize irectory of shoe manufacturers inthe United States and Canada, giving names of concerns, 2- Aresses, branch offices, names of buyers, super Inteadents, sales managers, styleand pattern men, Walgo shows the daly output of factoroe, tho kind tf shoes mada, boying hours, the trade sold, bus ‘ness holidays in Parious states, firme using the Union Labely and whenever possible, the Fetal selling price range. Copies of the "Red Book™ are ‘hails at both Boston and Beverly ‘Shoe Parts and Their Functions to become familiar with all the 3 and. constructions by observa ion, diceuseion and reading, 1 wll bo necoecary to aéquirea new vocabulary of shoe-making terms: Dany" shoe parte are common to all typeset shoes, bot vary in size, shape and material, according to their fonction, A general vocabulary relating to shoe parts and an idea of the fanctions of these parts ie {goed preliminary tothe farther stady of the iffer {nt prosesses by which the parts are put togeter. ‘The'new terms tre underlined ax they apeear Shoes havetwobasicelements - anurper ‘ands bottom In the conventional sen! ox ford the visible parts of the upper are the samp, garer i, anton, se shown In ‘The shoe bottom has three visible areas - te forepart, shaniy and topldt Before the heel is attiches, these are the Lorepart, shank, and beclaeat’ The dividing tine be {Ween the forepart and stank isthe all-in Oo ball break, where there is 4 more oF less Sbrapt change in the bottom profile. The Gtviding Line betucen the shank and heeleest fs th heel breast tina, the line of the font ofthe ee ‘Tnese terms also apply to the corn ondng areas on the bottom of the ast, the Engle, the outsole, and the bottom of the shoe before the avle ie attached." For exam United hasan Insole Heel seat Trimming Ma- chine, and a Heelseat Row Rounding Bf chineThe shoo, whon placedona fat surface, rests on the Laplt adn the forepart in the ball Une area. The forward end tthe shoe In above the fat surface by distance called the low steipg. This oe ebring tea feature Dail tno the last on which the shoe is made, nd ie intondod to pormit greator eace In Stalking” The sttier the sole, the greater Stvount of toe spring required. of indetinte area in the conventional shee, but in some cases a complete article tn i Slt, separate fom the vamp ("Open Shas thoes and some fypes of slippers). On the amp there is a throat where the fronts of the quarters Joint, and a "break" where it creases when flexed in walking: ‘The Speer ‘age of theiarter io called the top Ling nat the "upper edge" ‘That part of the shoe bottom which ex- tends beyond the shoe upper called the ex esionor gale edge extension The top id6 tt tsextenstos Is alled the upper ease ant 13 trequeatly decorated with indentations called wheeling or alitch separating, as do scribed later. ‘The junctionof the sole and wpper forms grease. In the Goodyear Welt thoo fll: trated, it is caled the well crease in te area forward of the Beet breast lie and th and croage around the heel Of tie Rouen Founding Machine the shoe is guided from the welt crease by a part called a eronse fide and the eel Trimming Machine 1s {ulded from the rand crease (nthe shoe upper there isa hackpart, ‘Tne outline ofthe insole, when it shows through the wper, 1s called the feather line of the inele.” A uniform feather line com. tributes greaily to the appeartnce of a fins ‘shea ae. B. Shoe Blemenis: ‘The Upper and Bottom ‘The shoe structure dvides naturally into {%o elaments. «the appar and the boom. ‘The shoe factory in ite thinking. and-on Hts cost sheet, uoually considers the pper a= {heprodvel that comes from the Fitting Room, nd the bottomas everything that in ded tO thereafter. This includes the shoe apper reinforcements of couner snd box tue wichre added during the lasting process, This ‘isoi.s mitral division, because ofthe f= erent type of material used in the wer, 3 compared with the baton. "The Upper is composed of upper leather and fabric, the bottom ie composed mainly of sole leather C. Upper Leather and Sole Leather A this point it might be well toctear up 4 few elementary points abou these materials fice they concitte such a large part of the average shoe ‘Toa tanger, “hide” means the akin of a large and mature animal and “skin nelers tothe smaller stork, sch as the skine of caleesup toa certain age, the skins of shee Tbs, goats and kids ‘Theater surface of hie ora, where the tair grew, is called the grain side and thetaner surface which nas nest tothe flesh Isealled the flesh se. For convenience in hunting during the tanning process, hides are split slong the backbone lato to "aides". ‘These ides ean be processed to makeeither "side" cf sale leather or a "side" upper leather (com: only called side leather) 1m the manufacture of sole leather the side is tanned In sor iainal state variable ihliness and comes ot sex aed Er me [At an early stage inthe manulactare of sie Teather, the ste ts spt lorgitinlly fi uniform distance from the grain sie by tenn of a bell aie spiting machine. This “grain split" is tamed by. liferont process thin that used for sole leather,” bwconsing & Hlexibe materia! of substaeally uniform ‘Tho “esi spit" ean then be pat through ‘either an upper leather of sate leather tt hing process. in either case it lacks the fuaily and uniformity af grain” leather Upper leather splits" are wed for hae tin= inge, and for shoe uppers un very to grade \work."""Spli ingoles are in common se, {nds considerable volume of splits are tant ned for luggage leather. Skins are made ito upper leather only, and tanned In heir fll size snd thickness ‘They are wewally too light to spit and are evened bya "shaving operation. ‘Tho leather trons by the original name, aif kins, sheep kins, kd eine, ate D. The Shoe Upper ‘The shoe upper Sa woually a structure consisting of am outside and @ lining The Soper is mace io suena variety of shapes ae materials that It greafly complicates any of the subsequent cperstions perform: {08 byour lastingandolestaching machines, For his reason, considering the entire wer 4 a show part, 1 should be understood why iis so varied as to shape, construction and ‘ny ig there @ shoe epper, and what rust it 40? 1 must nold te shoe bottom in place onthe A must be comfortable 1 shoul fit the foot, preferably with provie sion for nome dogren of adjustability. 1k shouldbe flexible and smooth inside 1 should aboorb foot perspiration and also “broathe", that is, permit the passage of smolet air from the inside of the shoe, 1 ahold be of a material that can be formed {tothe last shape, and that il matatatn that Shape in wear lt may be required to protect the foot above le sole feomatrt, heat, cold, molsture, m= pact, of abrasion It may be required to provide ankle support. 1K may be required to be very durable Ik-may be required to have an attractive 2p- Dearance whieh will be maintained durin Wear or which ean be restored easily by poling In the range of foctwear purposes prevl= ‘ously mentioned areaxamples of thege seven Fequlrements of the shoe par which wil ff both form aod imaerta he Sandal or Seu lathes sl or seul, the only function oftheupper ia to old the sole tothe foot. ‘Theze 2's0 fact protection or foot support abere the solo, neither Is there any particular em= ‘hasis on comfort, durability, or style. In Ns roughest form the upper may be ualied Figure 2 Sandals Women's Novelty Strap sites When the element of stgle is added to the {est simple requirement of holding the sole to the foot, dhe large Held of women's a= tlty shoos is exfored here the upper still fas that fonction with no though of fot pro- fection or suppor, no emphasis on derabslt= 1, ant ltle need for the comfort provisions of conventional shoes, This ia the ao-called “millinery end of the basinessy whore few of the established principles Tor forming an oper overs last apy. Figure 3 - Strap Siyles In these shoes there sno necessity to worry Shoat sbeorption or "breathing qualities af the woper material ven the popular sling Dumpatyle, theopen-toeandopen-heel shoe Ssually fae the outside and ning combined srth cement go that tte solalively impeevi ‘House Slippers In progressing from the skelatonized or open shoes, where uppers serve oni old the shoe Bottom tn pace, to foorrear where the Eoquirement of foot protection i added, the field of co-ealied closed shoes in reached: Figure 4- House tippers Pevhapsthe minimum amount of protections alforded by the large field hoeee slippers ‘which represents aver 10% of ll footwear that. “Here, protection from dirt ard ead Air ig wanted, with emphasis on comfort father than durability. Cansequratiy, te Ubpers are largely made (rom fot, fabrics Ape Tight leathers such a kid, sheep, and {foat, Box toes. arp. seldom vaed, but & Eounier is frequently soos more to aasiat in ‘holding the stipperon the fove than to aiford Protection. "On better grades, the vppers ‘maybe leaiber Lied to produce stout in ide surface and to facilitate slipping thems on and of Moceasing and Loafers Another style is the unlined mocessin orlosfer for indoor or ostdoor wear, Here ‘more pretoction against the elemoais ie a {orded'ty te ge of relatively heney leather, ‘Sometimes ll treated to repel malsture. On ‘many aljies no box toe, counter, oF Line I uaed, since appearance in wear is consid= fred uiimportant. Aa 2 Test, shoes 50 Constructed stretch eel an lose thelr orig iat shape and dimencions.~ I counler lo ‘sed, anelsome relnforcement inthe toe Dor= toa, the shee stays in shape loager- The Dart which constitutes the vamp center "at the tongue i eallod «plu PA FB “HUE HOCCAAN RUBBER SOLE) TRUE MOCCASIN Ss tomer "Ree evELEY Figure 5 - ‘Moccasins and Loaters Oxford ses ‘The next large group to consider isthe con- ventional low-ctt closed shoe for street and Gress wear.” In these shoes the requirement Isusualy adequate protection against the not smal dangers of every-aay wear, combined ‘ith emphasis on comfort, durability sd 89~ boaranee ‘The usual construction ofan Oxford upper in- cludes 2 leather outside, made up of several Diccos, a Teather qeartar iain, {abric samp linings aod dosbiers, a box te and 2 Comer. The upper leather used predon nantly calf or side lester, with some Kd Sind langarco, and some fabric, particulay Sa women's thoes ‘This general class of footwear, sn styles for ‘mer, Worenand juveniles, is bare larg ‘cot in volime, The wer construction is olatively standardized and will bo discussed {natal ile later, Figure 6 - Three Siies of Oxord ‘Hist Shoes When adaitional foot protection and ankle port are needed, there isthe so-called "Boot" patternmade in tre geneva classes: ‘cautaren'sané Infants’ shoes where ankle ‘support Le desired. Adult Dress Stes ‘Thirty oF forty years ago, over half of all mens and women shoos were made fn boot patterns. ‘The decrense in Doo larity may be doe to a combination of ‘things, suchasaulomobiles, paved roads short skirts, ete., with (éés need for Droteetion ad more emphasis on eis ‘The Work shoo Is ususlly made from heavy water-resistant leathers with ane Uined quarters anda fabric vanp lining (On these shoes, there is usally an oul Side backslay, bothtoprotect the sites lhe backsem a fo aasiat in holding Inhapo that part of the upper hich Is “ansupported bythe counter Oe Liem igure 7 = Four Types of High ShoesIn unlined shoes, not only boots but oxtord slighty oversize and ia atiichd tothe nase tthe quarters alter they have been close, 4e ita mame indiested, i formes pocket into ‘thich the counter ig ineerteg. A variation ‘inthis construction ig toedee.the back stay tthe bettom Loform anostsids counter pocket ‘or to stitch leather counter dinecty to te ‘outside of the quarter for masimum protec {tn against abrasion at this pot. Athletic Tn tisclass of boot patterns come the wens {or specialized sports, such as tasoball and Tootall, and aloo the sisting and sling boots ‘where heavy lining material le sed. Figure 8 - Taree Types of Athletic Shoes eyond these uppers of boot height come the "H“Cut" patterns, aiforeing acditional leg Protection for husiers, loggors, borseback Fidere, etc. The quarters on these shoes ‘ually are unlined. ‘Theis extreme length, ‘Fumingup to 10" regres special provision In'those machines which hold the ghee by sbindle engaeing the last spindle ole, eh 5 he Bed Lasting Machine, “Goodyear Sole Laying Machine, Atlomatic Leveier, et With the exception of riding tonte, some of the ticuty withthe extreme belgnt a pat tern is eliminated by turning the tops down like a cult while the shoes go throurh the lasting, bottoming, and inking department. ‘These shoos, when made in large quantities aro placodon opecially designed shoe racks, ‘When made in seal! ots, hey may be lid on their side onthe regular she racks "The tongues on high-out shoes are cut from Lighter leather than the outides, {requently ‘2 pllt {rom a simllar type of leather” When Inblene te aeartecn slong he sa, they are called gussets oF ea, ‘toy combat Coot hag tis Uda tng Wone AR COMET Figure 9 - Four Types of Hi-cuts ‘The foregoing gives a brief online of some othe forms that the oper of the shoe may take inorder toprovide what may be wanted it Fegard to style, comfort, protction, dara Biity, ete. shows the resson fr tho Taek of any degree of standardization ints part tthe shoo, and the dficalty in attesspting to define oF determine the ide tateria for shoe uppers or the ideal shoe upper construc tion, except as these may apply to some bor ton this very wie fel wvoneses 1B, Upner Fastentnes shoo upper hisherthana pani of loafer rattern, requires some provision for opening Ita 80 that the shoe ean be Dit on or taken ff easily. The ustal means are by Laces throtgh ayetote or hook oF Loops, strape SMHS, bball, ory gaeact elastic or reasons of comfort, i is destrable to haveadjastabilityintheve means at fasten: Ingo tat the shoe can be either tight or loose iting, cenaecommoeate ites tovary~ Ing weights of toeklags or socks, and can hnavemore latlade i iting various foot die ‘onconventional foctwear, foes or buck- les give an adequate amount of this ads bility. When a masimem amount is wanted, ‘ho so-called bicycle pattern ta used, which fs laced tothe too, and is commonly wacd it the skating oot Gores wore used originally sn the "Con sess" Doo, now nearly extinct Pull traps At thefrontand backand State coring a thesides enabled the boot to be pot on oF taken tit with ease. There has bean renewed tse Gf goring in the new popular loafer styles, iter as two side-gores oF several narrow inger" goren ‘or groster caso in fitting and * Figure 10 - Four Methods of Fastening Uppers Buttons, formerty sed toa considerable extent in oxforde and boota, are now found nly inone-buttonor two-bution strap styles, Lack of adjustability, Ume eoneuming ofort in thelr use, and more general see of low ut shoes ed to thelr disappearance tn the ‘sford and Boot elds Zipper fastenings, because oftheir Taek ‘of adjustability, have met with tele accept ‘nce in the footmene fl, Approximately 90% of all eselete are ‘made from aluminam, and 10% {vom brass ‘They are ased eltuer plain oF enameled in variety ofeolors. Inladingall the taterialy. iameters, lenge, shapes, and colors of eyelets avallaple, there is 2 total of some 2800 different stams used in the shoo trade Eyeletting Machines have tote designed with replaceable punches, sets, hoppers, ard ‘aceways inorder to handle the varity found sn any factory. he Outed ofthe Shoe ‘Tho outsides o te conventional types of lowccut shoes, consist of leather, and are ‘made up of several pleces, a2 previously Firat, wh is leather usedforthe outside? Upper leather has qualities which ro mmend ite boing wood in abst 30% of sl Shoo uppers. ie’ dit-proct, water repel- Teat material whieh is, however, sufficiently permeable to transmit Water vapor and Us Eecomforiale to wear. I is conformable to tho last shape, felnine itt shape in wear and 1s capable of maintaining its appearance trough the applestion of polish, he tna jority of upper leathers have high tensile and tear strength. Fabric material, sad on about 20% of shoe uppers possesses these qualities to a ‘much leseer degree, particularly in protec tion against diet and malsture Plastic wper materials are superior from the stanopoint of molature protection nd preservation of aurface appearance, bet fsyet lack permeabilty and presenteifiel- tices conforming to Une lat an malntaining {the conformed shape after the last s removed Second, why mate the outside from sev ‘eral pieces, Insteadof mouldingor cenforet~ {ng singe piece? It is possible to make the outside from ‘sine plece, abd it 1s being done in ch ‘iyles ag the seamless oxford or seamless: Dump. Thore are, howaver, af least three Feaoas why most shoe uppers are made from several pleces, Those reasons are a8 fellows: ‘Economy in Gating A skin of upper leather ha areas good and ‘oor quality and heavy and light welght, 25, ‘rel as scars and imperfection, which éaa~ ‘ot be used in the shoo part. in culling aa Uiper, the vampe are taken trom the best pet of the akin as they must stand up under Constant flexing in wear. ‘The tipe are ext along with them, even though they are sup- Dorted by the hex toe, 28 they are the most onsplevous part of the shoe,” The quarters (canbe cut with tho rear enda backed into a lighter and tose decirable part of the skin Decause, in the shoe, this part will be Leas {conspieous and willbe firmly backed wp by the counter.” Tongues, being largely eon, foaled, are algo out {rom inferior parla of the skin. A shoo upper pattern all in one place is wastefel in ite use of the skin and ‘ant be eut economically except when ised ‘with older smaller shoe patterns,