1. Group 15 elements of the periodic table are collectively, known as pnicogens. 2. The general electronic configuration of elements of group 15is ns mp’ 3. Gradation in atomic and physical pro a. Covalent radii: N< P= As © Sb= Bi b. Jonisation energy (IE): N» P>AS> Sb > Bi & Electronegativity (EN): N > P > As > Sb > Bi 4. Melting poinUK: N «P= Bi~ Sb~ As € Boiling poinUK: P< N «As «Bi Sb £ Density: N< P< As © Sb= Bi 4. Nitrogen exists asa diatomic inen gas wher in tetrahedra tetraatomie forms P,,As,, Sb, and are solids 5. Meuallic nature increases down the group. N PAs Sb Bi Wentiods s whereas others exist Nowa Met! 6. Due to inert pair effect, zroup 15 elements show variable tion states of -3, +3 and +5. Stability of +5 oxidation Mate decreases down the group. Nitrogen besides -3, +3 and +5 oxidation states, also shows 2, -1, 0, +1, #2 and #4 oxidation states in its oxides 7. Nitrogen shows maximum covalency of 4, whereas others pand their covaleney to 5 oF 6 due tothe presence of vacant d-onbitals in ther Valence shell 8. Only nitrogen is capable of forming pp multiple bonds with itselfand with carbon, oxygen etc. due to compatibility in size and high extent of overlap of orbitals. Phosphorous and other members do not form px-px multiple bond but are capable of forming px-dx bond. 9. Group 15 elements form hydrides of type, EH, Bond angle: NH, > PH, > AsH, > SbH, > Bill, ‘Acidic character: NH, < PH, < AsH, < SbH, < BiH, Reducing agent: NH, < PH, Planar 2pr-ps) multiple bonds gy ep Same SN at Noe N° - G = Plane SN=3bp-3 wo He EW Me chan rule & not applicable in ths 0=.—0-n=o o 8 24pe-px) multiple bond Acidic and diamagnetic 1» G~ Plana 24px-pr) multiple bond Bond angle — 1 re Acidic and diamagnetic SN= 3 bp = Ip eG one (ps-p) multiple bond Shape ~ Hes pected bod Le But obser at Acidic and diamagnetic 2 (pps) multiple bond The possible linear struct fhenad (28 —Naen: ta wo th ENS SN om the contrat N atuun in all struct wes = 2 Op. H = sp, Geometry =p-Block Group 16 Elements The Oxygen Family OVERVIEW W | 1. Group 16 elements are known as chalcogens, i.c. ore forming elements, 2. General electronic configuration: ns*np* 3. Oxygen is the most abundant element. Sulphur is the 16th most abundant element. The last member Po is radioactive. 4, Oxygen is a gas, while rest of the members are solids. 5. Oxygen is diatomic, while other exists as S,, Se,, Tey 6. Atomic radii: O < $< Se < Te < Po 7. lonisation enthalpy: 0 > S > Se > Te > Po 8, Electronegativity: 0 > S > Se > Te > Po 9, Electron gain enthalpy: O< S > Se~‘Te H,Te (269 K)> H,Se (232 K) > H,S (213 K) vii. Melting point: HO (273 K) > HTe (222 K)> H,Se (208 K)> H,S (188K) Melting point: H,0 (273 K) > NH(195.2 K) > HF (190 K) ix. Boiling point: H,O (373 K) > HF (293 K) > NH, (2385 K) S, Se Te and Po form oxides on burning in air of the type MO, €:8., 80>, SeO,, TeO, and PoO, i. Acidic strength: SO, > SeO, > TeO, > POO, 10. Metallic character: Increases with increase in atomic ii, Stability: SO, > SeO, > TeO, > PoO, number. S, Se and Te also form trioxides. The trioxides are acidic in Q $ Se Te Po nature, Acidic nature SO, > SeO; > Te; Noone Mafia Meta : paetananea — Se > Te > Po Catenating ability depends on E-E bond strength 18. S, Se and Te form hexafluorides of type MF. SF, is (where E = 0, S, Se, Te and Po) . Oxidation states: extremely inert, SeF. is slightly reactive while TeF, is hydrolysed by water into H,TeO,. Many tetrahalides are 0 s Se Te Po known, SF, is a gas, SeF, is a liquid while TeF, is a solid. 2-242, 2,42, -2, 42, 2, S, Se, Te and Po form tetrachlorides and bromides while Te 46 Sadie : and Po form tetraiodides HHH6 44,46 44,46 44,46 ‘Tendency to show -2 oxidation state decreases down the group. The compounds having +4 oxidation state show both, Oxidising and reducing properties while compounds having Alll elements except Se form stable dichlorides and dibromides. Dimeric monohalides as §,F,, $,Cl, and $,Br, are known. +6 oxidation states are only oxidising, 19. Only Sand Se form oxyhalides. They are called thionyl and 15. All elements form hydroxides of the type of HE, where selenyl halides. E=0,§, Se, Te and Po. ° SOF, SOCI, SOBr, SeOF, SeOCl, SeOBr, i. Covalent character: HO H,S> H,Se> H,Te 20. It occurs in the atmosphere to the extent of 21% by volume lll, Acidic nature: H,O > H,S > H,Se> H,Te ‘gases, noble metals and halogens. The binary compounds ofGTI Sage) = Vp SSN=2bp +2 po 4H =gp).G=TH. (Shape) = Vor Beat z £ soeu(ob g) sore(r-E4). 31 Renmei Eerontioseruaecuirnveniay Hydrogen sapien t cofsoe Haron pr Pease supe on ‘xcept on eae ope w wb neo no Geometry = TH | Perslpure edo Matas a2 5,0) (Daas OS =F 6) i AL, oni to 0-07} on ‘nap rec (6) Potions sei 5,0.) ° ° e wpe v0 Fer Ean: (a) Tih cid (ten = (0) Te 5. Pero ai sie: {0 Pemonooxo spre dor Cros ac (1S0,)p-Block Group 17 Elements The Halogen Family OVERVIEW » 1. Group 17 of the periodic table con: chlorine (CI), bromine (Br), iodine (1) and astatine (At). Collectively, these elements are also known as halogens (Greek: ‘halo’ meaning ‘salt’ and ‘genes’ meaning “born or ‘salt producer’). 2. General electronic configuration of halogens is nsnp°, ive. they are just short of one electron to attain the stable 12. Standard reductive potentials of halogens are positive and decrease from F to I. Thus halogens act as strong oxidising configuration of th 3. Duc to their high reactivity, halogens are never found in agents. free state, but in the combined state. Fluorine is known as next noble gas. 4. All halogens exist as diatomic molecules, X,. At room temperature, F, and Cl, are gases, Br, is liquid and I, is, solid. Weak van der Waals forces of attraction hold the producing O, and O,, diatomic molecules together, and as these force with molecular mass, nature of halogens changes from gas — liquid — solid ‘Atomic radii: F< C1< Br <1 Melting point: F, < Cly < Br, <1, iil. Boiling point: F, < Cl, < Br, <1, 6. Halogens have high ionisation enthalpies. lonisation 14 P= Pye enthalpy: F o* transition. i L Br 1 Yellowish green Greenish yellow Brownishred Violet 8. Electronegativity: F > Cl> Br>I Fluorine is the highest electronegative clement of the 9. Electron affinity: F Br> I F has less electron affinity than Cl due to high repulsion between the electron to be added and the electrons already present in F (due to small size of F). 10, Bond length: F, < C1, 6HF +0, and +6 oxidation states are also shown, Oxidising power: F, > Cl, > Bry >, ion does not show any reducing nature, but C1®, Br? and With water: Fluorine reacts with water even in dark, Cl, and Br, are fairly soluble in water and form chlorine ‘water and bromine water. I, does not dissolve in water. 1, is more soluble in KI solution than in pure water, duc to formation of polyhalide, 1,° ion. (On careful evaporation of Cl, water or Br, water, erystals solutions of 1, are violet in colour. of composition Cl,-8H,0 and Br,'8H,0 are formed. ‘non-metallic character decreases from F to 15. Aqueous solution |, is brown in colour while organic 7. All the halogens are coloured, due to absorption of some ‘wavelength of visible light by their molecules to cause 16. |, is used in medicine in the form of tincture of iodine (2-3% alcoholic solution of 1;) and iodex ointment (consists L of I, and methyl salicylate in a vaseline base). 17. NaBr and KBr are used as sedatives, With hydrogen, all the halogens form volatile covalent hydrides, HX. These hydrides are known as halogen acids or hydracids, HF is a liquid due to association of molecules through hydrogen bonding, i. Boiling point : HES HCI>HBr> HI i, Bond strength HF > HCI>HBr> HI ii, Bond dissociation enthalpy: HF > HCL > HBr > HI iv. Reducing nature HF HCL> HBr > HI1,2¢Triadde ton) nohweapeLosre ies sN=2bp+slp=5, Hew'd — G=Thp. Shape linear |1. Group 18 elements comprise helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (4s), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon (Rn). 2, Group 18 elements are also known as inert gases, rare gases, noble gases, zerovalent elements or acrogens. However, the names inert gases and rare gases are misnomers, 3 General electronic configuration of group 18 clements is 1st np®, except He, whose electronic configuration is 1s” 4, Argon is the most abundant noble gas, about 1% by volume inair.Itis nearly 30 times more abundant than CO, (0.03), In the universe, the order of abundance is He > Ne > Ar > Kr> Xe. 5. a. Ionisation enthalpy: He > Ne > Ar> Kr> Xe> Rn b. Melting point: Rn > Xe > Kr>Ar>Ne> He ling point: Rn > Xe > Kr > Ar > Ne> He 4. Ease of liquefaction: Xe > Kr> Ar > Ne> He 6. Helium can be diffused through rubber, glass or plastics. 7. Noble gases are monoatomic, colourless, odourless, tasteless, sparingly soluble in HO have low melting and boiling points due to weak van der Waals forces of attraction between the noble gas atoms. 5. True compounds of He, Ne and Ar are yet not discovered. 9. Mostof the compounds of noble gases involve only fluorine and oxygen. This is due to the fact that any chemical ‘eactivity shown by noble gases may be attributed to their tendency to lose electrons. For this reason, the combining, atoms must be highly electronegative such as F (EN = 4.0) and O (EN =3.5), "0. The only compound of Kr studied in detail is KrF, " Xeinits compounds exhibits even oxidation states from +2 to +8, Xe also shows an oxidation state of +8 in perxenates, [XeO,}*. Perxenates are strong oxidising agent and oxidises CC}, 1,0 —9 0, Mn?” —> MnO, 2and Co cae et 2 12 Clathrates: Noble gases form a number of combinati ‘which gases are trapped into the cavities of rys!: ions al p-Block Group 18 Elements The Inert Family 13, OVERVIEW 14. 16. 17. lattices of certain organic and inorganic compounds. These combinations are called cage compounds or clathrate compounds or enclosure. The crystal structure with cavities, is called the “Host” and the atom or molecule entrapped in it is called the *Guest’. These are non-stoichiometrie compounds, e.g., Xe-6H.,O, quinol clathrate, He and Ne do not form clathrate compounds as the size of the cavity is, more than the size of the He or Ne atom. Only He forms interstitial compounds with metals. Solution of XeF, in HF is conducting due to formation of ions, Discovery of noble gases: Helium Lockyer and Janssen Neon + Ramsay and Travers Argon Lord Rayleigh and Ramsay Krypton + Ramsay and Travers Xenon Ramsay and Travers Radon Dom On passing electric discharge through noble gases at low pressure (2 mmHg), the gas starts glowing with a characteristic colour. This phenomenon is used in glow signs also called neon signs. The colour also depends upon the pressure of the gas. Colour of Noble Pressure glow gas used of the gas Red Neon 10-18 mm | White Helium 3-4 mm [Light blue ‘Argon-Neon 1020mm ‘| mixture + Hg vapours The colour can also be modified by the use of coloured glass for the discharged tube. Neon is widely used in neon signs which are used for advertising purposes in the form of brilliant orange-red glow. This colour is changed by mixing argon and mercury vapours with neon to light blue. Since the light of neon signs has better penetrating power through fog and mist so these are used in beacon lights for safety of air navigations.nic Chemistry ‘Neon lamps are used in botnical gardens andthe green houses as these stimulates growth and are effective in the formation of chlorophyll 19. Argon is used for ereating inert atmosphere in chemical Feactions, welding and metallurgical operations and for filing in incandescent and fuorescent lamps. Iti also used in illing Geiger-Counter tubes and thermionic tubes, 20. Krypton-85 clathrate Provides aie Beradiations which are usefi for men gauges. se 21. Krypton and xenon are also Used j However, these gases are superie oy Ind xenon is abo costly. A mixture of krypton a flash tubes for high speed Photography. ae ticsandintey Tadioactive research ‘and therapeu etment of cancer and other mala eng