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    Foundations For Reciprocaiting Machines Irish Amp Walker

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    Eric Villenas

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Rell alae - ee mic) o & Sea et fa i De ee | Contents DEFINITIONS NOTATION AND UNITS PART | . INTRODUCTION Characteristics of machines . Modes of vibration . ‘The five-per-cent rule . oe Effects of vibration | ss ee Permissible amplitudes ‘Types of foundations... Factors affecting the choice of foundations Ground conditions Mass-ratio method of design Design procedure 7 ‘Amplitudes at resonance» PART Il. RAFT FOUNDATIONS Elastic properties of the soil. Elastic modulus changing with depth Soil parameters Effect of distribution of pressure below the base Soil participation. Calculation of natural frequencies - Damping constants Allowable bearing pressure Inacouracies indesign =. PART Ill. PILE FOUNDATIONS Load tests Calculation of frequencies Design charts Design scher End-bearing piles: Calculation of natural icequoncis Friction piles : : Soll participation 5 Inaccuracies in design 2 Low-tuned foundations 5 0. Page xxii “CONCRETE SERIES’ BOOKS ON CONCRETE Alist of other “Concrete Serie’ books on the design and. construction of reinforced and prestressed concrte structures, precast concrete, comont manufacture and testing, structural analysis, foundations, ote, is given on the page facing page 96, Fist Published 1969 Pintod in Groat Britain by Butler and Tanner Ltd, Frome and London im in this book is to bring together some of the theories which the design of foundations supporting reciprocating machines ‘and similar plant. Its intended primarily for those engineers concerned with the design of such foundations, but it may also be of use to engineers and students engaged on research into the effects of vibration. ‘The subject matter fs purely a summary and simplification of the many complex mathematical formulze and empirical rules which are necessary to achieve a satisfactory design, and its primary aim is to give a concise practical solution to the design of foundations for reciprocating machines. In an endeavour to present the data in its simplest form, the authors have ‘omitted all mathematical proofs and have presented as much of the informa tion as possible in graphical form. The limitations of the various methods of ‘analysis for each different type of foundation are clearly indicated and itis ‘sincerely hoped that they will be rigidly adhered to, If, in observing these limitations, the amplitudes of vibration prove impossible to predict, then the design should only be undertaken by an expert in this very specialized field ‘of foundation engineering, Block or raft foundations and piled foundations are dealt with. It is noteworthy that the increasing demand in recent years for land for heavy industrial development in the U.K. and elsewhere has, of necessity, caused the more widespread use of estuarine and reclaimed land, particularly because the types of plant usually associated with this type of machine, namely, oi refineries and the like, are better situated at or near the mouth of a river in ‘order to reduce the cost of overland transport of the raw materials imported ‘and the finished product exported. Because of this, many foundations for reciprocating machines are installed on piled foundations and their design hhas, up to the present, not only been purely empirical but in many cases the bases have been designed by rule-of-thumb. There is an urgent need for further research into this aspect of vibration before a more rational approach 10 the design of piled foundations can be adopted. It is the authors’ hope that this book will tend to stimulate further interest and that the reader will te-appraise each chapter in the light of any new informa- tion which may become available in the future. With this end in iow, the authors feel it is extremely desirable that the book should irat bo read in ita ontiroty and fully underatood bofore any deal problems be attempted. Parts should not be taken out at random and used indiscriminately, as, in this particular field, what may ke valid in one application may be invalid in another. KA WPW. 1968 Acknowledgement In the period during which the major part of the work on this book was in hand, the authors were employed by The Power Gas Corporation Ltd, and are extremely grateful for the help and assistance given by that organization in the preparation of this publication, ‘The authors would also like to express thelr sincere thanks to Dr B. O. Skipp, MrD. B. O'Neill and Mr H. H. Gooch for their most veluable assistance; ‘also to Mr Chas. E. Reynolds, Managing Editor of Concrete Publications Ltd, {or technical assistance in preparing this book for publication. Contents (continued) PART IV . DESIGN EXAMPLES Example |. Raft foundation: Pounds-foot units Motric units ile foundation: Pounds-feet units Metric units u IL, Raft foundation: IV. Raft foundation: V. Pit foundation: PART V_. MASSIVE FOUNDATIONS FOR CENTRIFUGAL MACHINES Design Out-of-balance forces ‘Alternative method of calculating vertical mode of vibration « Low-tuned foundations ae different modes of vibration 2 Geometteal properties of foundations 3.-Bibliography ILLUSTRATIONS 1 86 47 st 56 61 63. 65 74 9 at at 87 st 95 98 DESIGN CHARTS General Page Chart A Limiting amplitudes bo4o oe ok 8 Froquencies and weight/force ratios - : 8 2 ymuinte magnifier, frequency ratio and damping constant. 10 Raft foundations chat DVauesofkandks 6 eB E Correction factors. + 5 6 2 risovmecanineme 9 ee: 24 G Vertical frequency oo p25 H Horizontal frequency. Dol. wT T Rocking frequency | tt 8 J Torsional frequency 556 oo 2 K Damping constants. Boa GG 30 Pile foundations Chatt L Vertical frequency : 38 M Horizontal frequency 5g 40 NN Rocking frequency . a 0 Torsional frequency» + Dae Centrifugal machines Chart P Out-of-balance eccentricities _ : Q Out-of-balance forces : R. Ratio of weight to out-of- balance forces § Dynamic magnifier 2ess Combined modes of vibration Chart T Values of we 86 UValuesoffs 9. Dol. 88 TABLES General Points for various ground conditions ‘Table 1 Frequencies and amplitudes Raft foundations Table 2 Soil data 3 Soil parameters and characteristics 4 Frequencies Pile foundations Table 5 Frequencies 6 Pro-design table - 7 Elastic displacement 8 Factors v Page 12 18 24 £ESe Definitions ‘Throughout this book various terms will be used with which the reader may be unfamiliar and itis therefore necessary to understand their exact meaning, Vibration Vibration is a continuing state of oscillation which occurs at repeated constant intervals or periods, that is ata regular frequency. “A.cycle deseribes one complete oscillation, that is one complete pattern of ‘vibration amplitude described in each cycle. Frequency. —Frequency (fx, fo fa and fy) is the number of eycles repeated in unit time, and is stated in cycles per minute'(e.p.m). Amplitude —Arplitude of vibration (Ap, dy Ag and Ag) describes the maximum extent of the movement produced, that is to say the maximum displacement from the position of rest; see Figure 1a on facing page. This movement is often pre~ Nusieally Imperial units (ch-lb. units) but, where convenient or appropriate, the futvalaot metric uots (Metre-kilogramme units) are also given. Apart from nos- eERona factors, uch uaits as time, angular measure, etc, are the same in the Tperial system as in the metric system. ~ FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES Horizontal Vertical Horizontal, igue 2. Modes of vibration Part I Introduction “Wir the wealth of knowledge readily available regarding the reaction of @ foundation to static loading, the engineer is usually well capable of designing an ceonomical and safe foundation. However, with a base of a machine which is to be subjected to dynamic forces and moments, the problems are greatly magnified, ‘The amount of design information available is relatively small and foundation failures can tend to be spectacular as well as dangerous. Uneven settlement due ‘o vibrations can fracture pipes which may be carrying highly toxic or inflammatle tases at very high pressures. Information, sometimes seemingly unconnected, can be obtained from many sources but the problem is knowing where to look and exactly what to look for. Characteristics of machines Out-of balance forces are characteristic of most reciprocating machines, and even rmult-cylinder machines are often imperfectly balanced. This feature of muli- Cylinder machines is usually dictated by the necessity to minimize the cost of a particular item of equipment. ‘Vibrations caused by out-of-balance forces can be estimated if the character- istics of the machine, foundation and the supporting medium are known. The characteristics ofthe latter two factors are dealt with in some detail later, but the ‘machine data can only be obtained from the machine manufacturer, sometimes ‘with some difficulty. The information required from them in order to effect a satisfactory design is Weight of the machine and ancillary equipment. Speed of the machine. Position of the centre of gravity inthe three major planes. ‘Out-of-balance foroes and moments at primary and secondary speeds. Line of action of the out-of-balance forces. ‘Type of machine. Inertia of compressor and motor inthe three major planes. Modes of vibration ‘A foundation is usually considered to have six degrees of fredom, that isto say, it may vibrate in the vertical and horizontal planes and, in addition, it may twist in plan of rotate about its major or minor axis. These modes of vibration are as , shown in Figure 2on the facing page. For design purposes, it is usually considered satisfactory to treat each of these modes of vibration separately, with the exception of the rocking and horizontal modes of a which, except for very wide or narrow foundations, tend to FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES era © ston o cact | Bee no © Figure 3. Types of foundations INTRODUCTION 3 combine, The analysis necessary for assessing the effect of this combination of sorvement is dealt with in detail in Appendix 1. The foundation will of course, obly rotate due to the presence of an out-of-balance force. For example, with a horizoa- Uully opposed twvo-cyinder compressor with crank angles of 180, the primary Jodzomal forces counteract each other but, due to the fine of action of the two forces, produce a couple which tends to twist the foundation in plan, With this type Aercnachine, therefore, the analysis is usually concerned solely with the torsion#l ode of vibration. Vere the line of action of any out-of-balance force does not pass through the centre of gravity ofthe combined mass of the foundation and machin, the foundation block will tend to rotate due to the moment caused by that force, “Moments caused by vertical out-of-balance forces are often negligible whereas those caused by horizontal out-of-balance forces invariably have a significant effect fon the amplitude of vibration. This is because movements caused by horizontal __ Forces tend to rock the foundation about the axis with the least resistance to rotatic, that is, the ars parallel to the centre-line ofthe machine. On the other hand, vertical | forees causing moments due to the eccentricity of thei line of action usually rock {the foundation about the axis with the greatest resistance to rotation, that is the fxis perpendicular to the centre-line of the machine. Despite this, however, i is always advisable to investigate the effects of all the out-of-balance forces and ‘moments. | The five-per-cent rule It should also be noted that the natural frequencies and amplitudes of the founda- tion obtained by using the formule ia this book are only correct when the distance fof the combined centre of gravity of the foundation and machine from the centre of area in contact with the soil, or the centre of area of a pile-group, is less than 5% of the corresponding dimension of the foundation. This should always be checked before the commencement of a more detailed analysis. Effects of vibration “The effets of vibration can be many and varied. They can affect the running of the machine, the safety and stability of foundations and buildings as well as proving a hazard to the health and wel-being of operating personnel. Obviously the natare and extent of the vibration plays a significant roll and some indication of the effects ‘of vibration are emphasized in papers by Reiher & Meister (1931) and Rathbone (1939). Tn the latter is shown the effects of various amplitudes of vibration at ‘various frequencies on the performance of machines and for any known ampli- tude the performance of the machine can easily be predicted. Reiher & Meister show the effects of vibration on operating personnel. There are several payers concerned with these effects as well as the elfects on foundations and buildings; ‘these were summarized in a paper by R. J. Stefens (1965). ‘An example ofthe effects of vibration as a health hazard is the sensation of ea sickness caused by low-frequency vibration. Illness caused by low-frequency vibration is not normally dangerous, but high-frequency vibration, present a5, cither movement or noise, can have extremely painful effets. These may range 4 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES Allowable vertical vibration [+o ‘amplitude for a particular frequency of vibration Ee ed & E een : 2 7 aoe > 3 ry : i i 00g Fo) woo” 600 tooo e03—1000 Frequency (Cycles /min) Came A Lindi apts ‘nis. Ts Chat can'be woe for problems in the inch nit: metre unit n INTRODUCTION 5 from a feeling of mild sickness, through nausea, to a state of collapse. Certain high- frequency vibrations can have harmful effects even though they may be beyond the Tange of human perception. Where vibrations are excessive, operating staf often Suffer from headache and migraine and, although these can. obviously be caused by other factors, those which arc the result of vibration can be éured by removing the person from the source of the vibration. ° permissible amplitudes Due to the many adverse effects of vibration itis advisable to estimate the ampli tudes of forced vibration at the design stage to ensure that they will be below fcoeptable limits, Although much has been published regarding the effects of | Mbration, very little has been published on the subject of permissible amplitudes ‘offorced vibration. Chart A shows suggested maximum permissible amplitudes for the vertical mode of vibration at both the operating speed of the machine and at resonance. For the horizontal amplitudes of vibration, these limits would be rather Conservative and at operating speeds an amplitude of double the amount indicated by the lower line of Chart A may be allowed. However, they ean still provide « ‘useful basis for design purposes. “The allowable amplitudes indicated are by no means the maximum which can bbe tolerated, they have been chosen to ensure the smooth running of the machine during run-up and at operating speed. Types of foundations Foundations for reciprocating machines can take many forms, depending upon the characteristics of the supporting media, the machine and the working environment. ‘Some of the principal types are Foundations resting directly on the soil (referred to in this book as raft founda- tions). Foundations supported by friction piles or end-bearing piles. Inertia blocks resting on springs or on an clastic bedding material; these types ‘are outside the scope of this book and, in fact, have not been comprehensively dealt with collectively in any publication to date. Some typical block and piled foundations are illustrated in Figure 3 on page? ‘and some illustrations of actual machine foundations aze given in PART 1V. Factors affecting the choice of foundation In the design of foundations supporting static loads, the initial step in the design is to select the most suitable type of foundation, and the design of foundations supporting dynamic loade is approached in a similar manner. ‘There are many factors, apart from economics, which must be considered before deciding on the {ype of foundation, some of which are as follows. The type of soll.—This is dealt with later in this PART and in much greater detail in PART Th. j Settlements. Consideration must be given to the settlement of raft foundations sino 6 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES. Tabulation of Points for Various Ground Conditions For notes see facing page. If water is above the underside of the base IfZis less than B (see Fig. 32)” IEZis between Band 2B If Zis between 2B and 3B Rigid stratum Ie the rig stratum is within 38 ofthe base andisewel = Ditto but uneven. a. Applied ground pressure Ifthe applied pressure on the soil will exceed 50% of the safe bearing pressure {Tehe applied pressure wil be between 40% and 50% ofthe safe bear- ing pressure: If the applied pressure will be between 30% ‘and 40% of the safe bear ing pressure. : ‘Sandy soit High relative density ‘Medium relative density @ Equipment or buildings within 150 f (0m), with deep foundations supported directly by the soil i) Ditto with shallow foundations supported (i) Dito within 600.200 m.) with deep foundations supported directly by the soil (») Where all surrounding buildings are supported on ples. Low selative density ‘As (@) in the foregoing. ‘As Gi, (i) of Gv) in the foregoing uniform settlement can be predicted XE uniform stement can te predited over 4 in mm) Ditto under $ in. (6 mm.) . : If negligible settlement can be predicted Ground-water, Points INTRODUCTION 1 settlements under foundations subjected to vibration can be much greater than those seilty an equivalent static load, Uneven or excessive settlement can fracture pipes aittn may be carrying highly toxic or inflammable gases at high pressures. ippied ground pressure This is dealt within greater detail atthe end of PART Ut aoeence of ground-water. This can play an extremely significant part in the design 2 foundations for vibrating machines, particularly with a foundation which is to Se supported on granular soil. The effects of vibration on saturated granular soi __. ERNE known and are employed in the technique of ‘vibro-otation” which is {Widely used for the compaction of granular soils. |) Prosinty of buildings. Closely inked with the presence of ground-water, this factor ein also have a notable effect on the choice of foundation. As ground-water can ‘> transmit vibrations undamped for considerable distances, the proximity of adjaceat 1 Suiluings assumes some significance, particularly if ther foundations are supported ‘on granular soil, a any vibrations can produce settlements in excess of those which seid result from purely static loading. This may happen with no ill effect to the f> Jnachine foundation but with undesirable effects on adjacent buildings. In the Tbsence of ground-water, the proximity of adjacent buildings assummes less signif fhnce as vibrations tend to damp out fairly quickly, depending on the natural damping properties of the soil. Presence of a rigid stratum (rock). The degree of damping which can be expected ‘beneath a foundation is considerably affected by the presence of any rigid stratum “which lies within a depth of less than three times the breadth of the foundation below the base contact area. 5, When a foundations to be installed, all factors which are relevant to the parti Jar ease must be considered before choosing the type of foundation. Once again, ‘due to economics, i referable to install a raft foundation rather than fone supported on ples, but this is not always possible, , Ground conditions In order to obtain some indication ofthe type of foundation to provie, the fol ing matters should be considered and, with great caution, the numerical points , «indicated on facing page should be allocated. (Ein summating the numerical values atributed to each of those factors applic- {L<-able'to the problem in question, the total exceeds 10, a piled foundation is indicated. If the total is 5 of less, a raft foundation is indicated. If the total is 6 to 10, the choice isnot straightforward and other factors would need tobe taken into account. "This method of selection is intended only as a guide; if, after selection and tailed analysis it is found that the amplitudes of vibration are stil excessive and prove difficult or uneconomical to reduce, then a reappraisal should be made, | | Mass-ratio method of design Many engineers adopt an extremely simple approsch to the design of machine foundations, which i to install a foundation whose weight is 5 times the weight of the machine to be located on it. This is an extremely illadvised practice on t40 | counts: it is uneconomical in the majority of eases and, unless the machine to be FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES Q| g 35077 — gle ‘E] 3300 Eg/8 33\5: Say 83] 8 200 ° 2 < I 10 aS 50) | ol2345678 9 0 Frequency x 100 (Quart B, Froquencies and weight/force ratios This chart is oor-dimensional. ‘Dyzamic magnicr assumed tobe 5, that is, the damping constant ~ 01. INTRODUCTION ’ installed is perfectly balanced, it will not guarantee that the amplitude of vibration will be acceptable. “There i, in fact, only one mass-ratio method which is guaranteed to work and that isto provide a foundation with suficient mass to ensure acceptable amplitudes of vibration, even if the foundation system is in a resonant condition with the machine. ‘Chart B shows the ratio of total weight of foundation and machine to the out- , oF balance vertical foree for various operating speeds, which Would be necessary to { guarantee acceptable amplitudes of vibration in the vertical mode. UIP yean be seen from Chart B that this method can be extremely uneconomical because the assumption has been made that the foundation and machine are in [othe chanes of hitting resonance ae extremely low, particularly for low-speed ©. jpachines, this approach to the design of machine foundations is most unsais- factory a the foundation is being designed anticipating a worst condition which, in the majority of cases, would not exist. There is, however, a noticeable exception to this; that is where a foundation is to be installed to ‘support a large multi cylinder horizontal machine with small out-of-balance forces. These can sometimes ‘be designed, depending on the magnitude ofthe out-of-balance forces, by using this approach. The reason why this method becomes economical for large machines is tha, having sled the Base area to be of sulin! ize fo pick up onder sup ports, coolers and ancillary equipment, even a slab of nominal depth will provi ‘2 mass which is more than sufficient to limit the amplitudes of vibration, even in the event of the foundation and machine being in a resonant condition. As the out-of balance forces get larger, however, the method rapidly becomes ‘uneconomical and a more positive approach must be made. In this event the design would be carried out as shown later in this PART and in PARTS 11 and 11. ‘Chart B is based on a damping constant of O-1 which isthe minimum that can bbe expected in practi For a piled foundation, Chart B can be used direct. It will be found that, where such a horizontal multi-cylinder machine has out-of-balance forces greater thar + 2 to 3 tons, this type of design would be unrealistic. For a raft foundation supporting such a machine, however, Chart B would be + extremely conservative asthe damping constant could be as high as 0% depending ‘on several factors including the size of the base. The easiest approach is to estimate * the damping constant as described in Pan 11 and, referring to Chart C (See page 10), obtain a value for the dynamic magnifier. As can be seen from Chart C, the {dynamic magnifier corresponding to a damping constant of 0-1 is 5; thus the mass ratio required to limit the amplitude of vibration is new dynamic magnifier ' 3 ‘This means that, depending on the size of the foundation, bases for horizontal i i { | iS (mass ratio indicated on Chart B). ‘multi-cylinder machines with out-of-balance forces in excess of 2 tons can be economically designed in this manner. 10 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES 5 T es T, _ Constant = 0 , = 5 23 ; I< \ £ ‘ \ ee 02 a 03) goes \ | os 1 a -—~Lo — S os 10 15 24 o = Exciting frequency Frequency rati Natural frequency ‘Chart C. Dynami magnifier, Srequency rao and damping constant. INTRODUCTION " Design procedure “There are several approaches to the design of foundations for reciprocating machines, the most common being to establish values for the stiffness of the race for each ofthe various modes of vibration and, by using thee values, foarte the natural frequencies and amplitudes of vibration rea anculae method of analysis has been adopted in this book, principally scans Pais undoubtedly the simplest and is ao probably the quickest to apply. To determine the stiffness, for raft foundations an estimate must first be made of ane Ste properties of the soil ad, for pled foundation, the elastic properties aa een their working environment. Additionally, for both types of founda- Sei Pacecesay to obian an approximate vale of the amount of soil which will vetiepate nth vibration By otng these elastic properties, the shes of the pacts Pipa can be established foreach mode of vibration and, having obiained the torre sec the natural frequencies can be calculated from the folowing general expressions. oe Saenee 2BaN “Mass for the horizontal and vertical modes of vibration, where stiffness od Yon iesuling detection Frequency - (ta) within the elastic limit, or _ Siifiness Thertia 1g modes of vibration, where the stiffness is ___applied moment ‘esuliing angular displacement (0s) o Frequency = 5°, for the torsional and roc ‘within the elastic limit, "Wherever possible raft and piled foundations should be designed suck that the natural frequencies ofthe foundation difer from the exciting frequency by atleast 507%, “The calculation of the natural frequencies and the estimating of the amount of soil participating in the vibration for the two types of foundation are deat with in detail in PanTS1Land 111. Once these values have been established the remainder of the analysis i identical Having obtained the natural frequencies ofthe foundation block for the various modes of vibration the corresponding squares of the limit frequencies can be Caleulated by using the formule (2a) to (2d) inclusive from section A of Table Ts See page 12. These values and the out-of balance foroes and moments ere used to calculate the amplitudes of forced vibration at the operating speed of the machine. Formule (3a) to (3d) from Section B of Table I are used for this purpose, It should ‘be noted that where a value has been established of the amount of soil-participating ‘mass or inertia, the total mass should be substituted in formule (3a) and,(38) and the total inertia in formule (3c) and (34). Note also thet formule (3a) and (34) are aly apple when the narra frequency fers rom the xen Eoqueney by 2 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES 3 = 5] rector E |romia lusts | na (Vertical timit frequency)? — [% ery frad per sec} (6) (Horizoatot limit frequency)* | 2% @y per sec] A (Rocking tint frequency)? |aty | (2G) fod per sec @) Corsional tnt frequency? ty | (BEY fad per ech 2a) Vertical amplitude Ay fi 5 [im (om) Horizont amplitude |x| Be fin (om 4 |b gga) | (mm) Peng omintet Jag] AB fom |) Torsional dmpttuce — ap} —Me “leat ¥| 5 a" % Forvertical vibrations |Agr-F/mie, [in (mm) Forhotizontl vibrations} Ast=Fix/m™% jin (mm) c BF fain vain AsreMeizNy rations, | (40) 4 Forosting vations AsteMyz/2X% |radions £ ‘Table 1, Frequencies and amplitudes {The horizontal and rocking modes of vibration tend to combine. the breadth ofthe foundation {less than 3h or greater than #2, the amplitudes of vibration should be calculated as shown in ‘Appendix 1. Units. Terms in se and radians apply to both systems of units, so long asthe units foreach of ‘imei fas a cae formu ae cotet “Amplitudes are in inches if FF, and me ae in pound-nck wits. “Amplitades ae in millimetres if Fe, Fad me ae in ilagramne-milietre units. | INTRODUCTION B ‘The term M,, in formule (3c) and (Ad) s the total applied vertical moment; this value must include any moment set up by eccentricities of dynamic forces. Amplitudes at resonance “Where foundations are designed as low tuned, that is, where the natural frequency ‘the foundation is numerically smaller than the operating frequency ofthe machine {tis supporting, the amplitudes of vibration during run-up should be checked in Drder to ensure that excessive amplitudes do not occur. Ifthe out-of-balance feree SSeonstant, the maximum amplitude will ocear ata frequency which is numerically ‘equal to the natural frequency of the foundation. Where the out-of-balance ferce srries with the square of the speed of the machine, however, the maximum ampli- tude will occur at a frequency somewhere between the natural frequency of the foundation and the operating speed of the machine. Reciprocating engines usually fit into the latter category, whereas reciprocating compressors can, depending on the machine design, fit into either. ‘The only safe way to establish to which category a particular machine belongs is to obtain from the machine manufacturers a chart or graph showing the out-of balance forces and moments during the running up of the machine. ‘Where it has been established, or has been assumed, that the out-of-balance forces ‘and moments are constant the maximum amplitude which, as already pointed out, ‘Socurs when the machine speed coincides with the natural frequency of the founda tion, can be determined a8 follows. “Having established the natural frequencies of the foundation and values for the damping constant D from PART I, itcan be seen from Chart C that at resonsnce (frequency ratio = 1) a value can be obtained for the dynamic magailier 9. ‘Knowing the out-of-balance force, the natural frequency of the foundation (whichis, of course, the exciting frequency of the machine) and the value of the dynamic magnifier, the amplitude at resonance can be calculated fromthe expression amplitude = n4v where Ay values for the various modes of vibration can be obtained from the Formule (4a) to (Ad) inclusive in Section C of Table 1 on page 12. ‘Where the out-of-balance force varies with the speed of the machine, the ampli- tude at resonance should be calculated as outlined in PART V. t Part I , Raft Foundations Le TworbER to determine the natural frequencies ofa foundation which rests directly + on the soil itis first necessary to obtain a reasonable estimate of the elastic pro- es of that particular soil. » Pelee properties are used fo calculate the required soil parameters from which, knowing the geometrical properties of the foundation, the natural frequencies can ' pe determined, The calculation of the geometrical properties of foundations is considered in Appendix 2, Elastic properties of the soil In addition to the soil information normally required in order to design large foundations, the following datas also required when atempting to design a bie .which will be subjected to some form of dynamic loading: (@ The dynamic elastic modulus of the soil, and Gi) Poisson's ratio for the soil. Values of E and Poisson's ratio are given in Table 2 on page 16, Tt can be seen from formule (5a) to (5d) in Table 3 that the value of the elastic modulus E can affect the design considerably whilst the value of Poisson’s ratio plays a much less significant part in the design. Various methods have been suggested for obtaining sufficiently accurate values for the dynamic modulus of elasticity, the one most commonly used being the geophysical method of the propagation of waves through soil. Approximate values of E ate 00001 Vw Ib. per sq. in (0-00007 Vw kg, per sq. cm.) for clay or silt, or (0000135 Vw Ib. per sq. in. (0:000095 V2w kg. per sq. om.) for sand. In these two evaluations, the value for Poisson's ratio has been assumed as 035 for sand and 0 for sit and clay, and Vis the velocity of propagation inf. per s<. (. per sec.) and w is the density of the soil in Ib. per cu. (kg. per eu. m.). ‘This method of obtaining a value for the dynamic modulus of the soil, tile being quite accurate, can be fairly expensive and should only be undertaken by a0 engineer experienced in this kind of work; consequently its often considered im- practical. Another method which has been fairly successful has been the use of triaxial ‘tests using repeat static loading. The triaxial sample is first subjected to an intial load equal to the anticipated static working load. Positive and negative values of a small increment of load are thea applied to the sample and a graph plotted of stress | 16 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES, SO PROPERTIES Dypamic E value [Poss rao iehain| tghaem | Sound granite 45108-3x 10° | 32 co 58x15] 0.15 to 024 Parly-decomposed granite} -0t02 0xi0¢ 107 co M4x105 O15 to [Xmestone 30107-0108 |2-1 104-9105 | 0:16 10023 \ Sandstone 20104 0x10" Jo 1028310 0x7 Fredonirany dayng ste |Upto55000 |Upco 3900 [0-4 Predominant sandy ots {15002060000 | 190e4,200 fo.as — ‘Table 2 So data Vales of E for sand with gravel can be even higher Weathered sandstones and arglaceous rocks could have lower vales than RAFT FOUNDATIONS a Axial seress Stacie working stress ‘Real sain Figure 4. Record of soll test 8 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES. Factor Formule Unit [section] 3 Unitorm 6 Kee, ‘compression EUR 1. ger cui] Compression | CP KpCz/kz} b- fer cu.in Soil coefficients niform displacement eel ger cai Cy= 1SCx |b. per ex.in| Gisplocement Fer translation | b = m/oR* participation For rocking | 6 = J/pR* [Dimensionless fortorsion | b= Je/pa? [oimensoness|(6c © © © © © © Vatves of ke 05 [1-0 [1-5 [2-0]3-0]s-o]10.0| [out [reece [rot [i oa [nos [ins [nas 2 [O-2los9 lorselosaaleasloo7s| 05 [1-17 2 |0°3]os2do-ecelo-salo-e7 lovosloes [1-04 Data g ot jo [O-dlocnaalnree|or7 [nealesncelinns [oes [0-5 ]o37 leroio-aalo-seslo70 lo-rsdlo-v Numerical ‘Table 3, Sol parameters and characterises For the purpose of calculating £ andy, isthe lath fthefoundation measured perpes- cite Speers ormota nr meesey pea than B.For word ios, thet sy elclating fe, considered fo bethelongest engin of sie ‘Uni Sol ebecents ate iB. per xt i and ares pouninch as, Sol cote ar n per ent f Band 4 eh ilgramme-continetre units RAFT FOUNDATIONS » against strain as shown in Figure 4 on page 17. An approximate value of Bis given : change in unit stress shad ‘ange in unit deformation tat isthe lope ofthe line -a. Readings aretaken as quickly as posible in order to eliminate the ellects of creep, and with a litle practice increments of load enn ‘Be applied snd the resultant dit-gauge readings taken at intervals of as ite as 15, Ssconts. The ine aa is superimposed on the curves when the additional axial $Srsn per ejele becomes uniform or so nearly niform as tobe virtually indistin- juisbable. This condition usualy occurs after 6 1010 cycles of loading. "This isa usefl and inexpensive method of obtainingan approximate value for. “The confining pressure used in the triaxial tet shouldbe as har as posible to the Working conditions. This i Because the dynamic modulus for a gen sol vanes pproxinately withthe third power ofthe confiaing pressure. Tests earied out tpi chen (1948) and Hardin and Richart (1963) on sand indicated that valves of IB obtained by using this method were reasonably accurate When compared with known values ofthe dynamic modulus of elasticity. The erors in the valves of for cobesoniss soils determined in this manner is probably not greater than 157. Cohesive sols have been investigated by Wilson and Deitich (1960) and, from the results obtained, the average error WoUld appear to be about 18%, TTowever, ishuld be pointed ou that one or wo ofthe tts shoved rors of up 4 ‘These orders of erorfor both cohesive and non-cobesive sols may seem faily hgh tht, when the range of yalues shown in Table 2 on page 16 are studied it scon becomes apparent that, Knoving the value of E even as accurately as his, can kad to considerable saving in material costs. ‘Where values of have been obtained in tis manner values for Poisson's aio smay be taken ftom Table? in order to calculate the necessary sil parameter. Th some excumstancs, i i nol necessary to carry out special soil ets. For cxample, where bracketing calculations based on the fll ange of values of F for & given sol indicate zat excesive amplitudes cannot occur it would of eourse be {economical to do any special tests, Bracketing calculations can be based on the ‘ales given in Tobe 2. It should be pointed outa this stage that, if values forthe elastic propertics of the soil are to be anything more than gues, the sil investigation must be pans- ing and relatively expensive. As foundations ofthese types are very costly and nce the cost of rectifying foundation furs can be extremely high, ts strongly recommended that, if preliminary calculations or bracketing calculations indicate tata vibration problem might exis, chen a more elaborate investigation should be instigated before the final design i carried out. Elastic modulus changing with depth ‘The theories used foF the design of raft foundations assumes a soil whose elestic ‘properties are uniform for a depth of at least three times the breadth ofthe founda tion. This condition is seldom, if ever, met with in practice as, even if a site has a uniform soil for this depth, the value of the dynamic modulus varies with the depth due mainly to the increase of the confining pressure with the increase in depth. 20 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES @ Section] Section3|Section2 » RAFT FOUNDATIONS a ‘An average value for E should be taken for use in the soil parameter formule in Table 3 and, in estimating the confining pressure, the applied pressure should not be overlooked. ‘Where the soil is not uniform but in layers of various types of soil, a weighted average value for E should be used to calculate the required soil parameters. Con- sidering the example shown in Figure 5 on page 20, the Weighted average value of ay etalon se 2 Te Eve for ech 8 GO om) hye inser | ‘counted three times, in Section 2 it is counted twice, and in Section 3 itis counted ‘This method should only be used when the values of the dynamic modulus for the various soils is of the same order of magnitude. If E should differ widely then ‘a more elaborate method of obtaining the elastic properties of the soil must be resorted to. In order to calculate the soil parameters, and hence the natural frequencies of the foundation, itis usually necessary to work with a range of E-values. The extent of this range depends upon the accuracy with which the dynamic modulus of elasticity of the soil has been obtained. Soil parameters Having estimated the clastic properties of the soil, the various soil parameters may be calculated as follows. The coeficient of uniform compression is obtained by using formula (5a) in Section A of Table 3 on page 18. The coefficient of non-uniform compression is obtained by using formule (56) in Section A of Table 3. The factors kz and ky which are used in formule (5a) and (Sb) are obtained from Chart D on page 22, and depend on the ratio between the Tength and breadth of the foundation. The coeficient of uniform displacement is obtained by using fornmula (Se) in Seetion A of Table 3. The factor ky again depends on the ratio between the length and breadth of the foundation and is obtained from Section C of Table 3. The coefficient of non-uniform displacement is obtained by using formula (Sd) in Section A of Table 3. Effect of distribution of pressure below the base The soil parameters caleulated from formule: (Sd) to (Sd) are based on a strese distribution beneath the foundation as shown in Figure 6a on page 20. Most cases in practice have a stress distribution of this type, particularly foundations on eo hesive soils. ‘Where the stress distribution is parabolic as shown in Figure 66, the values obtained from formule (Sa) to (Sd) should be adjusted in accordance with the {information shown in Chart E on page 22. 2 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES Values of kz Tors as 25 30 35 40 Values of kg it asd Sayed 5 powndnch to & Units, This for probiems in pound-inch units or meri units so long as units for Land B are cons 7 a Rigid base ghartbelc loading 12 > x % : Stel 4 3 ho [bo 0 Poissons ratio 05 O Poisson's ratio 0-5 Chart, Correction factions ‘Unie. These charts are non-dimensional RAFT FOUNDATIONS B “The pressure distibution beneath a machine foundation resting on non-cohesive soil usvally les between the extremes shown in Figure 6. Ifthe foundation is to be Sesigned as high-tuned, that is, with a natural frequency in excess of the exciting frequency at operating speed, the pressure distribution should be assumed to beas Shetwn in Figure 6b, and the values of the soil parameters should be adjusted accord Jaaly. Where the foundation is to be designed as Iow-tuned, that i, with a natural Frequency lower than the exciting frequency at operating speed, their the stress ‘ishibution which gives the worst case should be assumed to apply. For a parabolic stress distribution, values obtained from formule (Sa) to (Sd) should be multiplied'by the ratio Gy: where ¥and Y are obtained from Chart E ‘with bas ealulate from formula (6a) in Table 3. Soil participation “When'a foundation vibrates, a certain amount of soil vibrates in sympathy with it, the magnitude of this soil depends on the weight and size of the foundation end also on the density ofthe underlying soil ‘When determining the natural frequencies and amplitudes of a foundation, there are two methods of analysis which can be adopted: firstly, considering the soil s a ‘weightles spring; secondly, considering the weight ofthe soil participating in the vibration. ‘The method of analysis adopted depends upon the mass of soil participatin the vibration as, if it is large in comparison with the foundation and machine mass, it must of course be taken into account in the calculation. Naturally, therefore, before attempting to analyse the foundation, we must first determine whether the mass of soil wll have any significant effect. “The magnitude ofthe soil participating in the vibration depends on the numerical values given by formule (6a), (62) and (6c) in Table 3 (on page 18), and on the value of Poisson’s ratio. Tt can be seen from Chart F that, if for the vertical and horizontal modes of, vibration the numerical value for b is greater than 10, then the mass of soil pari pating in the vibration will be less than 20% of the foundation and machine mass. Fjmilarly, for the rocking and the torsional modes of vibration, if the numerical ‘Yalue of bis greater than 2 the inertia of the soil wil be less than 20% ofthe foun- dation and machine inertia. Chart F is given on page 24. It follows, therefore, that where b values from formulse (62), (68) and (6c) are ‘than 10, 2 and 2 respectively, the effect ofthe soil can be neglected and the foundation can be designed as if it were resting on a weightless medium. In these ‘Groumstances, the erroF in the design would not exceed 10%. ‘Where the values of b are lower than previously stated, the amount of soil participating in the vibration should be taken into account. Calculating natural frequencies Neglecting soil-particfpating mass “The vertical frequecy is obtained by using formule (7). ‘The horizontal frequency is obtained by using formule (76). ™ FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES t@ is Fst is i i os 2} fia tne, Fears meme, nee er Tecan 5 teeta tne eta ser. ¥ = Poisson's ratio 7 Factor [Symbol [Formula _[Unee_ [No] vera frepency | | $2. EEA com [| Horizontal frequency} @| Rocking rogmney | ty | $2 [GE lem |® Torsional requeney | fy | $2. fey lpm. |@® ‘Table 4, Frequencies RAFT FOUNDATIONS Fa ‘The rocking frequency is obtained by using formule (7c). “The fovsionl frequency is obtained by using formule (Td). Formulae (1) to (Td) are in Table 4on page 24. For the horizontal and vertical modes of vibration, k, is the load per unit area (W//A) beneath the foundation and, by taking this vale out of the formu, graphs can be plotted, such as those in Chart G for the vertical frequency and Chart H for the horizontal frequency. Frequency i plotted against the relevant sil pan- fneter and can be obtained diret for any oad intensity. Chart G and HK afe on pages 26 and 27 respectively. Sinilary forthe Focking and torsional modes of vibration, known variables can be taken out of formate (72) and (7d), namely, 7% for rocking (k) and 2} for torsional (K,). Again, curves can be plotted with frequency against soil parameter, tein Chart I forthe rocking frequency aad Chart 5 for the torsional fequeney. Charts 1 and J are on pages 28 and 29 respectively. Soil-participating mass taken into consideration ‘Using the b-values obtained from formule (62), (66) and (6¢) in Table 3, an ‘estimate of the mass and inertia of the soil which will participate in the vibration ean be obtained from Chart F (page 24). Formule (Sa) to (3d) and (7a) to (7d) are all applicable with the following amendments. "The mass is now the total mass, that is the mass of the foundation and machine plus the soil mass. "The inertia is now the total inertia, that is the inertia of the foundation end ‘machine plus the sol inertia. ‘Charts G, H, Land J can still be used with the following amendments. Esl) Let Hh ; if ror areas ondion =f. Damping constants ‘Using the b-values from formule (6a), (66) and (6¢) in Table 3 and referring to (Chart Kon page 30, value forthe damping constant D for each mode of vibration can be obtained. From this, together with the frequency ratio, a value can be ob- tained for the dynamic magnifier 7. a amplitudes of vibration can then be calculated as outlined in PARTS 1 "The damping constant D on Chart K is accurate for cohesive soils, but for granular soils the values of D should be divided by 2 before determining the ) dynamic magnifier from Chart C. Continued on page 31. % FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES, Cz values (kg. /eu. cm) te Verticel frequency (cpm) 409} alte This Chart can be used directly for problems in poundnch x metric waits. RAFT FOUNDATIONS Cy values (ka eu. tes che 2 358885 3 333: a *) 3 aR i i | Pure horizontol frequency Gp. Units. This Chart can be used directly for problems in poundnck ot metric units. 2% FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES, Cros afeucn) 2 trees gt ie F SESE SE 2s 200 Rocking frequency pm) (Chart 1 Rocking fequency (estar hin tein at ace sot ys par] i, —%.. labout axis in plane perpendicular to plane of applied moment or force F Fscond moment of are of base plane aboat axis in plane [Perpendicular to plane of applied moment or force Units. Tis Char can be wsed directly for problems in pwnd inch or meric wits if units fo and Tare consistent. RAFT FOUNDATIONS » Cyvolues hg. feucn) reibh ERB i | | t it il l 150% 3 C4 3 Torsional frequency (cpm) (Grt 3. Tonional frequency sar mase moment of inertia about vertial axis passing through combioe] Je__ [Feat of gravity of foundation and machine 7.7 fpolar second moment of area of Base about sais pass through vera exis through centre of contact area ‘Units. Thie Chart cam be used directly for problems in pound.ick units or meri uit ifthe ents for J; and Isare consistent. ky » FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES. 20 7 } i 20 i 15] 4 vero rato | He) 1, Ve es ae os ern v=o ete ie | verticat va¥. picking yO" | Toca aren : 7 1 ‘Horizontal yY Horizontal val fects 6 os 07 060504 03 02 OF 0 Damping Constant “D* (Chart K. Damping constants ‘Unis. This chat i non-Simensional and can be applied directly to problems in poundinch oF ‘metric nits so long as the units for m, p, Rand inertia are consent Poisson's ratio. RAFT FOUNDATIONS a Allowable bearing pressure It is imperative that the following rules are strictly observed. () The total applied load must not exceed 50% of the safe bearing capacity. (i) The live toad stresses imposed on the soil must not be more than 50% of the deadload stresses. ‘With reciprocating machines for chemical plants such as compressors, the second of these two rules is generally more than satisfied. Inaccuracies in design ‘The formule in Section A of Tables 1 and 3 and the formula in Table 4 take no account of embedment. ‘The elects of embedment provide one of the biggest difculties in arriving ata __ satisfactory design. Itis a peculiarity of past research undertaken on foundations subject to vibrations that nothing has been done to determine the effets of embed- ment, all we know is that embedment makes a substantial difference tothe predicted ‘amplitudes of vibration, In this connection it should be pointed out that, theoreti- cally, embedment will not necessarily reduce the amplitudes of vibration which have been calculated by the formula in this book, in some instances embedment could increase the amplitudes. In practice, however the effect is usually to reduce the amplitude of vibration. ‘Due to the complete lack of information on this subject any foundation deeply embedded in the soil will have an indeterminate quantity; on the other hand foun- ations which are large in plan area and shallow are in all probability unaffected bby embedment. ‘The new generation of large reciprocating compressors generally have fourda- tions which fal into the latter eategory, this is because the plan area ofthe fourda~ tions is usually chosen such that all cylinder supports and ancillary equipment are supported by the main block, as a result ofthis the foundation plan area is of ‘generous proportions. ‘Much research is necessary on the effects of embedment before a more decisive approach can be adopted to this aspect of foundation design. 2 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES. Figure 7. Record of test results © Part I Pile Foundations In onpzR to calculate the natural frequencies of foundations suppor tedon piles, ‘an estimate is first required of the stiffness ofthe piles and, in addition, an estimate of the effective mass of the foundation soil system. ‘The stifiness of the pile is simply the load required to produce unit deflection, within the elastic limit. "There is only one really effective way of estimating the stiffness of a pile and that is by testing the pile horizontally and vertically. When some amount of experience hhas been gained in this type of design, it is sometimes possible to form an opinion by careful study of the soil report and the type of pile to be used, although it is ») much more desirable that a test be carried out wherever possible. Load tests For the complete analysis of foundations supported on either frition or end- bearing piles, the results of vertical and horizontal load tests are required, both such tests being carried out on an isolated pile. For the vertcal-load test, the load. is applied in increments until the maximum dead-load, that is to say the load which ‘will be on the pile in its working environment, is reached. The load is then taken ‘ff and applied in eyeles as shown in Figure 7 on page 32 the readings being taken. as quickly as they can be read. ‘tthe live load which is expected to be on the pile in its working environment is Jess than I ton, the fluctuating load used on the pile should be 1 ton. This is purely to facilitate the accurate reading of the deflection gauges. ‘Where a horizontal load test is to be carried out, a nomi increments, to the ple, followed by a series of load cycles a test. The initial nominal load is, of course, to replace the dead load as there is no horizontal dead load on the pile in its working eayironment. ‘The amount of load which can be applied to the pile horizontally forthe purpose of the load test should first be agreed with the piling contractor before the piles are driven. This is because itis desirable to work up to loads of, say, 2 tons and, with, ) atte pre-planning of pile reinforcement, this can usually be achieve. ‘Tho stiffness of the pile is obtained from the slope of the line ‘a-a? in Figure 7, the units being in 1b per inch or kg. per mm. 4 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES. Factor Symbol] Formula | Units] No. 7) 8) vertical frequency | f° |S2/EPS- | cpm a : SOfERG | Horizontal regency] fx |S, [Se com & i sof E 3 Rocking frequency | fg oie cpm. 21 Torsional Sof 2] Torsional frequency] fy | $2 cpm. 3 Vertical frequency | f, |S2/®S* + com © | Horizontal fre As 8b above* | c¥ Z izontal frequency| fy pm| 6 60 [Egy 5] Rocking frequency | fy | SEY SEY + | cpm @) a “| Torsional frequency fy | As 6d above | cpm ‘Table 5 Pi oman: Froqences ‘ Formate to be wed for preliminary des designs only. ‘{ Mass and inertia should include the amount of soi participating inthe vibration. ‘Unle. This Table can be applied to problems in pound-nch or metric units so long as the units of consistent. cach ofthe terms are PILE FOUNDATIONS 3s Calculation of frequencies Having obtained the vertical stiffness of the pile, the vertical and rocking fre- ‘quencies can be calculated by using formule (9a) and (9c) respectively, in Table 5 (Gee page 34), the vertical stiffness measured from the load test being substituted for the term C in these two formule. ‘The horizontal stiffess is used to calculate the horizontal and torsional fre- quencies. ‘The horizontal frequency is given by @ /Foriaontal sifiess xn a 2a Mass, A. (19) “The torsional frequency is given by ‘ © iforizontal sifiness Tp ; Sy eae TP cpm) |) “The mass and inertia J, should include for the soil participating in the vibration as described in PARTI. It should be borne in mind that, when tested horizontally, th pile is in a pinned condition at one end and due allowance should be made for any fixity which may ‘be incorporated when the foundation is cast. If full fixity is achieved then the ‘measured stiffaess should be multiplied by 4 before calculating the frequencies, and once these frequencies have been established the amplitudes of vibration can be calculated as described in PART 1. Design charts tis often felt that the idea of basing a design involving piling on load tests of any kind is idealistic and that in practice the time required between casting, curing, testing, interpreting results and finalizing the design is so long that it makes the idea totally impractical. Where the foundation is an isolated one and constitutes the total piling requirements of the site, this would probably be the case. However, ‘where the foundation is only one of several piled foundations on the site, then pile tests can be a practical proposition. Tn order to shorten the time interval between testing and informing the piling contractor of the design requirements, a pre-piling design chart can sometimes be ‘used and, depending on the complexity of the design, can take as litle as a few hours to prepare. By using the design chart, a decision can be taken on site within few minutes of the completion of the pile test. ‘Table 6 (page 36) i a tabulation for the design of a foundation for a two-cylinder hhorizontally-opposed compressor having crank angles of 180°, With this type of ‘machine the only force acting on the foundation block isin the form of a couple or ‘moment in the horizontal plane. This being so, the dynamic analysis is only neces- sary in the torsional mode of vibration. ‘As.can be seen from Table 6, a range of deflections has been adopted within ‘hich the actual deflection, as measured on site, should fall. Having selected a alan ) area and depth of foundation, the polar inertia has been calculated and the founda~ tion designed with several different pile arrangements to ensure that maximum allowable amplitude of vibration of 0-002 in. (-05 mm, is not exceeded. 36 FOUNDATIONS FOR’ RECIPROCATING MACHINES, Scene) “Tneecin feorcrapsealeal | ep tbe eS emery with [regres ae Sierfewey Spring te " “ety ‘Table 6, Predeson table for apie foundation ‘Note. This examgl Se ie worked in Pound-inch wits. The procedure would be similar (bat the inter- ‘mediate numerical values would fer ifthe same problem was re-worked in equivalent metic units. PILE FOUNDATIONS. a ‘As the amplitude given by formula (34) on page 12 is in radians, the amplitude calsltions shown in the lst column have been mpi bythe distance om the centre ofthe foundation to the extreme corner in order to predict the maxinum amplitude in inches. Having obtained a deflection per ton as described previously in this PART, the actual deflection would be compared with the assumed deflection and.a suitable foundation decided upon. Design schemes Although the pile-est method of analysis is both desirable and relatively in- ‘expensive, many engineers prefer to use a computative method of design based on estimated sifiness. This isa very short-sighted point of view which is in most cases ‘uneconomical and, when applied by an inexperienced designer, can be extremely dangerous. For estimating or scheming purposes, however, the design may be approached in the following manner. End-bearing piles For the purposes of this book, an end-bearing pile is a pile which relies mainly on «end bearing for its load-bearing properties and the following assumptions are made in the analysis: ) that there is no elastic deflection of the soil stratum directly under the pile. (Gi) that full fixity or full pinning can be affected at the top of the ple. ‘The first assumption is reasonably safe when the underlying soil stratum has an. lastic modulus in the region of $00,000 Ib. per sq. in. (35,000 kg, per sq. cm.) but, ‘here the clastic modulus js less than this, the analysis may become inaccurate. However, in these circumstances, the analysis is still relatively straightforward, the only difference being that the total deflection must be estimated in order to cal- ‘culate the natural frequencies; that is the total deflection is equal to the shortening, ‘of the pile under load plus the elastic deflection of the sol stratum below the pile. ‘The second assumption is made for convenience only since neither of the limiting conditions stated is usually achieved; generally an intermediate condition obtsins. Calculation of the natural frequencies “The vertical fequeney is obtained from formula (82). The horizon frequency is obtained from formula (0) “The rocking frequency is obtained from formula (8). “The torsional frequency is obtained from formula Ed). Formule (2) to (8d) are given in Table 5, in which, the vertical mode of vibration, the stress is a variable which depends entcely upon the dead load and can be regarded as a known constant. Chart Lon page 38 shows values of stess plotted against piledength. 8 FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES Length ope metres 334 5 ¢ 7e89P sp 30 | x ro RM) i ‘yertagl frequency, | 1 | ' | * gt ofp ee t (hart Pied foundations: Vertical frequency Suess lb. per sq in or kg, per sq. cn) = ‘Weight of foundation and machine (Ib. oF ke). j ‘Cross ational area of one pile (i. or sq. m.)] x faumer of ps. Units. Thi Chart is applicable to problems in pourdInch units or in mati units. L PILE FOUNDATIONS 2 Similar known constants have been taken out of the formule for the nateral frequencies in the other modes of vibration and values ofthese constants are plotted against pile length in Charts M, Nand O on pages 40, 41 and 42 respectively. The expressions for the constants are as follows: Ww Hortzontal. Fired end: k= pr Pinned end: k Rocking. Torsional. In his consideration the mass and inertia, W, J, and J, should include the amount of soil participating in the vibration as described in PART 11. From Charts L, M, N and O, values of the natural frequencies can be obtained direct for each mode of vibration for concrete, steel and timber piles. For the ‘purpose of compiling these charts the values of dynamic elastic modulus E for each material has been assumed to be as follows: ‘Steel: 30,000,000 Ib. per sq. in. (2,100,000 kg. per sq.em.) Concrete: 3,000,000 Ib. per sq. in. (210,000 kg. per sq, em.) ‘Timber: 1,200,000 Ib. per sq. in. (84,000 kg. per sq. m.). Friction piles For the purposes of this book, friction pile is a pile which relies almost ently ‘on the friction between the pile material and the surrounding soil for its Icad- beating properties. a For preliminary design purposes, the elastic displacements given in Table 7 on ‘page 44 may be used for the vertical and rocking modes of vibration. “The lower limiting values are valid for short piles (about 20 ft; 6 m), and the ‘upper limiting values are for long piles (about 40 ft; 12m. The ends of the piles are assumed to bear on stable subsoil. “The elastic coeficient Cis given by 2240/A (Imperial units) ‘The vertical frequency is obtained from formula (92) in Table 5 on page 34, in “which vis the factor from Table 8 on page 44, which depends upon the ratio of the spacing to the diameter of the pies. ‘Tho rocking frequency is obtained from formula (9c) in Toble 5. “The horizontal and torsional modes of vibration are calculated as for end-bearing piles from formule (86) and (84) respectively in Table 5. ) The formule for the horizontal and torsional modes of vibration for friction and ) end bearing piles make use of the effective length of the pile. Continued on page 43. * FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACHINES Etileno pile in metres 29°33" SB pop 4045. 4090 204 oa} eh =F ee So as 303545 6 7 4 9 0 : rect length of ein ek (Chart M. Pile foundations: Horizontal fequency c kpx Wo weight of foundation and michine lb. or kg) For fixed ends: ky ag fy Sd mat of of ow pe oor em.) n= number of For pinned cas: sf, T Coutts ork. per cm.) ‘ats. Thin Cari appli o problems in pouch wns ox mere units so longa it for the varlou terms are Sone PILE FOUNDATIONS a Length of pie in tetra polenta e Bo so "B30 ea 8 Rocking treauancy (GR MX%00) (Chart N Pile foundations: Rocking fequency mas moreent of ner ofthe foundation and machin about the base plane [Fees ne lite parent the pee o apples moment _ 2 Laas Sr 6 fo (el na doe cee ara — eee [Seek ee). Pewee ecieen ss a i, = eoeicient b-see in. or kgsee em.) ) Unite Ths Cor is applicable to problems in poundinch units of metric units 0 Jong. as heute ineach ofthe terms a conse a FOUNDATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING MACEINES Erect froth of pion metres oyog 10 4s 29 88 3038 3 20,005} ss:000} 3 ‘fo pet 1009] 100} +09} 409 200] 200] 150|— +100] a OR TBS 30354 5 8 7 29H Bw 87 Ste kg ep nto (Chart 0. Pile foundations: Torsional frequency . J. _ Jy = second moment of aren of one plein. orem) Forfadends: Ie i375 J, = polar mass moment of neta abou verti ais passing ‘through combined centre of gravity of foundation and Thre ‘machine (Ib-in-see* or kg-

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