Quebec

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This article is about the Canadian province. For the province's capital city, see
Quebec City. For the historical province, see Province of Quebec (1763–1791). For
other uses, see Quebec (disambiguation).
Quebec
Province
Flag of Quebec
Flag
Coat of arms of Quebec
Coat of arms
Motto(s): Je me souviens
(French: "I remember")
BCABSKMBONQCNBPENSNLYTNTNUCanadian Provinces and Territories
Coordinates: 52°N 72°WCoordinates: 52°N 72°W
Country Canada
Confederation July 1, 1867 (1st, with Ontario, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick)
Capital Quebec City
Largest city Montreal
Largest metro Greater Montreal
Government
• Type Constitutional monarchy
• Body Government of Quebec
• Lieutenant Governor J. Michel Doyon
• Premier François Legault (CAQ)
Legislature National Assembly of Quebec
Federal representation Parliament of Canada
House seats 78 of 338 (23.1%)
Senate seats 24 of 105 (22.9%)
Area
• Total 1,542,056 km2 (595,391 sq mi)
• Land 1,365,128 km2 (527,079 sq mi)
• Water 176,928 km2 (68,312 sq mi) 11.5%
Area rank Ranked 2nd
15.4% of Canada
Population (2016)
• Total 8,164,361 [1]
• Estimate (2021 Q2) 8,585,523 [2]
• Rank Ranked 2nd
• Density 5.98/km2 (15.5/sq mi)
Demonym(s) in English: Quebecer or Quebecker,
in French: Québécois (m)[3] Québécoise (f)[3]
Official languages French[4]
GDP
• Rank 2nd
• Total (2015) C$380.972 billion[5]
• Per capita C$46,126 (10th)
HDI
• HDI (2018) 0.908[6] — Very high (5th)
Time zones
most of the province UTC−05:00 (Eastern Time Zone)
• Summer (DST) UTC−04:00
Magdalen Islands and Listuguj Mi'gmaq First Nation UTC−04:00 (Atlantic Time
Zone)
• Summer (DST) UTC−03:00
east of the Natashquan River UTC−04:00 (Atlantic Time Zone)
Postal abbr.
QC[7]
Postal code prefix
G, H, J
ISO 3166 code CA-QC
Flower Blue flag iris[8]
Tree Yellow birch[8]
Bird Snowy owl[8]
Rankings include all provinces and territories
Quebec (/kəˈbɛk/, sometimes /kwəˈbɛk/; French: Québec [kebɛk] (About this
soundlisten))[9] is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. Quebec
is the largest province by area, at 1,542,056 km2 (595,391 sq mi), and the second-
largest by population, with 8,164,361 people. Much of the population live in urban
areas along the St. Lawrence River, between the most populous city, Montreal, and
the province's capital city, Quebec City. Quebec is the home of the Québécois,
recognized as a nation by both the provincial and federal governments. Located in
Central Canada, the province shares land borders with Ontario to the west,
Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, New Brunswick to the southeast, and a
coastal border with Nunavut; it also borders the U.S. states of Maine, New
Hampshire, Vermont, and New York to the south.

Quebec's official language is French, with 94.6% of the province's population

reporting knowledge of the language. Québécois French is the local variety, and
there are 17 regional accents deriving from it. Among other things, Quebec is well-
known for producing nearly 72% of the world's maple syrup, for its comedy, and for
making hockey one of the most popular sports in Canada. It is also renowned for its
unique and vibrant culture; the province has its own celebrities, and produces its
own literature, music/songs, films, TV shows, festivals, folklore, art, and more.
Moreover, it has its own cuisine and national symbols.

Between 1534 and 1763, Quebec was called Canada and was the most developed colony
in New France. Following the Seven Years' War, however, Quebec became a British
colony in the British Empire: first as the Province of Quebec (1763–1791), then
Lower Canada (1791–1841), and lastly Canada East (1841–1867), as a result of the
Lower Canada Rebellion. It was, finally, confederated with Ontario, Nova Scotia,
and New Brunswick in 1867, beginning the Confederation of Canada. Until the early
1960s, the Catholic Church played a large role in the development of social and
cultural institutions in Quebec. However, the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s-1980s
increased the role of the Government of Quebec in controlling political, social,
and future developments of the state of Quebec.

The Constitution Act, 1867 incorporated the present-day Government of Quebec, which
functions within the context of a Westminster system and is both a liberal
democracy and a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system. The Premier of
Quebec, presently François Legault, acts as head of government and holds office by
virtue of commanding the confidence of the elected National Assembly. Québécois
political culture mostly differs on a nationalist-vs-federalist continuum, rather
than a left-vs-right continuum. Quebec independence debates, in particular, have
played a large role in politics. A referendum on sovereignty-association was held
in 1980, and one on independence was held in 1995.

Quebec society's cohesion and specificity is based on three of its unique statutory
documents: the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms, the Charter of the
French Language, and the Civil Code of Quebec. Furthermore, unlike in the rest of
Canada, law in Quebec is mixed: private law is exercised under a civil-law system,
while public law is exercised under a common-law system. Its economy is diversified
and post-industrial; sectors of the knowledge economy such as aerospace,
information and communication technologies, biotechnology, and the pharmaceutical
industry play leading roles. Quebec's substantial natural resources, notably
exploited in hydroelectricity, forestry, and mining, have also long been a
mainstay. The province's 2018 output was CA$439.3 billion, making it the second-
largest Canadian province or territory by GDP.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Geography
2.1 Hydrography
2.2 Topography
2.3 Climate
2.4 Wildlife
2.5 Vegetation
3 Territorial evolution
4 History
4.1 Prehistory and protohistory
4.2 New France (1608–1765)
4.3 British North America (1763–1867)
4.4 Canadian province (1867–present)
4.5 Modern Quebec (1960–present)
5 Government and politics
5.1 Governmental organization
5.2 Subdivisions
5.3 Public policies
5.4 Political parties
6 Law
6.1 Positive law
6.2 Courts
6.3 Law enforcement
7 Demographics
7.1 Beliefs
7.2 Language
7.3 Ethnicity
7.4 Indigenous people
7.5 Acadians
8 Economy
8.1 Industries
8.2 Exports and imports
8.3 Natural resources
8.4 Energy
8.5 Tourism
8.6 Ranking in the Canadian economy
9 Science and technology
10 Education
11 Infrastructure
11.1 Transportation
11.2 Healthcare
12 Culture
12.1 Civic values and social order
12.2 Music and dance
12.3 Film, television, and radio
12.4 Literature and theatre
12.5 Fine arts
12.6 Circus and street art
12.7 Heritage
12.8 Cuisine
12.9 Sports
12.10 Folklore and legends
12.11 Institutions
12.12 Architecture
12.13 Comedy
12.14 Fashion
12.15 Holidays and traditions
13 Religion
13.1 Other religions
13.2 Churches
14 National symbols
14.1 Holidays
15 External relationships
15.1 General delegations
15.2 Francophonie
15.3 Quebec's diaspora
16 References
16.1 Notes
16.2 Laws
16.3 Journals
17 Further reading
17.1 English
17.2 French
18 External links
Etymology
The name Québec comes from the Algonquin[10] word kébec, meaning 'where the river
narrows'. The name originally referred to the area around Quebec City where the
Saint Lawrence River narrows to a cliff-lined gap. Early variations in the spelling
of the name included Québecq (Levasseur, 1601) and Kébec (Lescarbot, 1609).[11]
French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial
outpost he would use as the administrative seat for the French colony of New
France.[12]

Geography
Main article: Geography of Quebec

Map of Quebec
Located in the eastern part of Canada, and (from a historical and political
perspective) part of Central Canada, Quebec occupies a territory nearly three times
the size of France or Texas, and much closer to the size of Alaska. As is the case
with Alaska, most of the land in Quebec is very sparsely populated.[13] Its
topography is very different from one region to another due to the varying
composition of the ground, the climate (latitude and altitude), and the proximity
to water. The Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands and the Appalachians are the two
main topographic regions in southern Quebec, while the Canadian Shield occupies
most of central and northern Quebec.[14]

Hydrography
Main articles: List of rivers of Quebec and List of lakes of Quebec
Quebec has one of the world's largest reserves of fresh water,[15] occupying 12% of
its surface.[16] It has 3% of the world's renewable fresh water, whereas it has
only 0.1% of its population.[17] More than half a million lakes,[15] including 30
with an area greater than 250 km2 (97 sq mi), and 4,500 rivers[15] pour their
torrents into the Atlantic Ocean, through the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Arctic
Ocean, by James, Hudson, and Ungava bays. The largest inland body of water is the
Caniapiscau Reservoir, created in the realization of the James Bay Project to
produce hydroelectric power. Lake Mistassini is the largest natural lake in Quebec.
[18]

Michel's falls on Ashuapmushuan River in Saint-Félicien, Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean

The Saint Lawrence River has some of the world's largest sustaining inland Atlantic
ports at Montreal (the province's largest city), Trois-Rivières, and Quebec City
(the capital). Its access to the Atlantic Ocean and the interior of North America
made it the base of early French exploration and settlement in the 17th and 18th
centuries. Since 1959, the Saint Lawrence Seaway has provided a navigable link
between the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes. Northeast of Quebec City, the river
broadens into the world's largest estuary, the feeding site of numerous species of
whales, fish, and seabirds.[19] The river empties into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.
This marine environment sustains fisheries and smaller ports in the Lower Saint
Lawrence (Bas-Saint-Laurent), Lower North Shore (Côte-Nord), and Gaspé (Gaspésie)
regions of the province. The Saint Lawrence River with its estuary forms the basis
of Quebec's development through the centuries. Other notable rivers include the
Ashuapmushuan, Chaudière, Gatineau, Manicouagan, Ottawa, Richelieu, Rupert,
Saguenay, Saint-François, and Saint-Maurice.

Topography
Main articles: Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands, Canadian Shield, and Appalachian
Mountains

Jacques-Cartier River
Quebec's highest point at 1,652 metres is Mont d'Iberville, known in English as
Mount Caubvick, located on the border with Newfoundland and Labrador in the
northeastern part of the province, in the Torngat Mountains.[20] The most populous
physiographic region is the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands. It extends
northeastward from the southwestern portion of the province along the shores of the
Saint Lawrence River to the Quebec City region, limited to the North by the
Laurentian Mountains and to the South by the Appalachians. It mainly covers the
areas of the Centre-du-Québec, Laval, Montérégie and Montreal, the southern regions
of the Capitale-Nationale, Lanaudière, Laurentides, Mauricie and includes Anticosti
Island, the Mingan Archipelago,[21] and other small islands of the Gulf of St.
Lawrence lowland forests ecoregion.[22] Its landscape is low-lying and flat, except
for isolated igneous outcrops near Montreal called the Monteregian Hills, formerly
covered by the waters of Lake Champlain. The Oka hills also rise from the plain.
Geologically, the lowlands formed as a rift valley about 100 million years ago and
are prone to infrequent but significant earthquakes.[14] The most recent layers of
sedimentary rock were formed as the seabed of the ancient Champlain Sea at the end
of the last ice age about 14,000 years ago.[23] The combination of rich and easily
arable soils and Quebec's relatively warm climate makes this valley the most
prolific agricultural area of Quebec province. Mixed forests provide most of
Canada's springtime maple syrup crop. The rural part of the landscape is divided
into narrow rectangular tracts of land that extend from the river and date back to
settlement patterns in 17th century New France.

Autumn landscape of Haute-Gaspésie

More than 95% of Quebec's territory lies within the Canadian Shield.[24] It is
generally a quite flat and exposed mountainous terrain interspersed with higher
points such as the Laurentian Mountains in southern Quebec, the Otish Mountains in
central Quebec and the Torngat Mountains near Ungava Bay. The topography of the
Shield has been shaped by glaciers from the successive ice ages, which explains the
glacial deposits of boulders, gravel and sand, and by sea water and post-glacial
lakes that left behind thick deposits of clay in parts of the Shield. The Canadian
Shield also has a complex hydrological network of perhaps a million lakes, bogs,
streams and rivers. It is rich in the forestry, mineral and hydro-electric
resources that are a mainstay of the Quebec economy. Primary industries sustain
small cities in regions of Abitibi-Témiscamingue, Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean, and
Côte-Nord.

Mont Tremblant Resort, Laurentian Mountains

The Labrador Peninsula is covered by the Laurentian Plateau (or Canadian Shield),
dotted with mountains such as Otish Mountains. The Ungava Peninsula is notably
composed of D'Youville mountains, Puvirnituq mountains and Pingualuit crater. While
low and medium altitude peak from western Quebec to the far north, high altitudes
mountains emerge in the Capitale-Nationale region to the extreme east, along its
longitude. In the Labrador Peninsula portion of the Shield, the far northern region
of Nunavik includes the Ungava Peninsula and consists of flat Arctic tundra
inhabited mostly by the Inuit. Further south lie the subarctic taiga of the Eastern
Canadian Shield taiga ecoregion and the boreal forest of the Central Canadian
Shield forests, where spruce, fir, and poplar trees provide raw materials for
Quebec's pulp and paper and lumber industries. Although the area is inhabited
principally by the Cree, Naskapi, and Innu First Nations, thousands of temporary
workers reside at Radisson to service the massive James Bay Hydroelectric Project
on the La Grande and Eastmain rivers. The southern portion of the shield extends to
the Laurentians, a mountain range just north of the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence
Lowlands, that attracts local and international tourists to ski hills and lakeside
resorts.

The Appalachian region of Quebec has a narrow strip of ancient mountains along the
southeastern border of Quebec. The Appalachians are actually a huge chain that
extends from Alabama to Newfoundland. In between, it covers in Quebec near 800 km
(497 mi), from the Montérégie hills to the Gaspé Peninsula. In western Quebec, the
average altitude is about 500 metres, while in the Gaspé Peninsula, the Appalachian
peaks (especially the Chic-Choc) are among the highest in Quebec, exceeding 1000
metres.

Climate

Köppen climate types of Quebec

In general, the climate of Quebec is cold and humid.[25] The climate of the
province is largely determined by its latitude, maritime and elevation influences.
[25] According to the Köppen climate classification, Quebec has three main climate
regions.[25] Southern and western Quebec, including most of the major population
centres and areas south of 51oN, have a humid continental climate (Köppen climate
classification Dfb) with four distinct seasons having warm to occasionally hot and
humid summers and often very cold and snowy winters.[25][26] The main climatic
influences are from western and northern Canada and move eastward, and from the
southern and central United States that move northward. Because of the influence of
both storm systems from the core of North America and the Atlantic Ocean,
precipitation is abundant throughout the year, with most areas receiving more than
1,000 mm (39 in) of precipitation, including over 300 cm (120 in) of snow in many
areas.[27] During the summer, severe weather patterns (such as tornadoes and severe
thunderstorms) occur occasionally.[28] Most of central Quebec, ranging from 51 to
58 degrees North has a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc).[25] Winters are long, very
cold, and snowy, and among the coldest in eastern Canada, while summers are warm
but very short due to the higher latitude and the greater influence of Arctic air
masses. Precipitation is also somewhat less than farther south, except at some of
the higher elevations. The northern regions of Quebec have an arctic climate
(Köppen ET), with very cold winters and short, much cooler summers.[25] The primary
influences in this region are the Arctic Ocean currents (such as the Labrador
Current) and continental air masses from the High Arctic.

Baie-Saint-Paul during winter

The four calendar seasons in Quebec are spring, summer, autumn and winter, with
conditions differing by region. They are then differentiated according to the
insolation, temperature, and precipitation of snow and rain.[29]

At Quebec City, the length of the daily sunshine varies from 8:37 hrs in December
to 15:50 hrs in June; the annual variation is much greater (from 4:54 to 19:29 hrs)
at the northern tip of the province.[30] From temperate zones to the northern
territories of the Far North, the brightness varies with latitude, as well as the
Northern Lights and midnight sun.

Quebec is divided into four climatic zones: arctic, subarctic, humid continental
and East maritime. From south to north, average temperatures range in summer
between 25 and 5 °C (77 and 41 °F) and, in winter, between −10 and −25 °C (14 and
−13 °F).[31][32] In periods of intense heat and cold, temperatures can reach 35 °C
(95 °F) in the summer[33] and −40 °C (−40 °F) during the Quebec winter,[33] They
may vary depending on the Humidex or Wind chill. The all time record high was 40.0
°C (104.0 °F) and the all time record low was −51.0 °C (−59.8 °F).[34]

The all-time record of the greatest precipitation in winter was established in

winter 2007–2008, with more than five metres[35] of snow in the area of Quebec
City, while the average amount received per winter is around three metres.[36]
March 1971, however, saw the "Century's Snowstorm" with more than 40 cm (16 in) in
Montreal to 80 cm (31 in) in Mont Apica of snow within 24 hours in many regions of
southern Quebec. Also, the winter of 2010 was the warmest and driest recorded in
more than 60 years.[37]

Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for selected locations in Quebec[38]
Location July (°C) July (°F) January (°C) January (°F)
Montreal 26/16 79/61 −5/−14 22/7
Gatineau 26/15 79/60 −6/−15 21/5
Quebec City 25/13 77/56 −8/−18 17/0
Trois-Rivières 25/14 78/58 −7/−17 19/1
Sherbrooke 24/11 76/53 −6/−18 21/0
Saguenay 24/12 75/54 −10/−21 14/−6
Matagami 23/9 73/48 −13/−26 8/−16
Kuujjuaq 17/6 63/43 −20/−29 −4/−20
Inukjuak 13/5 56/42 −21/−28 −6/−19
Wildlife
The large land wildlife is mainly composed of the white-tailed deer, the moose, the
muskox, the caribou (reindeer), the American black bear and the polar bear. The
average land wildlife includes the cougar, the coyote, the eastern wolf, the
bobcat, the Arctic fox, the fox, etc. The small animals seen most commonly include
the eastern grey squirrel, the snowshoe hare, the groundhog, the skunk, the
raccoon, the chipmunk and the Canadian beaver.

Biodiversity of the estuary and gulf of Saint Lawrence River[39] consists of an

aquatic mammal wildlife, of which most goes upriver through the estuary and the
Saguenay–St. Lawrence Marine Park until the Île d'Orléans (French for Orleans
Island), such as the blue whale, the beluga, the minke whale and the harp seal
(earless seal). Among the Nordic marine animals, there are two particularly
important to cite: the walrus and the narwhal.[40]

Snowy owl, the official bird of Quebec

Inland waters are populated by small to large fresh water fish, such as the
largemouth bass, the American pickerel, the walleye, the Acipenser oxyrinchus, the
muskellunge, the Atlantic cod, the Arctic char, the brook trout, the Microgadus
tomcod (tomcod), the Atlantic salmon, the rainbow trout, etc.[41]

Among the birds commonly seen in the southern inhabited part of Quebec, there are
the American robin, the house sparrow, the red-winged blackbird, the mallard, the
common grackle, the blue jay, the American crow, the black-capped chickadee, some
warblers and swallows, the starling and the rock pigeon, the latter two having been
introduced in Quebec and are found mainly in urban areas.[42] Avian fauna includes
birds of prey like the golden eagle, the peregrine falcon, the snowy owl and the
bald eagle. Sea and semi-aquatic birds seen in Quebec are mostly the Canada goose,
the double-crested cormorant, the northern gannet, the European herring gull, the
great blue heron, the sandhill crane, the Atlantic puffin and the common loon.[43]
Many more species of land, maritime or avian wildlife are seen in Quebec, but most
of the Quebec-specific species and the most commonly seen species are listed above.

Some livestock have the title of "Québec heritage breed", namely the Canadian
horse, the Chantecler chicken and the Canadian cow.[44] Moreover, in addition to
food certified as "organic", Charlevoix lamb is the first local Quebec product
whose geographical indication is protected.[45] Livestock production also includes
the pig breeds Landrace, Duroc and Yorkshire[46] and many breeds of sheep[47] and
cattle.

The Wildlife Foundation of Quebec and the Data Centre on Natural Heritage of Quebec
(CDPNQ) (French acronym)[48] are the main agencies working with officers for
wildlife conservation in Quebec.

Vegetation

Taiga forest in Gaspé, Québec, Canada

Given the geology of the province and its different climates, there is an
established number of large areas of vegetation in Quebec. These areas, listed in
order from the northernmost to the southernmost are: the tundra, the taiga, the
Canadian boreal forest (coniferous), mixed forest and Deciduous forest.[24]

On the edge of the Ungava Bay and Hudson Strait is the tundra, whose flora is
limited to a low vegetation of lichen with only less than 50 growing days a year.
The tundra vegetation survives an average annual temperature of −8 °C (18 °F). The
tundra covers more than 24% of the area of Quebec.[24] Further south, the climate
is conducive to the growth of the Canadian boreal forest, bounded on the north by
the taiga.

Different forest areas of Quebec

Not as arid as the tundra, the taiga is associated with the sub-Arctic regions of
the Canadian Shield[49] and is characterized by a greater number of both plant
(600) and animal (206) species, many of which live there all year. The taiga covers
about 20% of the total area of Quebec.[24] The Canadian boreal forest is the
northernmost and most abundant of the three forest areas in Quebec that straddle
the Canadian Shield and the upper lowlands of the province. Given a warmer climate,
the diversity of organisms is also higher, since there are about 850 plant species
and 280 vertebrates species. The Canadian boreal forest covers 27% of the area of
Quebec.[24] The mixed forest is a transition zone between the Canadian boreal
forest and deciduous forest. By virtue of its transient nature, this area contains
a diversity of habitats resulting in large numbers of plant (1000) and vertebrates
(350) species, despite relatively cool temperatures. The ecozone mixed forest
covers 11.5% of the area of Quebec and is characteristic of the Laurentians, the
Appalachians and the eastern lowlands forests.[49] The third most northern forest
area is characterized by deciduous forests. Because of its climate (average annual
temperature of 7 °C [45 °F]), it is in this area that one finds the greatest
diversity of species, including more than 1600 vascular plants and 440 vertebrates.
Its relatively long growing season lasts almost 200 days and its fertile soils make
it the centre of agricultural activity and therefore of urbanization of Quebec.
Most of Quebec's population lives in this area of vegetation, almost entirely along
the banks of the Saint Lawrence. Deciduous forests cover approximately 6.6% of the
area of Quebec.[24]

The total forest area of Quebec is estimated at 750,300 km2 (289,700 sq mi).[50]
From the Abitibi-Témiscamingue to the North Shore, the forest is composed primarily
of conifers such as the Abies balsamea, the jack pine, the white spruce, the black
spruce and the tamarack. Some species of deciduous trees such as the yellow birch
appear when the river is approached in the south. The deciduous forest of the Great
Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands is mostly composed of deciduous species such as the
sugar maple, the red maple, the white ash, the American beech, the butternut (white
walnut), the American elm, the basswood, the bitternut hickory and the northern red
oak as well as some conifers such as the eastern white pine and the northern
whitecedar. The distribution areas of the paper birch, the trembling aspen and the
mountain ash cover more than half of Quebec territory.[51]

Territorial evolution

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Territorial evolution of Quebec

The New France colony of Canada (in blue) in 1650.

Canada at its fullest extent after 1713.

North America in 1750, before the Seven Years' War.

The Province of Quebec from 1763 to 1783.

Lower Canada from 1791 to 1841. (Patriots' War in 1837)

The Province of Canada in 1850. (Canada East in green and Canada West in orange)

Quebec from 1867 to 1927. (Confederation in 1867)

Quebec today. Quebec (in blue) has a border dispute with Labrador (in red).

In 1534, Quebec's coasts off the Saint Lawrence River and the Gulf of Saint
Lawrence are explored and claimed as French territory by Jacques Cartier. This new
land is called Canada. Between 1534 and 1603, with exploration and expansion,
Canada's territory grows to encompass the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, the
Gulf of Saint Lawrence, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, as well as the
entirety of Prince Edward Island. Between 1603 and 1673, due to westward
exploration, expansion and conflicts with the United Kingdom, Canada becomes
composed of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and
of the Great Lakes, as well as southern Ontario and northern New England. In 1663,
the Company of New France cedes Canada to the King, who then proclaims Canada a
royal province of France and creates the Sovereign Council of New France to
administrate the new province. Between 1673 and 1741, due to even more westward
exploration and conflicts with the United Kingdom, Canada grows to its largest size
and is now composed of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, of the Gulf of Saint
Lawrence, of Labrador and of the Great Lakes, as well as southern Ontario, southern
Manitoba and the north-eastern Midwest.[52]

In 1760, The British conquer Canada and the Canadien are put under a British
military regime until the end of the Seven Years' War, after which, in 1763, the
Treaty of Paris formally transfers Canada to Britain. The Royal Proclamation of
1763 draws the new Province of Quebec out of the conquered territory and the lands
now only encompass the banks of the Saint Lawrence River and Anticosti Island.
However, in 1774, the Quebec Act more or less restores the lands back to the size
they were before the conquest.[53] Around this time, instructions are issued to the
colony of Newfoundland, requiring them to supervise Labrador's coasts, even though
Labrador belongs to the Province of Quebec not Newfoundland. In 1783, the Treaty of
Paris cedes the territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States which
massively reduces the Province of Quebec's size.[54] In 1791, the Constitutional
Act divides the Province of Quebec into the French-speaking Lower Canada (now
Quebec) and the English-speaking Upper Canada (now Ontario). Lower Canada's lands
consist of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, Labrador and Anticosti Island,
with the territory extending very inland north, and extending south until the
border with the US, Ontario or New Brunswick. In 1809, Newfoundlanders become no
longer willing to supervise the coasts of Labrador. To solve this issue, and as a
result of lobbying in London, the British give the coasts of Labrador to the colony
of Newfoundland. The inland border between the jurisdiction of Lower Canada and
Newfoundland remains undefined.[55] From 1837 to 1838, the Lower Canada Rebellion
occurs. In 1840, the British Parliament decide that a proper response to the Lower
Canada Rebellion is to try to forcefully assimilate the French-speaking Lower
Canada by re-fusing Lower Canada and Upper Canada together, creating the Province
of Canada. Lower Canada is renamed Canada East and Upper Canada is renamed Canada
West.[56]

In 1867, the Confederation of Canada takes places. The citizens of the Province of
Canada are free to divide back into two entities, and while Canada West is renamed
Ontario, Canada East is renamed Quebec.[57] In 1898, the Canadian Parliament enacts
the Quebec Boundary Extension Act of 1898, which gives Quebec a part of Rupert's
Land, a territory bought from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870.[58] This expands
the boundaries of Quebec northward. In 1912, The Canadian Parliament enacts the
Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912, which gives Quebec another part of
Rupert's Land: the District of Ungava.[59] This extends the borders of Quebec
northward all the way to the Hudson Strait. In 1927, the British Judicial Committee
of the Privy Council draws a clear border between northeast Quebec and south
Labrador. However, the Quebec government does not recognize the ruling of this
council, resulting in a boundary dispute.

Today, Quebec occupies a total surface area of approximately 1,542,056 km2 (595,391
sq mi) and its border is roughly 12,000 km (7,500 mi) long. The province has land
borders with Labrador, New Brunswick, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New York and
Ontario. Quebec also has sea borders with Nunavut and France (via Saint Pierre and
Miquelon). The Quebec-Labrador boundary dispute is still ongoing today, which makes
some state that Quebec's borders are the most imprecise in the Americas.[60]

History

It has been suggested that this article be split into articles titled History of
Quebec and Timeline of Quebec history. (Discuss) (July 2021)
Main articles: Timeline of Quebec history and History of Quebec
Prehistory and protohistory
Indigenous peoples
Main articles: Settlement of the Americas and Indigenous peoples in Quebec
The Laurentide Ice Sheet prevented migrants from populating Quebec.
During the last ice age, 20,000 years ago, nomads from Asia very gradually made
their way to the Bering Strait, crossed it and reached America. From there, they
and their descendants then populated the different regions of the continent. The
first humans who established themselves on the lands of Quebec arrived there after
the Laurentide Ice Sheet melted, roughly 11,000 years ago.[61]

From the first people who settled on the lands of Quebec, various ethnocultural
groups emerged. They can today be grouped into eleven indigenous peoples: the Inuit
and the ten Amerindian nations of the Abenakis, the Algonquins (or Anichinabés),
the Attikameks, the Cree (or Eeyou), the Huron-Wendat, the Wolastoqiyik (or
Etchemins), the Micmacs, the Mohawks (or Iroquois), the Innu (or Montagnais) and
the Naskapis.[62] In the past, other groups were also present. For example, the St.
Lawrence Iroquoians, a branch of the Iroquois who lived more settled lives in the
Saint Lawrence Valley, who appear to have been supplanted by the Mohawks.[63] The
Dorsets, a people who inhabited Quebec's northern regions, seem to have been
supplanted by the Inuit.[64]

At the time of the European explorations of the 1500s, it was known that these
groups sometimes traded and/or warred with each other. It was also known that
Algonquians organized into seven political entities and lived nomadic lives based
on hunting, gathering, and fishing on the Canadian Shield and Appalachian
Mountains.[65] Inuit, on the other hand, fished and hunted whales and seals in the
harsh Arctic climate along the coasts of Hudson and Ungava Bay.[66]

European explorations
Main article: Exploration of North America
The first confirmed contact between pre-Columbian civilizations and European
explorers occurred in the 10th century, when the Icelandic Viking Leif Erikson
explored some of the coasts of Newfoundland, Baffin Island, Greenland and Labrador.
[67] From the 15th to 16th century, Basques, Bretons and Normans also occasionally
traveled to the Grand Banks of Newfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence to exploit
the plentiful fish.[68]

In the 14th century, the Byzantine Empire fell. For the Christian West, this made
trade with the Far East, usually for things like spices and gold, more difficult
because sea routes were now under the control of less cooperative Arab and Italian
merchants.[69] As such, in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Spanish and Portuguese,
and then the English and French, began to search for a new sea route. One method
involved trying to bypass Africa. But, since the Europeans knew that the Earth was
round, a second method involved traveling continuously West to circle the Earth. At
the time, the Old World was not aware of the continent of America's existence and
that it would be blocking the way. As such, in 1492, the Genoese navigator
Christopher Columbus set sail West and became the first European explorer to
discover America. Columbus' discovery became the cataclysm for the European
exploration movement.

France eventually wanted to find a way to bypass North America and reach China,
like Magellan had done with South America by traveling under Cape Horn. Around
1522–1523, the Italian navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano persuaded King Francis I of
France to commission an expedition to find a western route to Cathay (China).
Therefore, King Francis I launched a maritime expedition in 1524, led by Giovanni
da Verrazzano, to search for the Northwest Passage. Though this expedition was
unsuccessful, it established the name "New France" for Northeastern North America.
[70]

A depiction of Jacques Cartier by Théophile Hamel, 1844.

In his first expedition ordered from the Kingdom of France, Jacques Cartier became
the first European explorer to discover and map Quebec when he landed in Gaspé on
July 24, 1534.[71] The second expedition, in 1535, was bigger and comprised 110 men
on three ships: the Grande Hermine, the Petite Hermine and the Emérillon. That
year, Jacques Cartier explored the lands of Stadaconé and decided to name the
village and its surrounding territories Canada, because he had heard two young
natives use the word kanata ("village" in Iroquois) to describe the location.[72]
16-century European cartographers would quickly adopt this name.[73] Cartier also
wrote that he thought he had discovered large amounts of diamonds and gold, but
this ended up only being quartz and pyrite. Then, by following what he called the
Great River, he traveled West to the Lachine Rapids. There, navigation proved too
dangerous for Cartier to continue his journey towards the goal: China. Cartier and
his sailors had no choice but to return to Stadaconé and winter there. In the end,
Cartier returned to France and took about 10 Native Americans, including the St.
Lawrence Iroquoians chief Donnacona, with him. In 1540, Donnacona told the legend
of the Kingdom of Saguenay to the King of France. This inspired the king to order a
third expedition, this time led by Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval and with
the goal of finding the Kingdom of Saguenay. But, it was unsuccessful.[74]

After these expeditions, France mostly abandoned the idea of America for 50 years
because of its financial crisis; France was at war with Italy and there were
religious wars between Protestants and Catholics.[75]

Around 1580, France became interested in America again, because the fur trade had
become important in Europe. France returned to America looking for a specific
animal: the beaver. As New France was full of beavers, it became a colonial-trading
post where the main activity was the fur trade in the Pays-d'en-Haut.[76] In 1600,
Pierre de Chauvin de Tonnetuit founded the first permanent trading post in
Tadoussac for expeditions carried out in the Domaine du Roy.[77]

In 1603, Samuel de Champlain travelled to the Saint Lawrence River and, on Pointe
Saint-Mathieu, established a defence pact with the Innu, Wolastoqiyik and Micmacs,
that would be "a decisive factor in the maintenance of a French colonial enterprise
in America despite an enormous numerical disadvantage vis-à-vis the British
colonization in the South".[78][79] Thus also began French military support to the
Algonquian and Huron peoples in defence against Iroquois attacks and invasions.
These Iroquois attacks would become known as the Beaver Wars and would last from
the early 1600s to the early 1700s.[80]

New France (1608–1765)

Main articles: Canada (New France) and New France
Founding and development of trading posts (1608–1663)

The arrival of Samuel de Champlain, the father of New France, on the site of Quebec
City
In 1608, Samuel de Champlain[81] returned to the region as head of an exploration
party. On July 3, 1608, with the support of King Henri IV, he founded the
Habitation de Québec (now Quebec City) on Cap Diamant and made it the capital of
New France and all of its regions (which, at the time, were Acadia, Canada and
Plaisance in Newfoundland).[82] The settlement was built as a permanent fur trading
outpost. First Nations traded their furs for many French goods such as metal
objects, guns, alcohol, and clothing.[83] In 1616, the Habitation du Québec became
the first permanent establishment of the Indes occidentales françaises [fr][84]
with the arrival of its two very first settlers: Louis Hébert[85] and Marie Rollet.
[86] Several missionary groups arrived in New France after the founding of Québec,
like the Recollects in 1615, the Jésuites in 1625 and the Supliciens in 1657.

Three Huron-Wyandot chiefs from Wendake. New France had largely peaceful relations
with the indigenous people, such as their allies the Huron. After the defeat of the
Huron by their mutual enemy, the Iroquois, many fled from Ontario to Quebec.
Coureurs des bois and Catholic missionaries used river canoes to explore the
interior of the North American continent.[87] They established fur trading forts on
the Great Lakes (Étienne Brûlé 1615), Hudson Bay (Radisson and Groseilliers 1659–
60), Ohio River and Mississippi River (La Salle 1682), as well as the Saskatchewan
River and Missouri River (de la Verendrye 1734–1738).[88]

In 1612, the Compagnie de Rouen received the royal mandate to manage the operations
of New France and the fur trade. In 1621, they were replaced by the Compagnie de
Montmorency. Then, in 1627, they were substituted by the Compagnie des Cent-
Associés. Shortly after being appointed, the Compagnie des Cent-Associés introduced
the Custom of Paris and the seigneurial system to New France. They also forbade
settlement in New France by anyone other than Roman Catholics.[89][90]

In 1629, there was the surrender of Quebec, without battle, to English privateers
led by David Kirke during the Anglo-French War. Samuel de Champlain argued that the
English seizing of the lands was illegal as the war had already ended; he worked to
have the lands returned to France. In 1632, the English king agreed to return the
lands in exchange for Louis XIII paying his wife's dowry. These terms were signed
into law with the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the lands in Quebec and
Acadia were returned to the Compagnie des Cent-Associés.

In 1634, Sieur de Laviolette founded Trois-Rivières at the mouth of the Saint-

Maurice river. In 1642, Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve founded Ville-Marie (now
Montreal) on Pointe-à-Callière. He chose to found Montreal on an island so that the
settlement could be naturally protected against Iroquois invasions.

Many heroes of New France come from this period, such as Dollard des Ormeaux,[91]
Guillaume Couture, Madeleine de Verchères and the Canadian Martyrs.

Royal province (1663-1760)

In 1663, King Louis XIV officially made New France into a royal province of France.
[92] New France would now be a true colony administered by the Sovereign Council of
New France from Québec, and which functioned off triangular trade. A governor-
general, assisted by the intendant of New France and the bishop of Québec, would go
on to govern Canada (Montreal, Québec, Trois-Rivières and the Pays-d'en-Haut) and
its administrative dependencies: Acadia, Louisiana and Plaisance.[93]

The French settlers were mostly farmers and they were known as "Canadiens" or
"Habitants". Though there was little immigration,[94] the colony still grew because
of the Habitants' high birth rates.[95][96] In 1665, the Carignan-Salières regiment
developed the string of fortifications known as the "Valley of Forts" to protect
against Iroquois invasions. The Regiment brought along with them 1,200 new men from
Dauphiné, Liguria, Piedmont and Savoy.[97] To redress the severe imbalance between
single men and women, and boost population growth, King Louis XIV sponsored the
passage of approximately 800 young French women (known as les filles du roi) to the
colony.[98] In 1666, intendant Jean Talon organized the first census of the colony
and counted 3,215 Habitants. Talon also enacted policies to diversify agriculture
and encourage births, which, in 1672, had increased the population to 6,700
Canadiens.[99]

In 1686, the Chevalier de Troyes and the Troupes de la Marine seized three northern
forts the English had erected on the lands explored by Charles Albanel in 1671 near
Hudson Bay.[100] Similarly, in the south, Cavelier de La Salle took for France
lands discovered by Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet in 1673 along the
Mississippi River. As a result, the colony of New France's territory grew to extend
from Hudson Bay all the way to the Gulf of Mexico, and would also encompass the
Great Lakes.[101]
Governor Frontenac speaking with the envoy of Sir William Phipps at the Battle of
Quebec, in 1690.
In the early 1700s, Governor Callières concluded the Great Peace of Montreal, which
not only confirmed the alliance between the Algonquian peoples and New France, but
also definitively ended the Beaver Wars.[102] In 1701, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville
founded the district of Louisiana and made its administrative headquarter Biloxi.
Its headquarter was later moved to Mobile, and then to New Orleans.[103] In 1738,
Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, extended New France to Lake Winnipeg. In 1742, his
voyageur sons, François and Louis-Joseph, crossed the Great Plains and discovered
the Rocky Mountains.[104]

From 1688 onwards, the fierce competition between the French Empire and British
Empire to control North America's interior and monopolize the fur trade pitted New
France and its Indigenous allies against the Iroquois and English -primarily in the
Province of New York- in a series of four successive wars called the French and
Indian Wars by Americans, and the Intercolonial wars in Quebec.[105] The first
three of these wars were King William's War (1688-1697), Queen Anne's War (1702-
1713), and King George's War (1744-1748). Many notable battles and exchanges of
land took place. In 1690, the Battle of Quebec became the first time Québec's
defences were tested. In 1713, following the Peace of Utrecht, the Duke of Orléans
ceded Acadia and Plaisance Bay to the Kingdom of Great Britain, but retained Île
Saint-Jean, and Île-Royale (Cape Breton Island) where the Fortress of Louisbourg
was subsequently erected. These losses were significant since Plaisance Bay was the
primary communication route between New France and France, and Acadia contained
5,000 Acadians.[106][107] In the siege of Louisbourg in 1745, the British were
victorious, but returned the city to France after war concessions.[108]

Conquest of New France (1754–1763)

Main articles: Seven Years' War and Conquest of New France (1758–1760)
See also: Battle of the Plains of Abraham and Deportation of the Acadians
The last of the 4 French and Indian Wars was called the Seven Years' War ("The War
of the Conquest" in Quebec, The French and Indian War in the US) and lasted from
1754 to 1763.[109][110] In 1754, tensions escalated for control of the Ohio Valley,
an area controlled by French fur trade companies but coveted by British fur trade
companies. Authorities in New France became more aggressive in their efforts to
expel British traders and colonists from the Ohio Valley, and they began
construction of a series of fortifications to protect the area.[111] In 1754,
George Washington launched a surprise attack in the early morning hours on a group
of sleeping Canadien soldiers. It came at a time when no declaration of war had
been issued by anyone. This aggressive act, known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen,
became the first battle of the Seven Years' War. By 1756, France and Britain were
battling the Seven Years' War worldwide. In 1755, the first batch of new French
soldiers arrived, commanded by Jean-Armand Dieskau. The latter would go on to fight
in the Battle of Lake George, but would be wounded and taken prisoner. Also in
1755, the forceful Deportation of the Acadians was ordered by the Governor Charles
Lawrence and Officer Robert Monckton. In 1756, Lieutenant General Louis-Joseph de
Montcalm arrived in New France with 3,000 men as reinforcements.[112]

Montcalm leading his troops into battle. Watercolour by Charles William Jefferys.
In 1758, on Île-Royale, British General James Wolfe besieged and captured the
Fortress of Louisbourg.[113] This allowed him to control access to the Gulf of St.
Lawrence through the Cabot Strait. In 1759, he besieged Québec [fr] for nearly
three months from Île d'Orléans.[114] Then, Wolfe and his men stormed Québec and
fought against Montcalm and his men for control of the city in the Battle of the
Plains of Abraham. Both Montcalm and Wolfe died from the battle. The British won on
September 13, 1759. Five days later, the king's lieutenant and Lord of Ramezay
concluded the Articles of Capitulation of Quebec.

During the spring of 1760, the Chevalier de Lévis, armed with a new garrison from
Ville-Marie, besieged Québec and forced the British to entrench themselves during
the Battle of Sainte-Foy. However, the loss of the French vessels sent to support
and resupply New France after the fall of Québec during the Battle of Restigouche
marked the end of France's efforts to try to retake the colony. Then, after the
British captured Trois-Rivières, Governor Vaudreuil signed the Articles of
Capitulation of Montreal on September 8, 1760.

While awaiting the results of the Seven Years' War,[115] the rest of which was
taking place in Europe, New France was put under a British military regime [fr] led
by Governor James Murray.[116] The regime remained from 1760 to 1763. In 1762,
Commander Jeffery Amherst ended the French presence in Newfoundland at the Battle
of Signal Hill. Two months later, France ceded the western part of Louisiana and
the Mississippi River Delta to the Kingdom of Spain via the Treaty of Fontainebleau
in an attempt to curb British expansion towards the west of the continent. On
February 10, 1763, the Treaty of Paris concluded the war. With the exception of the
small islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, France ceded its North American
possessions to Great Britain in favour of gaining Guadeloupe for its then-lucrative
sugar cane industry.[117] Thus, France had put an end to New France and abandoned
the remaining 60,000 Canadiens who, as a result, sided with the Catholic clergy,
refusing to take an oath to the British Crown.[118]

The rupture from France would provoke a transformation within the descendants of
the Canadiens that would eventually result in the birth of a new nation whose
development and culture would be founded upon, among other things, ancestral
foundations anchored in Northeastern America.[119] This is referenced in O Canada
with the passage: “terre de nos aïeux” ("land of our ancestors").[120] What British
Commissioner John George Lambton (Lord Durham) would describe in his 1839 report
would be the kind of relationship that would reign between the "Two Solitudes" of
Canada for a long time: "I found two nations at war within one state; I found a
struggle, not of principles, but of races”.[121] Incoming British immigrants would
find that Canadiens were as full of national pride as they were, and while these
newcomers would see the American territories as a vast ground for colonization and
speculation, the Canadiens would regard Quebec as the heritage of their own race -
not as a country to colonize, but as a country already colonized.[122]

British North America (1763–1867)

Main article: British North America
Province of Quebec (1763–1791)
Main article: Province of Quebec (1763–1791)

The Province of Quebec in 1774

After the British officially acquired Canada in 1763, King George III reorganized
the constitution of Canada using the Royal Proclamation.[123] From this point on,
the Canadiens were subordinated to the government of the British Empire and
circumscribed to a region of St. Lawrence valley called the Province of Quebec.
Canadiens were not happy with British rule. Likewise, during the Pontiac Rebellion
of 1763, the Amerindian peoples jointly fought against the new order established by
the British, and the Boston Tea Party of 1773 marked the culmination of the protest
movements in the British American colonies.

With unrest growing in the colonies to the south, which would one day grow into the
American Revolution, the British were worried that the Canadiens might also support
the growing rebellion. At the time, Canadiens formed the vast majority of the
population of the Province of Quebec (more than 99%) and British immigration was
not going well. To secure the allegiance of Canadiens to the British crown,
Governor James Murray and later Governor Guy Carleton promoted the need for
accomodations. This eventually resulted in enactment of the Quebec Act[124] of
1774. This act allowed Canadiens to regain their civil customs, return to the
seigneural system, regain certain rights (including the use of the French
language), and reappropriate their old territories: Labrador, the Great Lakes, the
Ohio Valley, Illinois Country and the Indian Territory. However, the oath of
abjuration to the Catholic faith was replaced by an oath of allegiance to the
British Crown. The Council for the Affairs of the Province of Quebec was
established to admit Canadiens - that is to say faithful Catholics - to civil and
governmental functions.[125]

As early as 1774, the Continental Congress of the separatist Thirteen Colonies

attempted to rally the Canadiens to its cause. However, its military troops failed
to defeat the British counteroffensive during its Invasion of Quebec in 1775. When
it came to the idea of rebelling against the British, most Canadiens were neutral,
although some patriotic regiments allied themselves with the American
revolutionaries in the Saratoga campaign of 1777. When the British Empire
recognized the independence of the rebel colonies at the signing of the Treaty of
Paris of 1783, it conceded Illinois and the Ohio Valley to the newly formed United
States and denoted the 45th parallel as the separation between the British Empire
and the US. This drastically reduced the Province of Quebec's size; its southwest
borders now ended at the Great Lakes. Then, United Empire Loyalists migrated to the
Province of Quebec and populated various regions, including the Niagara Peninsula,
the Eastern Townships and Thousand Islands.[126]

Lower Canada and Lower Canada Rebellion (1791–1840)

Main articles: Lower Canada and Lower Canada Rebellion
Dissatisfied with the many rights granted to Canadiens and wanting to use the
British legal system they were used to in the American colonies, the immigrant
Loyalists from the United States protested to British authorities until the
Constitutional Act of 1791 was enacted, dividing the Province of Quebec into two
distinct colonies starting from the Ottawa River: Upper Canada to the west
(predominantly Anglo-Protestant) and Lower Canada to the east (predominantly
Franco-Catholic). Each colony had a parliamentary system based on the principles of
the Westminster system. However, the creation of Upper and Lower Canada allowed
most Loyalists to live under British laws and institutions, while most Canadiens
could maintain their familiar French civil law and the Catholic religion.
Furthermore, Governor Haldimand drew Loyalists away from Quebec City and Montreal
by offering free land of 200 acres (81 ha) per person on the northern shore of Lake
Ontario to anyone willing to swear allegiance to George III. Basically, these
colonies were designed with the intent of keeping French-speakers and English-
speakers separate.[127]

A drawing of a village in Lower Canada, by Robert Mountain.

In 1813, Beauport-native Charles-Michel de Salaberry became a hero by leading the
Canadian troops to victory at the Battle of Chateauguay, during the War of 1812. In
this battle, 300 Voltigeurs and 22 Amerindians successfully pushed back a force of
7000 Americans. This loss caused the Americans to abandon the Saint Lawrence
Campaign, their major strategic effort to conquer Canada.

Gradually, the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada, who represented the people,
came more and more into conflict with the superior authority of the Crown and its
appointed representatives. Starting in 1791, the government of Lower Canada was
criticized and contested by the Parti canadien. In 1834, the Parti canadien
presented its 92 resolutions, a series of political demands which expressed a
genuine loss of confidence in the British monarchy. London refused to consider
these and, in response, submitted Russell's 10 resolutions [fr]. Discontentment
intensified throughout the public meetings of 1837, sometimes being lead by
tribunes like Louis-Joseph Papineau. Despite opposition from ecclesiastics, for
example Jean-Jacques Lartigue, the Rebellion of the Patriotes began in 1837.[128]

The Battle of Saint-Eustache was the final battle of the Lower Canada Rebellion.
[129]
In 1837, Louis-Joseph Papineau and Robert Nelson led residents of Lower Canada to
form an armed resistance group called the Patriotes in order to seek an end to the
unilateral control of the British governors.[130] They made a Declaration of
Independence in 1838, guaranteeing human rights and equality for all citizens
without discrimination.[131] Their actions resulted in rebellions in both Lower and
Upper Canada. The Patriotes forces were victorious in their first battle, the
Battle of Saint-Denis, because the British army was unprepared. However, the
Patriotes were unorganized and badly equipped, leading to their loss against the
British army in their second battle, the Battle of Saint-Charles, and their defeat
in their final battle, the Battle of Saint-Eustache.[132] Following the British's
defeat of the Patriotes, the Catholic clergy recovered their moral authority among
the people and preached for the cohesion and development of the nation in the
fields of education, health and civil society.

As access to new lands remained problematic because they were still monopolized by
the Clique du Château, an exodus of Canadiens towards New England began and went on
for the next one hundred years. This phenomenon is known as the Grande Hémorragie
and greatly threatened the survival of the Canadien nation.[133] The massive
British immigration ordered from London that soon followed the failed rebellion
would only serve to further compound this problem. In order to combat this, the
Church consequently adopted the revenge of the cradle policy.

Province of Canada (1840–1867)

Main article: Province of Canada
In response to the rebellions, Lord Durham was asked to undertake a study and
prepare a report offering a solution to the British Parliament.[134] In his report,
Lord Durham recommended that Canadiens be culturally assimilated, with English as
their only official language. In order to do this, the British passed the Act of
Union of 1840, which merged Upper Canada and Lower Canada into a single colony: the
Province of Canada. Lower Canada became the francophone and densely populated
Canada East, and Upper Canada became the anglophone and sparsely populated Canada
West. This union, unsurprisingly, was the main source of political instability
until 1867.[135] The differences between the two cultural groups of the Province of
Canada made it impossible to govern without forming coalition governments.
Furthermore, despite their population gap, both Canada East and Canada West
obtained an identical number of seats in the Legislative Assembly of the Province
of Canada, which created representation problems. In the beginning, Canada East was
under-represented because of its superior population size. Over time, however,
massive immigration from the British Isles to Canada West occurred, which increased
its population. Since the two regions continued to have equal representation in the
Parliament, this meant that it was now Canada West that was under-represented. The
representation issues were frequently called into question by debates on
"Representation by Population", or "Rep by Pop". When Canada West was under-
represented, the issue became a rallying cry for the Canada West Reformers and
Clear Grits, led by George Brown.[136]

In 1844, the capital of the Province of Canada was moved from Kingston to Montreal.
[137]

A map of Canada East and New Brunswick in 1855.

In this period, the Loyalists and immigrants from the British Isles decided to no
longer refer to themselves as English or British, and instead appropriated the term
"Canadian", referring to Canada, their place of residence. The “Old Canadians”
responded to this appropriation of identity by henceforth identifying with their
ethnic community, under the name "French Canadian". As such, the terms French
Canadian and English Canadian were born. French Canadian writers began to reflect
on the survival of their own. François-Xavier Garneau wrote an influential national
epic, and wrote to Lord Elgin: “I have undertaken this work with the aim of re-
establishing the truth so often disfigured, and of repelling the attacks and
insults which my compatriots have been and still are the daily target of, from men
who would like to oppress and exploit them all at every opportunity. I thought the
best way to achieve this was to simply expose their story”.[138] His and other
written works allowed French Canadians to preserve their collective consciousness
and to protect themselves from assimilation, much like works like Evangeline had
done for Acadians.[139][140]

Political unrest came to a head in 1849, when English Canadian rioters set fire to
the Parliament Building in Montreal following the enactment of the Rebellion Losses
Bill, a law that compensated French Canadians whose properties were destroyed
during the rebellions of 1837-1838.[141] This bill, resulting from the Baldwin-La
Fontaine coalition and Lord Elgin's advice, was a very important one as it
established the notion of responsible government.[142] In 1854, the seigneurial
system was abolished, the Grand Trunk Railway was built and the Canadian–American
Reciprocity Treaty was implemented. In 1866, the Civil Code of Lower Canada was
adopted.[143][144][145] Then, the long period of political impasse that was the
Province of Canada came to a close as the Macdonald-Cartier coalition began to
reform the political system.[146]

Canadian province (1867–present)

Main article: Canadian Confederation
On July 1, 1867, negotiations took place for a confederation between the colonies
of the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. This lead to the British
North America Act, which created the Dominion of Canada and its four founding
provinces: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Quebec and Ontario. These last two came from
the splitting of the Province of Canada, and used the old borders of Lower Canada
for Quebec, and Upper Canada for Ontario.[147] Since this federal system's
constitution was founded on the same principles as that of the United Kingdom's,
each of the new provinces was guaranteed sovereign authority in the sphere of its
legislative powers.[148]

George-Étienne Cartier, creator of the Quebec state and premier of Canada East.
After having fought as a Patriote at the Battle of Saint-Denis in 1837, George-
Étienne Cartier joined the ranks of the Fathers of Confederation and submited the
72 resolutions of the Quebec Conference of 1864[149] approved for the establishment
of a federated state -Quebec- whose territory was to be limited to the region which
corresponded to the historic heart of the French Canadian nation and where French
Canadians would most likely retain majority status. In the future, Quebec as a
political entity would act as a form of protection against cultural assimilation
and would serve as a vehicle for the national affirmation of the French-Canadian
collective to the face of a Canadian state that would, over time, become dominated
by Anglo-American culture. Despite this, the objectives of the new federal
political regime were going to serve as great obstacles to the assertion of Quebec
and the political power given to the provinces would be restricted. Quebec,
economically weakened, would have to face political competition from Ottawa, the
capital of the strongly centralizing federal state.[150]

Ultramontanism and French Canadian nationalism (1867-1914)

In this time period, the omnipresence of the Church was at its peak. The objective
of clerico-nationalists consisted of promoting the values of traditional society:
family, the French language, the Catholic Church and rural life. These values were
the main ones upon which the French-Canadian nation's survival was based. They
continued to be shared, in particular, by Roman du terroir novels and Abbé Gadbois'
[fr] song La Bonne Chanson.[151] Though the Church was well regarded, it did
sometimes have deviants of the ecclesial order to contain. A good example are the
Montreal cabarets who defied Prohibition.[152]

Ignace Bourget, bishop of Montreal and ultramontanist leader.

Also during this time period, events such as the North-West Rebellion of 1885, the
Manitoba Schools Question in 1896 and Ontario's Regulation 17 in 1917, turned the
promotion and defenec of the rights of French Canadians into an important concern.
[153] Under the aegis of the Catholic Church and the political action of Henri
Bourassa, various symbols of national pride were developed, like the Carillon
Sacré-Cœur, and O Canada - a patriotic song composed for Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day.
Many organizations would go on to consecrate the affirmation of the French-Canadian
people, including the caisses populaires Desjardins in 1900, the Catholic
Association of French-Canadian Youth [fr] in 1904, the Club de Hockey Canadien (CH)
in 1909, Le Devoir in 1910, the Congrès de la langue française in 1912, L'Action
catholique [fr] in 1915, L'Action nationale in 1917, etc.

On July 15, 1867, Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveau became Quebec's first Premier. In

1868, he created the Ministry of Public Instruction which was quickly denounced by
the clergy. As such, in 1875, Boucherville abolished the Ministry and the 1867
system was restored.[154] In 1876, Pierre-Alexis Tremblay was defeated in a federal
by-election because of pressure from the Church on voters, but succeeded in getting
his loss annuled with the help of a new federal law. He quickly lost the subsequent
election. In 1877, the Pope sent representatives to force the Quebecois Church to
minimize its interventions in the electoral process.[155] At the time, the
religious (ex. nuns, priests, etc.) represented 48% of teachers in Catholic
schools.

As Montreal was the financial center of Canada during this era, it was the first
Canadian city to implement new innovations, like electricity,[156] streetcars[157]
and radio.[158] In 1885, liberal and conservative MPs formed the Parti national out
of anger with the previous government for not having interceded in the execution of
Louis Riel following the North-West Rebellion. They then proposed a series of
unsuccessful republican reforms that supported economic nationalism and public
education.[159] Then, in 1905, Lomer Gouin's government undertook a series of
similar but more modest reforms that were more successful. In 1899, Henri Bourassa
vigorously opposed the British government's request for Canada to join the Second
Boer War. This would sow the seeds for the future conscription protests of the
World Wars.[160]

In 1909, the government passed a law obligating wood and pulp to be transformed in
Quebec. This helped slow the Grande Hémorragie by allowing Quebec to export its
finished products to the US instead of its labour force.[161] Afterwards, in 1910,
Armand Lavergne passed the Loi Lavergne, the first language legislation in Quebec.
It required the use of French alongside English on tickets, documents, bills and
contracts issued by transportation and public utility companies. At this point in
time, companies rarely recognized the majority language of Quebec.[162] Clerico-
nationalists eventually started to fall out of favour in the federal elections of
1911.

World Wars (1914–1945)

Main articles: Conscription Crisis of 1917 and Conscription Crisis of 1944
See also: Canada in WWI and Canada in WWII
When World War I broke out, Canada was automatically involved as a Dominion. Many
Canadians voluntarily enlisted to fight. However, most of them were English
Canadians. Unlike English Canadians, who felt a connection to the British Empire,
French Canadians felt no connection to anyone in Europe. Furthermore, Canada was
not threatened by the enemy, who was an ocean away and uninterested in conquering
Canada. So, French Canadians saw no reason to fight. Nevertheless, a few French
Canadians did enlist in the 22nd Battalion - precursor to the Royal 22e Regiment.
By late 1916, the horrific number of casualties were beginning to cause
reinforcement problems. After enormous difficulty in the federal government,
because virtually every French-speaking MP opposed conscription while almost all
the English-speaking MPs supported it, the Military Service Act became law on
August 29, 1917.[163] French Canadians protested in what is now called the
Conscription Crisis of 1917. The conscription protests grew so much that they
eventually led to the Quebec riot [fr] of 1918.[164]

Following the Balfour declaration at the Imperial Conference of 1926, the Statute
of Westminster of 1931 was enacted and it confirmed the autonomy of the Dominions -
including Canada and its provinces - from the United Kingdom, as well as their free
associaton in the Commonwealth.[165] In the 1930s, Quebec's economy was affected by
the Great Depression because it greatly reduced American demand for Québécois
exports. Between 1929 and 1932 the unemployment rate increased from 7,7% to 26,4%.
In an attempt to remedy this, the Québécois government enacted infrastructure
projects, campaigns to colonise distant regions (mostly in Abitibi-Témiscamingue
and Bas-Saint-Laurent), financial assistance to farmers, and the "secours directs"
- the ancestor to Canada's present Employment Insurance welfare scheme.[166]

When World War II came around, French Canadians would still be against conscription
for the same reasons as last time. When Canada declared war in September 1939, the
federal government pledged not to conscript soldiers for overseas service. As the
war went on, more and more English Canadians voiced support for conscription,
despite firm opposition from French Canada. Following a poll on April 27, 1942 that
showed 72,9% of Quebec's residents were against conscription, while 80% or more
were for conscription in every single other province, the federal government passed
Bill 80 for overseas service, then enacted it. Protests exploded and the Bloc
Populaire emerged to fight conscription until the end of the war.[163] The stark
differences between the values of French and English Canada popularized the
expression the "Two Solitudes". Soldier Léo Major became a hero after he liberated
the city of Zwolle from the Nazis by himself in 1945.

Grande Noirceur (1944–1959)

Main article: Grande Noirceur

Maurice Duplessis,[167] premier of Quebec from 1936 to 1939 and during the Grande
Noirceur.[168]
In the wake of the 1944 conscription crisis, Maurice Duplessis of the Union
Nationale ascended to power until 1959. He focused on defending provincial
autonomy, Quebec's catholic and francophone heritage, and laissez-faire liberalism
instead of the emerging welfare state.[169]

However, as early as 1948, French-Canadian society began to develop new ideologies

and desires. This is because many big changes in society were happening
simultaneously, for example the: television, refrigerator, baby boomers, workers'
conflicts, electrification of the countryside, emergence of a middle class, rural
exodus, expansion of universities and bureaucracies, birth of a new intelligentsia,
creation of a motorway system, renaissance of litterature and poetry, urbanization,
etc... New ideas would sometimes be shared in publications like the Refus global or
the Cité Libre before becoming mainstream.

The more French Canadian society was shaken by social change, the more the
traditional elites - grouped around clerical circles and the figure of Duplessis -
reflexively hardened their conservative and French-Canadian nationalism. Over time,
the people became discontent.
Modern Quebec (1960–present)
Quiet Revolution (1960–1980)
Main article: Quiet Revolution
See also: Quebec nationalism and Quebec sovereignty movement
The Quiet Revolution was a period of intense modernization, declaricalization and
social reform where, in a collective awakening, French Canadians clearly expressed
their concern and dissatisfaction with the inferior socioeconomic position French-
speaking Canadians had been forced to occupy in Canada, and with the cultural
assimilation of francophone minorities in the English-majority provinces. It
resulted, among many other things, in the formation of the modern Québécois
identity and Québécois nation.[170][171][172]

In 1960, the Liberal Party of Quebec was brought to power with a two-seat majority,
having campaigned with the slogan “C'est l'temps qu'ça change” ("Its time for
things to change"). This new Jean Lesage government had in it the "team of
thunder": René Lévesque, Paul Gérin-Lajoie, Georges-Émile Lapalme and Marie-Claire
Kirkland-Casgrain. This government made many reforms in the fields of social
policy, education, health and economic development. It also created the Caisse de
dépôt et placement du Québec, Labour Code, Ministry of Social Affairs, Ministry of
Education, Office québécois de la langue française, Régie des rentes and Société
générale de financement.

"Maîtres chez nous" was the electoral slogan of the Liberal Party of Quebec during
the 1962 Québécois elections.
The Quiet Revolution was particularly characterized by the 1962 Liberal Party's
slogan of "Maîtres chez nous" ("Masters of our home"), which, in front of the
stranglehold of the Anglo-American conglomerates on the economy and natural
resources of Quebec, announced a collective will for freedom of the French-Canadian
people.[173] In 1962, the government of Quebec nationalized its electricity and
dismanteled the financial syndicates of Saint Jacques Street.

Confrontations between the lower clergy and the laity began. As a result, state
institutions began to be declericalized and deconfessionalized, and many parts of
civil society began to be desacralized. During the Second Vatican Council, the
reform of Quebec's institutions was overseen and supported by the Holy See. In
1963, Pope John XXIII proclaimed the encyclical Pacem in Terris establishing human
rights.[174][175] In 1964, the Lumen Gentium confirmed that the laity had a
particular role in the “management of temporal things [fr]”.[176]

In 1965, the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism[177] wrote a

preliminary report underlining Quebec's distinct character, and promoted open
federalism, a political attitude guaranteeing Quebec to a minimum amount of
consideration(s).[178][179] To favour Quebec during its Quiet Revolution, Canada,
through Lester B. Pearson, adopted a policy of open federalism.[180][181] In 1966,
the Union Nationale was re-elected and continued on with major reforms.[182]

René Lévesque, one of the architects of the Quiet Revolution, and the Premier of
Quebec's first modern sovereignist government.
In 1967, for the first time since the Conquest, a French head of state named
Charles de Gaulle visited Quebec in order to attend Expo 67 in Montreal. There, he
adressed a crowd of more than 100,000 Québécois, making a speech and ending it with
the exclamation: "Vive le Québec Libre!" ("Long live free Quebec"). This
declaration had a profound effect on Quebec by bolstering the burgeoning modern
Quebec sovereignty movement and resulting in a political crisis between France and
Canada. Following this, various civilian groups developed and acted, sometimes to
the point of confronting public authority, for example, the October crisis of 1970.
[183] The meetings of the Estates General of French Canada of November 1967 marked
a tipping point where relations between francophones of America, and especially
francophones of Canada, would rupture. This breakdown would greatly affect
Québécois society's evolution moving forward (as well as the ones of other
francophones).[184]

In 1968, class conflicts and changes in mentalities intensified.[185] That year,

Option Quebec sparked a constitutional debate on the political future of the
province by pitting federalist and sovereignist doctrines against eachother and
talking about the cultural and social emancipation of the Quebec and French-
Canadian political entities. In 1973, the liberal government of Robert Bourassa
initiated the James Bay Project on La Grande River. In 1974, it enacted Bill 22,
which made French the official language of Quebec. In 1975, it established the
Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms and the James Bay and Northern Quebec
Agreement. In 1976, the Summer Olympics took place in Montreal. In the same vein,
between 1964 and 1979, the Montreal Canadiens won the Stanley Cup every single
season, except for the 1974-1975 period.[186]

Quebec's first modern sovereignist government, led by René Lévesque, materialized

when the Parti Québécois was brought to power in the 1976 Quebec general election.
[187] The Charter of the French Language came into force the following year,
strengthening the linguistic rights of Quebecois, most notably at work and
concerning signage. Before then, Quebec was the only province to de facto practice
institutional English-French bilinguilism.

Debate over sovereignty (1980–present)

Main articles: 1980 Quebec referendum and 1995 Quebec referendum
See also: Kitchen Accord, Meech Lake Accord, and Charlottetown Accord
Between 1966 and 1969, the Estates General of French Canada confirmed the state of
Quebec to be the nation's fundamental political milieu and for it to have the right
to self-determination.[188][189]

In the 1980 referendum on sovereignty-association with Canada, 60% of the votes

were against. Polls showed that the overwhelming majority of anglophones and
immigrants voted against, and that francophones were almost equally divided.[190]
During the campaign, Pierre Trudeau stated that a "no" vote was a vote for
patriation of Canada's constitution. As such, after the referendum, Lévesque went
back to Ottawa to start negotiating constitutional changes. On the night of
November 4, 1981, the Kitchen Accord took place. Delegations from the other nine
provinces and the federal government reached a compromise in the absence of the
Quebec delegation, which had left for the night to their hotels in Hull.[191]
Because of this event, the National Assembly refused to recognize the new
Constitution Act, 1982, which patriated the Canadian constitution and made numerous
modifications to it.[192] The 1982 amendments apply to Quebec despite never having
officially consented to it.[193]

Between 1982 to 1992, the Qubec government's attitude changed to prioritize

reforming the federation, a behaviour described by René Lévesque as the beau risque
("beautiful risk"). The subsequent attempts at constitutional amendments by the
Mulroney and Bourassa governments ended in failure with both the Meech Lake Accord
of 1987 and the Charlottetown Accord of 1992, resulting in the creation of the Bloc
Québécois.[194][195] After these failed attempts, Daniel Johnson of the Liberal
Party of Quebec briefly gained power as the 25th premier of Quebec in 1994.[196]
[197] He then soon lost the following election, which established Jacques Parizeau
as the new premier.[198]

In 1995, influenced by the Commission on the Political and Constitutional Future of

Quebec,[199] Jacques Parizeau and his government called a referendum on Quebec's
independence from Canada. This consultation ended in failure for sovereignists,
though the final outcome was very close: 50.6% "no" and 49.4% "yes". On average,
francophones voted 60% "yes", while anglophones and immigrants voted 95% "no".[200]
[201] The Unity Rally, a controversial event payed for by sponsors outside Quebec,
supporting the "no" side, took place on the eve of the referendum.[202]

In 1998, following the Supreme Court of Canada's decision on the reference relating
to the secession of Quebec, the Parliaments of Canada and Quebec defined the legal
frameworks within which their respective governments would act in another
referendum. On October 30, 2003, the National Assembly voted unanimously to affirm
"that the people of Québec form a nation".[203] In 2004, accusations were made of
illegal expenditures by Option Canada to aid the "no" side in 1995. Also in 2004,
the sponsorship scandal began, which concerned corrupt operation of a federal
program to promote federalism in Quebec. On November 27, 2006, the House of Commons
passed a symbolic motion declaring "that this House recognize that the Québécois
form a nation within a united Canada."[204] In March 2007, the Parti Québécois was
pushed back to official opposition in the National Assembly, with the Liberal party
leading.

During the 2011 Canadian federal elections, Quebec voters rejected the sovereignist
Bloc Québécois in favour of the federalist and previously minor New Democratic
Party (NDP). As the NDP's logo is orange, this event was called the "orange wave".
[205] After three subsequent Liberal governments, the Parti Québécois regained
power in 2012 and its leader, Pauline Marois, became the first female premier of
Quebec.[206] The Liberal Party of Quebec then returned to power in April 2014.[207]
In 2018, the Coalition Avenir Québec, a then-seven-year-old political party led by
François Legault, won the provincial general elections, obtaining a majority of
seats in the National Assembly. Between 2020 and 2021, Quebec took measures to
protect itself against the COVID-19 pandemic.

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Quebec and Politics of Quebec
The head of government in Quebec is the premier (called premier ministre in
French), who leads the largest party in the unicameral National Assembly (Assemblée
Nationale) from which the Executive Council of Quebec is appointed. The lieutenant
governor represents the Queen of Canada and acts as the province's head of state.
[law 1][208] Until 1968, the Quebec legislature was bicameral,[209] consisting of
the Legislative Council and the Legislative Assembly. In that year, the Legislative
Council was abolished and the Legislative Assembly was renamed the National
Assembly. Quebec was the last province to abolish its legislative council.

The Government of Quebec awards an order of merit called the National Order of
Quebec. Inspired in part by the French Legion of Honour, it is conferred upon men
and women born or living in Quebec (but non-Quebecers can be inducted as well) for
outstanding achievements.[210]

Governmental organization
Canadian Monarchy
Main article: Monarchy in Quebec

The Parliament Building in Quebec City

Quebec is founded on the Westminster system, and is both a liberal democracy and a
constitutional monarchy with parliamentary regime.[211] Quebec is a member state of
the Canadian federation, as such, its leader is Elizabeth II, who is the
incarnation of the Crown of Canada and holder of the government and executive power
in the province of Quebec.

Provincial Parliament
Main article: Quebec Legislature
The Parliament of Quebec is the legislative body of Quebec. It is made up of the
lieutenant governor (representative of the Crown) and an elective chamber bearing
the name of the National Assembly (representative of the people). Each legislature
has a maximum duration of five years, however, barring exceptions, Quebec now
conducts fixed-date elections in October every four years.[212]

Premier and the Executive Council

Main articles: Premier of Quebec and Executive Council of Quebec
The Executive Council (or Council of Ministers), chaired by the premier, is the
primary body for executive power in Quebec.[213] Its members are the principal
advisers to the lieutenant governor in the exercise of executive power.

Flag of the lieutenant governor of Quebec, a symbol of executive power in the

province.
Lieutenant governor
Main article: Lieutenant Governor of Quebec
The lieutenant governor is the Queen's representative within the State of Quebec.
He or she has specific and symbolic powers.[law 2][208]

Federal representation
Main article: List of Canadian federal electoral districts § Quebec – 78 seats

Quebec is represented in Canada by 78 members of Parliament and 24 senators.

Quebec has 78 members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons of Canada.[214]
They are elected in federal elections. At the level of the Senate of Canada, Quebec
is represented by 24 senators, which are appointed on the advice of the prime
minister of Canada.[215]

Public administration
The Quebec State is the depositary of administrative and police authority in the
areas of exclusive jurisdiction it holds concerning laws and constitutional
convention.

The Conseil du trésor supports the ministers of the Executive Council in their
function of stewardship of the state. The Quebec political spectrum includes -
among other dimensions - the theme of the political and constitutional status of
Quebec.[216][217] The Parliament of the 40th legislature is made up of the
following parties: Coalition Avenir Québec (CAQ), Parti libéral du Québec (PLQ),
Québec solidaire (QS) and Parti Québécois (PQ), as well as an independent member.

Subdivisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of Quebec
Municipal organization
For municipal ends, Quebec is composed of:

1,117 local municipalities of various types:

11 agglomerations (agglomérations) grouping 42 of these local municipalities
45 boroughs (arrondissements) within 8 of these local municipalities
89 regional county municipalities or RCMs (municipalités régionales de comté, MRC)
2 metropolitan communities (communautés métropolitaines)
the regional Kativik administration
the unorganised territories[218]
Territorial division
For various purposes, Quebec's territory is divided into:[219]

17 administrative regions:[220]

The seventeen administrative regions of Quebec.

Bas-Saint-Laurent
Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean
Capitale-Nationale
Mauricie
Estrie
Montréal [fr]
Outaouais
Abitibi-Témiscamingue
Côte-Nord
Nord-du-Québec
Gaspésie–Îles-de-la-Madeleine
Chaudière-Appalaches
Laval
Lanaudière
Laurentides
Montérégie
Centre-du-Québec
4 territories (Abitibi, Ashuanipi [fr], Mistassini and Nunavik) which together
regroup the lands that once formed the District of Ungava
36 judicial districts
73 circonscriptions foncières
125 electoral districts [fr][221]
Public land

One of Quebec's many national parks: the Île-Bonaventure-et-du-Rocher-Percé

National Park.
The public lands of Quebec, also called lands of the State (État québécois) or
Crown lands, are a vast expanse of public land that cover approximately 92% of the
Québécois territory, including almost all of the bodies of water (21% of the total
area). Information and records about these lands are kept in the Registre du
domaine de l'État, though before 2005, they were kept in the Terrier du Québec
[fr]. While all of these lands are owned by the Québécois state, they can be
administered by a variety of entities, including the Ministère du développement
Durable, the Ministère des Ressources naturelles et Faune, or the federal
government of Canada, among others.[222]

Protected areas are a type of public land and can be classified into about twenty
different legal designations (ex. exceptional forest ecosystem, protected marine
environment, national park, biodiversity reserve, wildlife reserve, zone
d'exploitation contrôlée (ZEC), etc.).[223] More than 2,500 sites in Quebec today
are protected areas.[224] As of 2013, the protected areas of Quebec are 9.14% of
the Québécois territory.[225] The origins of the lands of the State can be traced
back to New France. Back then, all lands not divided into seigneuries and given to
settlers were considered Crown land.

Public policies
National policy
Main article: Quebec nationalism

The National Assembly's interior, where the elected officials debate

Quebec's national policy covers all areas relating to the Quebec nation. It
establishes the values and foundations on which Quebec society bases its cohesion
and its specificity. The Québécois constitution is enshrined in a series of social
and cultural traditions that are defined in a set of judicial judgments and
legislative documents, including the Loi sur l'Assemblée Nationale ("Law on the
National Assembly"), the Loi sur l'éxecutif ("Law on the Executive"), and the Loi
électorale du Québec ("Electoral Law of Quebec").[law 3] Other notable examples
include:

the Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms[law 4]

the Charter of the French language[law 5]
the Civil Code of Quebec[law 6]
It is also based on a set of statements which clarify and reinforce already
established social practices. For example, in his press release on February 8,
2007, Jean Charest reaffirmed three of Quebec society's fundamental values:[226]

the equality between men and women

the primacy of French
the separation of State and religion
In addition, Quebec defines itself as a free and democratic state of law.[227]

On October 30, 2003, the National Assembly adopted a resolution reaffirming that
the people of Quebec form a nation,[228] as well as a motion on May 22, 2008,
citing:

"That the National Assembly reiterates its desire to promote the language, history,
culture and values of the Québécois nation, promote integration into our nation in
a spirit of openness and reciprocity, and bear witness to its attachment to our
religious and historical heritage represented by the crucifix in our Blue Room and
by our coat of arms adorning our institutions."[229]

Federal policy
Quebec participates in federal political life in different ways.

Since 1969, the Official Languages Act has allowed Quebec to integrate better into
the Canadian community, in addition to guaranteeing a legal and linguistic context
conducive to the development of the province.[230][231]

The Quebec premier is part of the Council of the Federation, which allows it to
participate proactively in the federation.[232]

Quebec possesses a network of three offices, each lead by one station chief, for
representing itself and defending its interests in Canada: one in Moncton (for
Atlantic Canada), one in Toronto (for Ontario and Western Canada) and one in Ottawa
(for the federal government). These offices' mandate is to ensure an institutional
presence of the Government of Quebec near other Canadian governments and to allow
Quebec to interact effectively with the other provinces of the country.[233][234]
[235]

International policy
Quebec's international policy is founded upon the Gérin-Lajoie doctrine [fr],[236]
formulated in 1965. While Quebec's Ministry of International Relations coordinates
guiding principles in international policy, its Quebec's general delegations that
are the main interlocutors in foreign countries. In matters relating to Quebec law,
or matters relating to treaties, deals, accords and programs, only Quebecois
political bodies have negotiatic power, along with heads of state, governments,
embassies and foreign consulates. Under the rule of law, any agreement made abroad,
by the federal or Quebecois government, is only applicable in domestic politics by
the consent of popular sovereignty.

Quebec is the only Canadian province that has set up a ministry to exclusively
embody the state's powers for matters of international relations. In other
provinces, the general tendency is to entrust this type of mandate to a minister
that was already carrying out other responsibilities (most likely in
intergovernmental relations).[237]

Quebec is a member of the Assemblée parlementaire de la Francophonie and of the

Organisation internationale de la francophonie.

Environmental and energy policies

Louis-Alexandre Taschereau, Premier from 1920 to 1936. He successfully put an end
to the Grande Hémorragie and was the first to see the hydroelectric potential of
Nunavik.
Since 2006, Quebec has adopted a green plan in order to meet the objectives of the
Kyoto Protocol regarding climate change.[238] The Ministry of Sustainable
Development, Environment, and Fight Against Climate Change (MELCC) is the primary
entity responsible for the application of environmental policy on the Québécois
territory. The Société des établissements de plein air du Québec (SEPAQ) is the
main body responsible for the management of national parks, wildlife reserves, etc.
[law 7]

On November 23, 2009, Jean Charest announced Quebec's greenhouse gas reduction
targets at the Copenhagen conference: Quebec intended to reduce its emissions by
20% by 2020 (compared to the emissions of 1990) and will focus on the
transportation sector, which accounts for 40% of GHG emissions in Quebec.[239]
Following this annoucement, the government undertook the initiatives needed to keep
its promises. On January 14, 2010, a law came into effect aimed at reducing vehicle
GHGs.[240] Automobile manufacturers who sell vehicles in Quebec have to comply with
an emission ceiling of 187 g of GHG/km. This emission level was also lowered every
year until it fell to 127 g of GHG/km in 2016. Manufacturers have to obtain an
emission average equivalent to that of the enforced level, so they are still be
able to sell vehicles that sometimes exceed this threshold. These standards are as
strict as those of California (United States), according to the Government of
Quebec.

Hydroelectricity is Quebec's main energy source. The Hydro-Québec corporation,

owned by the government of Quebec, is the main producer and provider of this
renewable and low-pollution energy. Hydro-Québec is a profitable company in
constant expansion (for example the Manic-Outardes project [fr], the James Bay
Project, the Romaine project [fr], etc.). Wind energy also sees modest use.

The population of Quebec seems to be more sensitive to environmental issues than

the population of other Canadian provinces. According to a 2019 university study,
67% of Québécois residents are aware of humanity's impact on global warming, while
the figure drops to 47% in Saskatchewan and to 42% in Alberta. The economic
structure of each of these provinces could be one explanation: "Quebec does not
produce petroleum, but mainly hydroelectricity. Compared to Alberta... There is the
whole structure of the economy that could explain this phenomenon" analyzes the
academic Erick Lachapelle. Nearly 500,000 people took part in a climate protest on
the streets of Montreal in 2019.[241]

Agricultural and forestry policies

Agriculture in Quebec has been subject to agricultural zoning regulations since
1978.[law 8] Faced with the problem of expanding urban sprawl, agricultural zones
were created to ensure the protection of fertile land, which make up 2% of Quebec's
total area.[242] The Commission de protection du territoire agricole du Québec
(CPTAQ) is the main guarantor.[243] The city of Saint-Hyacinthe is the agricultural
technopole of Quebec and is recognized for its agro-food, veterinary and agro-
environmental biotechnology.

Quebec's forests [fr] are essentially public property. The calculation of annual
cutting possibilities is the responsibility of the Bureau du forestier en chef.
[244] The Société de protection des forêt contre le feu [fr] (SOPFEU) works in a
public-private partnership with the Quebec government in order to protect forests
against forest fires. The Union des producteurs agricoles (UPA) seeks to protect
the interests of its members, including forestry workers, and works jointly with
the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAPAQ) and the Ministry of Energy
and Natural Resources.
Employment, taxation and immigration policies

Adélard Godbout, Premier from 1939 to 1944. He granted women the right to vote in
1940, made education compulsory until age 14, introduced free primary school
education, and affirmed workers' rights to unionize.
The Ministère de l'Emploi et de la Solidarité sociale du Québec has the mandate to
oversee social and workforce developments through Emploi-Québec and its local
employment centers (CLE).[245] This ministry is also responsible for managing the
Régime québécois d'assurance parentale (QPIP) as well as last-resort financial
support for families and people in need. The Commission des normes, de l'équité, de
la santé et de la sécurité du travail [fr] (CNESST) is the main body responsible
for the application of labour laws in Quebec[law 9] and enforcing the collective
agreements concluded between unions of employees and their employers.[law 10]

When it comes to taxation, Revenu Québec takes the majority of its revenue through
a progressive income tax, a 9.975% sales tax[246] and various other taxes (such as
carbon, corporate and capital gains taxes), equalization payments from the federal
government, transfer payments from other provinces and direct payments.[247] By
some measures Quebec is the highest taxed province;[248] a 2012 study indicated
that "Quebec companies pay 26 per cent more in taxes than the Canadian average".
[249] A 2014 report by the Fraser Institute indicated that "Relative to its size,
Quebec is the most indebted province in Canada by a wide margin".[250]

Immigration to Quebec is supported by integration programs favouring French, as it

is the common language, as well as the principles of pluralism and
interculturalism. The Ministère de l'Immigration et des Communautés culturelles du
Québec is responsible for the selection and integration of immigrants,[251] and
immigration policy favours respect for Québécois values as well as respect for
Quebec's cultural, historical and social characteristics.[252][253]

Health, social and education policies

Quebec's health and social services network is administered by the Ministry of
Health and Social Services. It is composed of 95 réseaux locaux de services (RLS;
'local service networks') and 18 agences de la santé et des services sociaux (ASSS;
'health and social services agencies'). Quebec's health system is supported by the
Régie de l'assurance maladie du Québec (RAMQ) which works to maintain the
accessibility of services for all citizens of Quebec.[law 11] Pre-hospital care and
rescue missions are provided by foundations and non-profit organizations.

The centres de la petite enfance [fr] (CPEs; 'centres for young children') are
institutions that link family policies to education. They are administered by the
Ministère de la Famille et des Aînés du Québec. Quebec's education system is
administered by the Ministry of Education and Higher Education (primary and
secondary schools), the Ministère de l'Enseignement supérieur (CEGEP) and the
Conseil supérieure de l'Education du Québec.[law 12] Postsecondary studies
include : the public university of the University of Quebec, vocational training
centers, private colleges, public colleges (CEGEPs),[law 13] and private
universities.

In 2012, the annual cost for postsecondary tuition was CA$2,168 (€1,700)—less than
half of Canada's average tuition. Quebec universities are among the least expensive
in Canada. Part of the reason for this is the relative democratization of higher
education implemented during the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, when the Quebec
government froze tuition fees to a relatively low level and created CEGEPs. When
Jean Charest's government decided in 2012 to sharply increase university fees,
students protests erupted.[254] Because of these protests, Quebec's tuition fees
remain relatively low today.
Political parties
Main article: List of political parties in Quebec
There are 22 official political parties in Quebec:[255]

Alliance Provinciale
Bloc Pot
Changement Intégrité pour notre Québec
Citoyens au pouvoir du Québec
Coalition Avenir Québec
Droit des sans droits
Équipe autonomiste
Nouveau Parti démocratique du Québec
Parti 51
Conservative Party of Quebec
Parti culinaire
Parti équitable
Parti libéral du Québec[256]
Parti libre
Parti marxiste-léniniste du Québec
Parti nul
Parti québécois
Parti vert du Québec
Québec cosmopolitain
Québec en marche
Québec solidaire
Voie du Peuple
Among these, four have seats in the National Assembly in 2020: the Coalition Avenir
Québec (CAQ), the Parti libéral du Québec (PLQ), the Parti québécois (PQ), and
Québec solidaire (QS).

Law
Main articles: Quebec law and Bar of Quebec

The Édifice Ernest-Cormier is the courthouse for the Quebec Court of Appeal in
Montreal
Quebec law is the set of laws which are applied on the Québécois territory. Quebec
law is under the shared responsibility of the federal government and the provincial
government. According to the Constitution of Canada, each of these two government
are responsible for enacting law when it falls under their sphere of competence. As
such, the federal government is responsible for criminal law, foreign affairs and
laws relating to the regulation of Canadian commerce, interprovincial transportion,
and telecommunications.[law 14] The provincial government is responsible for
private law, the administration of justice and several social domains, such as
social assistance, healthcare, education, and natural resources.[law 15]

Quebec law is influenced by two judicial traditions: the civil law and common law.
Generally, private law is exercised under civil law, and public law is exercised
under common law. However, since the two have always been very influential in
Quebec law, with much crossover, the Québécois judicial system is considered to be
mixed. The presence of the civil law tradition goes all the way back to the days of
New France, when the French king Louis XIV imposed the Custom of Paris in Canada.
[257] When the Canada colony was ceded by France to the United Kingdom, following
the Conquest of New France in the Seven Years' War, the United Kingdom first tried
to impose English law. However, the British changed their minds and enacted the
Quebec Act in 1774 which permitted the use of civil law for private relations
between individuals in the entirety of the Province of Quebec.[258]

Quebec law comes from the four classic sources of law: legislation, case law,
doctrine and customary law.[259] Legislation is the primary source in Quebec law.
However, because private law is mostly exercised under a civil tradition, case law
is also a strong source.[260][261] Quebec law is made up of the Constitution of
Canada, the laws of the Quebec Legislature and the rules related to legislating.

English is not an official language in Quebec law.[262] However, both English and
French are required by the Constitution Act, 1867 for the enactment of laws and
regulations, and any person may use English or French in the National Assembly and
the courts. The books and records of the National Assembly must also be kept in
both languages.[263][264]

Positive law

The 1865 commission with the mandate to codify the civil laws of Lower Canada.
Quebec law can be divided into 2 spheres: private law and public law. Private law
concerns the relations between individuals, while public law deals with the rules
that govern the Québécois government.[265]

Private law in Quebec affects all relationships between individuals (natural or

juridical persons) and is largely under the jurisdiction of the Parliament of
Quebec. The Parliament of Canada also influences Quebec private law, in particular
through its power over banks, bankruptcy, marriage, divorce and maritime law.[266]
The Droit civil du Québec [fr] is the primary component of Quebec's private law and
is codified in the Civil Code of Quebec.[267] The Civil Code of Quebec is the
primary text delimiting Jus commune in Quebec and includes the principles and rules
of law governing legal persons, property law, family law, obligations, civil
liability [fr], conflict of laws, etc. For historical reasons, the Droit civil du
Québec has been strongly influenced by the civil law of France.[268]

Public law in Quebec is largely derived from the common law tradition.[269] Quebec
constitutional law is the area of law that governs the rules surrounding the Quebec
government, the Parliament of Quebec and Quebec's various courts. Quebec
constitutional law is governed in large part by the Constitution of Canada, in
particular by the Constitution Act of 1867, but also by various acts of the
Parliament of Quebec.[270] Quebec administrative law is the area of law that
governs relations between individuals and the Quebec public administration. Quebec
also has some jurisdiction over criminal law, but in a limited fashion, since the
Parliament of Canada is responsible for criminal law. Quebec criminal law
nevertheless includes a wide range of offences (road traffic safety (Code de la
sécurité routière) [fr], Quebec labour law [fr], etc.). Finally, Quebec, like the
federal government, has tax law power.[271]

Certain portions of Quebec law are considered mixed. This is the case, for example,
with human rights and freedoms which are governed by the Quebec Charter of Human
Rights and Freedoms, a Charter which applies to both government and citizens.[272]
[273]

Courts
Schéma illustrant les différents tribunaux qui ont juridiction au Québec
Functioning and appointment of judges under the jurisdiction of the federal
government.
Functioning under Quebec jurisdiction, but appointment of judges by the federal
government.
Functioning and appointment of judges under the jurisdiction of the Government of
Quebec.
Although Quebec is a civil law jurisdiction, it does not follow the pattern of
other civil law systems which have court systems divided by subject matter.
Instead, the court system follows the English model, of unitary courts of general
jurisidiction. The provincial courts have jurisdiction to decide matters under
provincial law as well as federal law, including civil matters, criminal matters
and constitutional matters.[274] The major exception to the principle of general
jurisdiction is that the Federal Court and Federal Court of Appeal have exclusive
jurisdiction over some areas of federal law, such as review of federal
administrative bodies, federal taxes, and matters relating to national security.
[law 16]

All courts, whether federal or provincial, are protected by the principle of

judicial independence. The Supreme Court has held that judicial independence is a
fundamental constitutional principle. The courts must have complete freedom to
decide cases which come before them based on the law and the facts, without any
political interference. The federal and provincial governments have legislative
authority with respect to court structure and court administration, but the core
function of deciding cases is reserved to the courts.[law 17]

The Quebec courts are organized in a pyramid. At the bottom, there are the
municipal courts, the Professions Tribunal, the Human Rights Tribunal, and
administrative tribunals. Decisions of those bodies can be reviewed by the two
trial courts, the Court of Quebec the Superior Court of Quebec. The Court of Quebec
is also the main criminal trial court, and also a court for small civil claims. The
Superior Court is a trial court of general jurisdiction, in both criminal and civil
matters. The decisions of those courts can be appealed to the Quebec Court of
Appeal. Finally, if the case is of great importance, it may be appealed to the
Supreme Court of Canada, which is a court of general appeal, with jurisdiction over
all legal issues which can arise in the lower courts.

The Parliament of Canada has legislative authority over the Supreme Court and other
federal courts, subject to the principle of judicial independence. The federal
government pays the judges of those courts and provides the necessary
administrative supports, such as court employees and courthouses.[law 18] The
federal government also appoints the judges of the Quebec Court of Appeal and the
Superior Court, pays their salaries, and has exclusive power to remove them from
office.[law 19] Although the judges of these courts are appointed and paid by the
federal government, it is the government of Quebec which is responsible for laws
regulating the court structure and the necessary administrative supports for the
court system.[law 20]

The three main courts are the Court of Appeal, the Superior Court and the Quebec
Court. Of these, the Court of Appeal serves two purposes. First, it is the general
court of appeal for all legal issues from the lower courts. It hears appeals from
the trial decisions of the Superior Court and the Quebec Court. It also can hear
appeals from decisions rendered by those two courts on appeals or judicial review
matters relating to the municipal courts and administrative tribunals.[law 21]
Second, but much more rarely, the Court of Appeal possesses the power to respond to
reference questions posed to it by the by the Quebec Cabinet. The Court of Appeal
renders more than 1,500 judgments per year.[275]

The Superior Court of Quebec has the inherent power to rule on all cases other than
those where jurisdiction is assigned to another court or tribunal.[law 22] This
means that the Superior Court has the power to hear all civil claims under the
Civil Code of Quebec, determine matters under family law, including under the
federal Divorce Act, and hear class actions. It also has jurisdiciton to hear
appeals and judicial review applications from lower courts and administrative
tribunals.[276] The Superior Court is also a cour of criminal jurisdiction under
the federal Criminal Code. It is the trial court for the most serious criminal
offences, and also is the appellate court from criminal decisions of the Quebec
Court.

The Court of Quebec is a court of statutory jurisdiction, rather than a court of

general jurisdiction. However, its criminal law jurisdiction is very extensive, as
all but the most serious criminal cases are heard by the Court of Quebec. In
addition, the Court of Quebec is made up of three chambers: the Youth Division, the
Criminal and Penal Division and the Civil Division. The Civil Division includes the
small claims division. Until recently, the Court of Quebec had exclusive
jurisdiction over all civil matters where the amount in issue was under $85,000,
but the Supreme Court of Canada has held that it is unconstitutional to assign
exclusive jurisdiction over those matters to the Court of Quebec and take that
jurisdiction away from the Superior Court.[law 23]

The municipal courts, the Human Rights Tribunal, and the Professions Tribunal are
all trial courts. Their powers are limited to the powers that are given to them by
the statute which created them.

Finally, Quebec has a large number of administrative tribunals responsible for

seeing to the application of one or more laws. In total, the Quebec judicial system
has more than 500 judges. Nearly 300 of them work in the provincial courts, 25 at
the Court of Appeal and nearly 200 at the Superior Court.[277]

Law enforcement

The badge of the Sûreté du Québec

The Sûreté du Québec is the main police force of Quebec, and it is responsible for
the application of the law on the entire Québécois territory. The Sûreté du Québec
can also serve a support and coordination role with other police forces, such as
with municipal police forces or with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP).[law
24][278]

Municipal police, such as the Service de police de la Ville de Montréal and the
Service de police de la Ville de Québec, are responsible for law enforcement in
their municipalities. The Sûreté du Québec fulfills the role of municipal police in
the 1038 municipalities that don't have a municipal police force.[279] The
indigenous communities of Quebec have their own police forces.[280]

The RCMP has the power to enforce certain federal laws in Quebec. However, given
the existence of the Sûreté du Québec, its role is more limited than in the other
provinces.[281]

For offences against provincial or federal laws in Quebec (including the Criminal
Code), the Director of Criminal and Penal Prosecutions [fr] is responsible for
prosecuting offenders in court through Crown attorneys. The Department of Justice
of Canada also has the power to prosecute offenders, but only for offences against
specific federal laws (ex. selling narcotics).

When it comes to the penal system, Quebec is responsible for operating the prison
system for sentences of less than two years, and the federal government operates
penitentiaries for sentences of two years or more.[282]

Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Quebec and French Canadians
Historical populations
Year Pop. ±%
1831 553,134 —
1841 650,000 +17.5%
1851 892,061 +37.2%
1861 1,111,566 +24.6%
1871 1,191,516 +7.2%
1881 1,359,027 +14.1%
1891 1,488,535 +9.5%
1901 1,648,898 +10.8%
1911 2,005,776 +21.6%
1921 2,360,665 +17.7%
1931 2,874,255 +21.8%
1941 3,331,882 +15.9%
1951 4,055,681 +21.7%
1956 4,628,378 +14.1%
1961 5,259,211 +13.6%
1966 5,780,845 +9.9%
1971 6,027,765 +4.3%
1976 6,234,445 +3.4%
1981 6,438,403 +3.3%
1986 6,532,460 +1.5%
1991 6,895,963 +5.6%
1996 7,138,795 +3.5%
2001 7,237,479 +1.4%
2006 7,546,131 +4.3%
2011 7,903,001 +4.7%
2016 8,164,361 +3.3%
Source: Statistics Canada[283][284]
In 2013, Statistics Canada had estimated the province's population to be 8,155,334.
[285] In the 2016 census, Quebec's population had slightly grown from that estimate
to 8,164,361 living in 3,531,663 of its 3,858,943 total dwellings, a 3.3% change
from its 2011 population of 7,903,001. With a land area of 1,356,625.27 km2
(523,795.95 sq mi), it had a population density of 6.0/km2 (15.6/sq mi) in 2016.

Demographic weight: Quebec accounts for a little under 23% of the Canadian
population. Quebec's demographic weight in Canada has been gradually decreasing
since 1971 when, back then, it was 28% of the population. In 2018, Quebec's 3 most
populated regions are Montreal (2,029,379), Montérégie (1,554,282) and Capitale-
Nationale (745,135). Quebec's 3 least populated regions are Nord-du-Québec
(45,558), Gaspésie-Îles-de-la-Madeleine (90,709) and Côte-Nord (91,213).[286]

Age: In 2016, Quebec's median age was 41.2 years old. According to Quebec's age
pyramid, the most numerous generation is the baby-boomers that are between 54 and
74 years of age. There are a few other less pronounced peaks, namely in the 1980s,
and the one around 2010. A noticeable crater can be observed around the year 2000
because of a record-low amount of births. In 2020, 20.8% of Québécois are less than
20 years old, 59.5% are aged between 20 and 64 years old, and 19.7% are 65 years
old or older. In 2019, Quebec witnessed an increase in the number of births
compared to the year before (84,200 vs 83,840) and had a replacement rate of about
1,6 per woman. Replacement rates being below 2,1 is a something that is becoming
the norm across the world, and is already the norm in industrialised regions like
Quebec. Quebec has a higher replacement rate than the Canadian average (1,47).
Quebec's rate can also be both higher (ex. Switzerland (1,48), Portugal (1,42),
Japan (1,36), Italy (1,29), etc.) or lower (ex. United States (1,73), New Zealand
(1,75), Sweden (1,70), England (1,65), etc.) than other industrialised regions'. In
Quebec, a lowered rate of giving birth has been mostly observed in people in their
20s. From 30 years of age and onwards, the rate is either increasing or stable.
This demonstrates a trend towards wanting to form a family later in life. As of
2020, the average Québécois lifespan is 82.3 years. Between 2010 and 2019, there
were between 1000 and 1600 deaths every week, with deaths being at their highest
levels in January and their lowest levels in July.[287]

Marriages: In 2019, 22,250 marriages were celebrated, about 600 less than in 2017
and 2018. These numbers illustrate a continuing trend where marriages are becoming
less numerous; in 1970, the number of marriages hit a peak with more than 50,000
celebrations and the number has been slowly decreasing ever since. The average age
for marriage is now 33.5 for men and 32.1 for women, an increase of 8.0 and 8.5
years respectively since 1970. 72% of marriages occur on a Saturday. Half of all
marriages unite a man and woman with an age gap of 3 years or less. Though they are
still uncommon, civil unions are becoming more and more popular.[288]

Demographic growth: In 2019, Quebec registered the highest rate of population

growth since 1972 (when quality data began to be recorded), with an increase of
110,000 people, mostly because of the arrival of a high number of non-permanent
residents. The number of non-permanent residents has recently sky-rocketed from a
little over 100,000 in 2014 to 260,000 in 2019. Quebec's population growth is
usually middle-of-the-pack compared to other provinces and very high compared to
other developed countries (ex. United States, France, Germany, etc.) because of the
federal government of Canada's aggressive immigration policies. Since the 1970s,
Quebec has always had more immigrants than emigrants. This can be attributed to
international immigration as the number of people moving to Quebec from another
province is always lower than the other way around. As of 2019, most international
immigrants come from China, India or France.[288]

Education and work: In 2016, 3 out of 10 Québécois possessed a postsecondary degree

or diploma. While women were more likely to have a university degree (33% vs 26%)
or college degree (21% vs 11%), men were more numerous in having received
vocational training.[289] In Quebec, couples where both parents work are far more
likely to have children than couples where only one parent works or none of them
do.[290]

Households: In Quebec, most people are owners of the property that they live in.
The vast majority of couples with or without children are property owners. Most
one-person households, however, are renters. Single-parent homes are equally
divided between being property owners or renters. From 1996 to 2016, the number of
people per household has decreased from an average of 2.5 to 2.25. In 2016, the
vast majority of low income households were one-person households. In 2016, 80% of
both property owners and renters considered their housing to be "unaffordable".
[291]

Population centres:

Main article: List of population centres in Quebec

The Ten Most Populated Quebec Cities (2016)[292]
Old Port of Montreal (French- Vieux-Port de Montréal).jpg
Montréal
Quebec City.jpg
Québec
Échangeur A-15 et A-440 (4).jpg
Laval
City Region Population
Gatineau (view from the Peace Tower of Parliament Centre Block).JPG
Gatineau
Longueuil 2011.jpg
Longueuil
Falaise saint-micel de sherbrooke.jpg
Sherbrooke
1 Montréal Montréal 1,762,976
2 Québec Capitale-Nationale 538,738
3 Laval Laval 431,208
4 Gatineau Outaouais 281,501
5 Longueuil Montérégie 245,033
6 Sherbrooke Estrie 165,005
7 Saguenay Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean 144,989
8 Lévis Chaudière-Appalaches 144,808
9 Trois-Rivières Mauricie 135,863
10 Terrebonne Lanaudière 113,226
Beliefs
Quebec is unique among the provinces in its overwhelmingly Roman Catholic
population, though recently with a low church attendance. This is a legacy of
colonial times when only Roman Catholics were permitted to settle in New France.

The 2001 census showed the population to be 90.3% Christian (in contrast to 77% for
the whole country) with 83.4% Catholic (including 83.2% Roman Catholic); 4.7%
Protestant Christian (including 1.2% Anglican, 0.7% United Church; and 0.5%
Baptist); 1.4% Orthodox Christian (including 0.7% Greek Orthodox); and 0.8% other
Christian; as well as 1.5% Muslim; 1.3% Jewish; 0.6% Buddhist; 0.3% Hindu; and 0.1%
Sikh. An additional 5.8% of the population said they had no religious affiliation
(including 5.6% who stated that they had no religion at all).

Percentages are calculated as a proportion of the total number of respondents

(7,125,580)[293]

Language
Main article: Language demographics of Quebec

Linguistic map of the province of Quebec (source: Statistics Canada, 2006 census):
Francophone majority, less than 33% Anglophone
Francophone majority, more than 33% Anglophone
Anglophone majority, less than 33% Francophone
Anglophone majority, more than 33% Francophone
Data not available
Quebec differs from other Canadian provinces in that French is the only official
and preponderant language, while English predominates in the rest of Canada.[294]
French is the common language, understood and spoken by 94.46% of the population.
[295][296] Quebec is the only Canadian province whose population is mainly
Francophone; 6,102,210 people (78.1% of the population) recorded it as their sole
native language in the 2011 Census, and 6,249,085 (80.0%) recorded that they spoke
it most often at home.[297] Knowledge of French is widespread even among those who
do not speak it natively; in 2011, about 94.4% of the total population reported
being able to speak French, alone or in combination with other languages.[297]

A considerable number of Quebec residents consider themselves to be bilingual in

French and English. In Quebec, about 42.6% of the population (3,328,725 people)
report knowing both languages; this is the highest proportion of bilinguals in any
Canadian province.[297] The federal electoral district of Lac-Saint-Louis, located
in the Bilingual Belt, is the most bilingual area in the province with 72.8% of its
residents claiming to know English and French, according to the 2011 census.[298]
In contrast, in the rest of Canada, in 2006, only about 10.2 percent (2,430,990) of
the population had a knowledge of both of the country's official languages.[297]

Quebecers defend the French language and the Francophonie in the face of the mostly
English-dominated rest of North America. The Gendron Commission report of 1968
established the foundations for the white book of the government of Quebec'
linguistic policy. Dependent on commissions of inquiry, this policy statement is
also accompanied the Charter of the French language -or "Bill 101"- since 1977.
"The campaign of systematic disinformation waged by English-language newspapers
about Quebec began with the Charter and has never ceased to draw on the Charter; it
gave rise to stubborn prejudices and maintains a profound ignorance of the reality
of Quebec."[299]

French
Main article: Quebec French
French is the official language of Quebec. Québécois French is the most widely used
variant. The Office québécois de la langue française oversees the application of
the linguistic policy on the territory jointly with the Superior Council of the
French Language and the Commission de toponymie du Québec. Their recommendations
then become part of the debate on the standard for Quebec French and are
represented in Le Grand Dictionnaire terminologique (GDT), the Banque de dépannage
linguistique [fr] (BDL) and various other works. Through its linguistic
recommendations, the GDT fights against the invasion of Frenglish into the French
language. Since the 1970s, scientific research on the matter has been carried out
by university organizations, including the Trésor de la langue française au Québec
(TLFQ) and the Franqus group [fr].

The French settlers who settled in New France came largely from the western and
northern provinces of France. They generally spoke a variety of regional languages
of the Oïl language family.[300] Thus, creating the need for the colonists to
"unify their patois" ("unite their dialects") and creating Quebec French. Québécois
French became the vehicular language of New France, and it remained as such until
the British's conquest of New France.

The King's Daughters were sent to the New World to fix the gender imbalance in the
colonies and boost population growth.
Early on, colonists borrowed words from Algonquin, a language they frequently
interacted with, often to name and describe new aspects of geography, temperature,
fauna or flora not present in the Old World.[301] Then, Quebec French's evolution
was affected by the French court [fr] due to the arrival of the King's daughters.
These 800 women were mostly orphaned girls that had been adopted by the state as
part of a program sponsored by King Louis XIV, and been educated in convents to
become exemplary settlers and wives. Once their training was complete, between 1663
and 1673, they were sent to New France and married among the colonists, instilling
the King's French into the population in the process.[302]

In his 1757 Memoir on the State of New France, Bougainville writes:

"Canadians have natural spirit; they speak with ease, they cannot write, their
accent is as good as in Paris, their diction is full of vicious phrases, borrowed
from the language of the Indians or from marine terms, applied in the ordinary
style."[303]

The British conquest of 1759 turned the evolution of French in Quebec and North
America upside down. By having ties severed with France, the French spoken in
Quebec definitively separated from the French spoken in metropolitan France. Quebec
French was then truly born, retaining the peculiarities of the old languages of Oïl
(which were almost extinct in France at that point) and the King's French, and
being both influenced and threatened by the language of the new English conquerors.
Quebec's French continued to evolve in its own direction, retaining some aspects
the non-isolated rest of the French-speaking world lost,[304] and, over time, new
influences and remoteness formed the regional accents and different dialects of
Quebec French that we know today.[305]

Today, Canada is estimated to be home to between 32 and 36 regional French accents,

[306][307] 17 of which can be found in Quebec.[308] There are 11 accents exclusive
to mainland Quebec; they are the regional accents of Gaspé (Gaspésien), Bas-Saint-
Laurent, Saguenay-Lac Saint-Jean (Saguenéen), Quebec-Charlevoix, Beauce
(Beauceron), the Eastern Townships, Mauricie-Haute-Mauricie (Magoua), Greater
Montreal, Eastern Montreal-Laval, Rouyn-Noranda and Côte-Nord. There are 4 accents
off the mainland, 1 on the Isle-aux-Coudres, and 3 on the Îles-de-la-Madeleine: the
accents of Villages Medelinots, Havre-aux-Maisons, and Havre-Aubert.[309] Finally,
there are 2 accents that cross provincial borders: the accents of Outaouais-Eastern
Ontario (Outaouais) and Témiscouata-Madawaska (Brayon). There are also people in
Quebec who will naturally speak using Standard Québécois or Joual, both of which
are considered sociolects rather than regional accents.
Fragility and protection of French
[icon]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2021)

The evolution of the proportion of francophones, anglophones and allophones between

1844 and 2006.
During the days of New France, there began to be an extremely pronounced
demographic increase of anglophones versus francophones in North America, a trend
which continues to this day. In 1700, for every 250,000 English-speakers, there was
16,500 French-speakers.[310]

After the conquest of 1759, this reality became more brutal for Quebec, which now
had to avoid assimilation by the British Empire's regime and survive culturally as
well as linguistically.[311]

Still today, as French's demographic weight on the continent and in Canada

continues to decline, Quebec faces the threat of assimilation. Since 2011, the
population with French as their mother tongue on the Island of Montreal, Quebec's
metropolis, has fallen below 50%, with only 49% of the population being
francophone[312] due to a sharp increase in the immigrant allophone population
(whose mother tongue is neither French nor English).

Efforts have been made to preserve the primacy of the French language in Quebec.
Such efforts include: enstating the Charter of the French language,[313] Quebec's
participation in the Francophonie since 1971,[314] French immigration to Quebec,
[315] etc. Several institutions seek to protect and promote French such as the
Office québécois de la langue française, the Superior Council of the French
Language, the Commission de toponymie du Québec, etc.

English
As of 2011, English is the mother tongue of nearly 650,000 Quebecers (8% of the
population).[316] These anglophones, sometimes called Anglo-Québécois, constitute
the second largest linguistic group in Quebec. In addition, in 2001, roughly 50,000
people (0.7% of the population) considered their mother tongue to be both French
and English.[317] According to the latest censuses of 2001, 2006, 2011 and 2016,
the percentage of anglophones in the population has more or less stabilized, but in
absolute numbers, they are constantly increasing. Allophones, on the other hand,
are increasing sharply in absolute numbers as well as in percentage. According to
the 2016 census, 49.1% of people living in Quebec say they can conduct a
conversation in English (English as mother tongue or as a second language). As for
French-English bilingualism, 44.5% of people in Quebec state that they are
bilingual, that is to say, able to conduct a conversation in both French and
English.[318]

English made its first appearance in Quebec in 1760, when the British invaded and
conquered Canada (New France). Shortly afterwards, the first English and Scottish
merchants came to settle in the cities of Québec City and Montreal. In 1784, United
Empire Loyalists flooded Quebec following their expulsion from the Thirteen
Colonies during the United States' War of Independence. This dramatically increased
the number of English speakers in Quebec. These Loyalists, avoiding the French-
speaking and Catholic countryside, settled mainly in then underdeveloped regions,
such as the Eastern Townships and the Outaouais. The proclamation of the Act of
Union of 1840 caused massive immigration from the British Isles to the Québécois
territory, which introduced Celtic languages for the first time and increased the
power of English. The influence of English and repeated attempts at linguistic
assimilation of the French-speaking population had and continues to have a
considerable impact on French-language culture in Quebec. Today, Anglo-Quebecers
reside mainly in the west of the island of Montreal (West Island), downtown
Montreal and the Pontiac.
Anglophones in Quebec have several institutions and infrastructural systems. At the
school level, anglophones in Quebec have several school boards grouped together
into the Association des commissions scolaire anglophones du Québec.[319] In terms
of media, anglophones own, among others, the Montreal Gazette, in Montreal, and the
Chronicle-Telegraph, in Quebec City.[320] Other organisations include the Quebec
Writers' Federation, which is a group of English-speaking Quebec authors,[321] and
the Voice of English-speaking Quebec,[322] which represents the interests of the
English-speaking community in the Québec region.

Other languages
The term "allophone" is used to refer to people whose mother tongue is neither
French nor English.[323] We can distinguish two groups of allophones: people who
speak indigenous languages, and those who speak so-called immigrant languages.

In the 2016 census, where one could note more than one language as their mother
tongue, Quebec had 1,171,045 people (14.5% of the population) who reported a mother
tongue that was neither French nor English, and 1,060,830 people (13.2% of the
population) who did not declare French or English as a mother tongue at all.[324]
In this census, 47,025 (0.6% of the population) reported an aboriginal language as
a mother tongue, while 1,124,020 (13.9% of the population) reported an immigrant
language as a mother tongue.[325]

Indigenous languages

Three families of aboriginal languages exist in Quebec, which encompass eleven

languages. Each of these languages belong to and are spoken by members of a
specific ethnic group. Sometimes, the language in question is spoken natively by
all members of the group, sometimes they are spoken only by a few individuals.
These languages are also sometimes sub-divided into different dialects in the
indigenous communities.

A multilingual road sign in Mistissini, showing Cree, English and French.

Algonquian language family
Abenaki (spoken by the Abenakis of Centre-du-Québec)
Algonquin (spoken by the Algonquins of the Outaouais)
Maliseet-passamaquoddy (spoken by the Maliseet of Bas-Saint-Laurent)
Mi'kmaq (spoken by the Micmacs of Gaspésie and the Magdalen Islands)
the linguistic continuum of:
Atikamekw (spoken by the Attikameks of Lanaudière and Mauricie)
Cree (spoken by the Crees of Nord-du-Québec)
Innu-aimun (spoken by the Innu-Montagnais of the Côte-Nord and Saguenay-Lac-Saint-
Jean)
Naskapi (spoken by the Innu-Naskapi of the Côte-Nord)
Inuit-Aleut language family
Nunavimmiutitut (Inuktitut dialect spoken by the Inuit of Nord-du-Québec)
Iroquoian language family
Mohawk, also known as "agnier" (spoken by the Iroquois-Mohawks of Montérégie and
the Laurentides)
Wendat (spoken by the Huron-Wendat of the Capitale-Nationale)
In the 2016 census, 50,895 people in Quebec said they knew at least one indigenous
language.[326] Furthermore, 45,570 people declared having an aboriginal language as
their mother tongue. For 38,995 of them, it was the language most frequently spoken
at home. Additionally, 1,195 people who did not have an aboriginal language as
their mother tongue reported using an aboriginal language most often at home.[327]

In Quebec, most indigenous languages are currently transmitted quite well from one
generation to the next with a mother tongue retention rate of 92%.[328]
Immigrant languages

In the 2016 census, 1,124,020 people declared having an immigrant language as their
mother tongue in Quebec. The most cited languages are Arabic (2.5% of the total
population), Spanish (1.9%), Italian (1.4%), Creole languages (mainly Haitian
Creole) (0.8%) and Mandarin (0.6%).[329]

Both the number and proportion of allophones have been increasing in Quebec since
the 1951 census.[330]

In 2015, the vast majority (89%) of young allophone students in Quebec attended
French-language schools.[331][332]

Ethnicity
Ambox current red Americas.svg
This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: Data is old, most of it is
from 2006. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available
information. (April 2021)

This article is in list format, but may read better as prose. You can help by
converting this article, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (May 2021)
Ethnic origin (2006)
Ethnic origin Population Percent
Canadian (Canadiens) 4,474,115 60%
French 2,151,655 29%
Irish 406,085 5.5%
Italian 299,655 4%
English 245,155 3.3%
First Nations 219,815 3%
Scottish 202,515 2.7%
Québécois 140,075 2%
German 131,795 1.8%
Percentages are calculated as a proportion of the total number of respondents
(7,435,905) and may total more than 100 percent due to dual responses.

Only groups with 1.5 percent or more of respondents are shown. Origins in this
table are self-reported and respondents were allowed to give more than one answer.
[333]

The 2006 census counted a total Indigenous population of 108,425 (1.5 percent)
including 65,085 North American Indians (0.9 percent), 27,985 Métis (0.4 percent),
and 10,950 Inuit (0.15 percent). There is a significant undercount, as many of the
largest Indian bands regularly refuse to participate in Canadian censuses for
political reasons regarding the question of Indigenous sovereignty. In particular,
the largest Mohawk Iroquois reserves (Kahnawake, Akwesasne and Kanesatake) were not
counted.

Almost 9% of the population of Quebec belongs to a visible minority group. This is

a lower percentage than that of British Columbia, Ontario, Alberta, and Manitoba
but higher than that of the remaining five provinces. Most visible minorities in
Quebec live in or near Montreal.

Visible minorities (2006)

Visible minority Population Percentage
Total visible minority population 654,355 8.8%
Haitian 188,070 2.5%
Arab 109,020 1.5%
Latin American 89,505 1.2%
Chinese 79,830 1.1%
South Asian 72,845 1.0%
Southeast Asian 50,455 0.7%
Percentages are calculated as a proportion of the total number of respondents
(7,435,905). Only groups with more than 0.5 percent of respondents are shown.[334]

Indigenous people
Main article: Indigenous peoples in Quebec

Map of indigenous communities in Quebec, this includes reserves, settlements and

northern villages.
Algonquins
Attikameks
Abenakis
Crees
Hurons-Wendat
Innus
Maliseets
Micmacs
Mohawks
Naskapis
Inuit
The indigenous peoples of Quebec have inhabited the region for several millennia.
Each community possesses its own social structure, culture and territorial entity.
In 2003, the indigenous population of Quebec numbered 159,905 people.[335] However,
because federal law only recognized children of indigenous fathers until the 1980s,
the actual number may be higher. Adding in Métis would also increase the count
further.

All the ethnicities living primarily south of the 55th parallel are collectively
referred to by Québécois as "Amerindians", "Indians", "First Nations" or, obsolete,
"Redskins". The ten Amerindian ethnic groups in Quebec are linked to two linguistic
groups. The Algonquian family is made up of eight ethnic groups: the Abenaki, the
Algonquins, the Attikameks, the Crees, the Wolastoqiyik, the Mi'kmaq, the Innu and
the Naskapis. These last two formed, until 1978, a single ethnic group: the Innu.
The Iroquoian family is made up of the Huron-Wendat and the Mohawks. Only the
Mohawks were part of the Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee), along with five
other Indigenous groups from New York State and Ontario. The eleventh indigenous
ethnic group in Quebec, the Inuit (or, obsolete, the Eskimos), belong to the Inuit-
Aleut family. The Inuit live mainly in Nouveau Québec (Nunavik) and make up the
majority of the population living north of the 55th parallel.

Of these indigenous peoples, so-called "nomadic" tribes exist, specifically the

tribes of Algonquian cultures (eg: the Algonquins, the Cree and the Innu), as well
as more "sedentary" ones, specifically the tribes of Iroquoian traditions (eg: the
Iroquois and the Hurons-Wendat). The more sedentary groups are the ones who
developed more complex forms of social organization. Traditionally, nomadic tribes
follow the migration of herds of animals that serve as prey, such as bison, moose
or seals.[336] The way of life of the Algonquian and Inuit tribes is dictated by
the obligations of hunting and fishing. The traditions of the Iroquoian tribes,
producers of the Three Sisters (corn, beans and squash), are instead developed
around a matriarchal structure derived from the "long cabin" called a longhouse
which houses within it several families under the authority of one dean.

Relations with Québécois

An Inuit inuksuk at the Place de l'Assemblée-Nationale [fr] in front of the

Parliament of Quebec.
Although they represent today approximately 3% of the Quebec population, the
indigenous peoples of Quebec have contributed a lot to Québécois society thanks to
their ideals of respect for flora, fauna, nature and the environment as well as
thanks to their values of hospitality, generosity and sharing. Economically,
through the fur trade and the development of relationships with settlers, including
coureurs des bois, merchants, cartographers and Jesuit fathers. In addition to
contributing to Quebec toponymy [fr], indigenous peoples also contributed through
their more advanced knowledge than settlers in the following areas: holistic
medicine, the functioning of human biology, remedies for several diseases, curing
scurvy at settlers' arrival (its thought this was done with a cure made from fir,
white cedar or anneda), winter clothing (tanning), architecture that insulates
against the cold, means of faster transport on snow (snowshoes and dogsled) and on
water (canoes, kayaks and rabaskas), l'acériculture (the process of making maple
syrup), sports (lacrosse and ice fishing), moose and caribou hunting, trapping, the
territory and its components, watersheds and their watercourses and natural
resources.[337]

When Europeans arrived in America in the 16th century, the Algonquian-speaking

peoples and the St. Lawrence Iroquoians made allies with the French colonists for
the purpose of trade. The first connection was made with the arrival of Jacques
Cartier when he set foot in Gaspé and met Donnacona, chief of the village of
Stadacona (Stadaconé, today, the city of Quebec), in 1534. Moreover, the legend of
the Kingdom of Saguenay prompted King Francis I to finance new trips to the New
World.

Rather than by conquest and by force, it is by promoting commercial and military

alliances, and by concluding numerous peace and friendship treaties that relations
between the two peoples solidified.[338]

Rights of indigenous people

Nemiscau: the village in Nord-du-Québec home to the Grand Council of the Crees.
In the Royal Proclamation of 1763, issued by King George III, the indigenous
peoples were stated to have an indisputable right to their lands. However, quickly
following the proclamation and after the peace treaties with New France and France
concluded, the British Crown decided to institute territorial treaties which
allowed British authorities to proceed with the total extinction of the land titles
of the Indigenous groups.[339]

Entirely under federal tutelage and direction, indigenous rights were enunciated in
the Indian Act and adopted at the end of the 19th century. This act confines First
Nations within the Indian reserves created for them. The Indian Act is still in
effect today.[340]

In 1975, the Cree, Inuit and the Quebec government agreed to an agreement called
the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement that would extended Indigenous rights
beyond Indian reserves, and to over two-thirds of the Québécois territory. Because
this extension was enacted without the participation of the federal government, the
extended Indigenous rights only exist in Quebec. In 1978, the Naskapis joined the
agreement when the Northeastern Quebec Agreement was signed. As a result, these
three ethnic groups were able to break away from their subjugation to the Indian
Act.

In recent times, discussions have been underway for several years with the
Montagnais of the Côte-Nord and Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean for the potential creation
of a similar autonomy in two new distinct territories that would be called Innu
Assi and Nitassinan.[341] Moreover, in January 2010, an agreement between Quebec
City and Montagnais granted the Mashteuiatsh Band Council the ability to plan out
development in the entire Ashuapmushuan Wildlife Reserve, which is located on the
Nitassinan of the community of the Pekuakamiulnuatsh.[342][343]
A few political institutions have also been created over time:

The Assembly of First Nations Quebec-Labrador [fr][344]

The Grand Council of the Crees[345]
The Makivik Corporation[346]
Indigenous lands
The following table shows the traditional territories of the First Nations and
Inuit peoples who live on the Québécois territory in the basins of the St. Lawrence
Valley and James Bay, as well as on the Labrador peninsula.[347]

Map of the traditional territory and co-territorial area of the Abenakis, which
overlaps between Quebec and Massachusetts.
Traditional territories of the different indigenous peoples of Quebec
Groups Sub-groups Name of territory Territorial division Other names for
territory
Ojibwe Anishinaabewaki Osogonek Anishinaabe Ahiki
Algonquins Osogonek
Attikameks Kitaskino Nehirowisi Aski / Nitaskinan
Iroquois confederation Haudenosauneega Kanienkeh Aquanishuonigy
Mohawks Kanienkeh
Wabanaki confederation Wabanaki ***
Abenaki Ndakinna N'dakina
Maliseet Wolastokuk
Micmacs Mi'kma'ki Migmagi
Cree Eeyou Istchee
Hurons-Wendats Wendake
Innu-Montagnais Nitassinan Innu Assi
Inuit Inuit Nunangat Nunavik
Nunavimmiutitut Nunavik
Naskapis Nutshimiu-Aschiiy Nuchimiiyu - chhiiy
Acadians

Boats docked in the Magdalen Islands are sometimes decorated with Acadian flags.
The subject of Acadians in Quebec [fr] is an important one as more than a million
Québécois are of Acadian ascent, with roughly 4.8 million Québécois possessing one
or multiple Acadian ancestors in their genealogy tree. Furthermore, more than a
million Québécois wear a patronym of Acadian origin. All of this is because a large
number of Acadians had fled Acadia to take refuge in Quebec during the Great
Upheaval.[348][349][350][351]

Quebec houses an Acadian community spread out across several regions. Nowadays,
Acadians mainly live on the Magdalen Islands and in Gaspesia, but about thirty
other communities are present elsewhere in Quebec, mostly in the Côte-Nord and
Centre-du-Québec regions. An Acadian community in Quebec can be called a "Cadie" or
"Petite Cadie", and some cities and villages use the demonym "Cadien".[352]

The Festival Acadien des Îles-de-la-Madeleine is a festival which occurs every year
in memory of the founders of the first villages on the Magdalen Islands. The
festival is held in Havre Aubert for about two weeks. There, Québécois and Acadians
from all corners of Quebec and other neighbouring lands mingle to celebrate Acadian
culture.[353] The town of Bonaventure, in Gaspesia, also houses the Musé Acadien du
Québec which features permanent exhibitions on Acadians in Quebec, like Une Acadie
québécoise and Secrets d'Acadiens, les coulisses de la rue Grand-Pré.[354] In 2002,
on National Acadian Day, the Commission de la capitale nationale du Québec unveiled
a monument to Acadians entitled "Towards the Light". The monument symbolizes and
explains the predominant role that the Acadians and their descendants played in the
history of Quebec. The Premier of Quebec, Bernard Landry, declared at this
unveiling that:
Between the Québécois people and the Acadian people, there is more than friendship,
there is kinship.[355]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Quebec
Ambox current red Americas.svg
This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: Economic data is out-of-
date, most is from 2011. Please update this article to reflect recent events or
newly available information. (June 2019)
Quebec has an advanced, market-based, and open economy. In 2009, its gross domestic
product (GDP) of US$32,408 per capita at purchasing power parity puts the province
at par with Japan, Italy and Spain, but remains lower than the Canadian average of
US$37,830 per capita.[356][verification needed] The economy of Quebec is ranked the
37th largest economy in the world just behind Greece and 28th for the GDP per
capita.[357][358]

For the 2017-2018 period, Quebec's budget was C$103,7 billion. This budget planned
to provide $3 billion more to the healthcare sector over 2 years.[359][360]

View of Montreal from the Mont-Royal belvedere

The economy of Quebec represents 20.36% of the total GDP of Canada. Like most
industrialized countries, the economy of Quebec is based mainly on the services
sector. Quebec's economy has traditionally been fuelled by abundant natural
resources, a well-developed infrastructure, and average productivity. The
provincial GDP in 2010 was C$319,348 billion,[361] making Quebec the second largest
economy in Canada.

The provincial debt-to-GDP ratio peaked at 50.7% in fiscal year 2012–2013, and is
projected to decline to 33.8% in 2023–2024.[362] The credit rating of Quebec is
currently Aa2 according to the Moody's agency.[363] In June 2017, Standard & Poor's
(S&P) rated Quebec as an AA- credit risk, surpassing Ontario for the first time.
[364]

The Institut national de la recherche scientifique helps to advance scientific

knowledge and to train a new generation of students in various scientific and
technological sectors. More than one million Quebecers work in the field of science
and technology which represents more than 30% of Quebec's GDP.
Quebec's economy has undergone tremendous changes over the last decade.[365] Firmly
grounded in the knowledge economy, Quebec has one of the highest growth rate of GDP
in Canada. The knowledge sector represents about 30.9% of Quebec's GDP.[366] In
2011, Quebec experienced faster growth of its research-and-development (R&D)
spending than other Canadian provinces.[367] Quebec's spending in R&D in 2011 was
equal to 2.63% of GDP, above the European Union average of 1.84% and will have to
reaches the target of devoting 3% of GDP to research and development activities in
2013 according to the Lisbon Strategy.[368] The percentage spent on research and
technology is the highest in Canada and higher than the averages for the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the G7 countries.[369]
Approximately 1.1 million Quebecers work in the field of science and technology.
[370]

Industries

A mockup of a Bombardier CSeries being developed by Bombardier Aerospace. Since

1856, Quebec has established itself as a pioneer of modern aerospace industry.[371]
Quebec has over 260 companies which employ about 43,000 people. Approximately 62%
of the Canadian aerospace industry is based in Quebec.[372][373]
Quebec is also a major player in several leading-edge industries including
aerospace, information technologies and software, and multimedia. Approximately 60%
of the production of the Canadian aerospace industry are from Quebec, where sales
totalled C$12.4 billion in 2009.[374] Quebec is one of North America's leading
high-tech players. This vast sector encompassing approximately 7,300 businesses and
employ more than 145,000 people.[375] Then-Premier Pauline Marois unveiled a $2-
billion budget for the period between 2013 to 2017 to create about 115,000 new jobs
in knowledge and innovation sectors; the government also promised to provide about
3% of Quebec's GDP in R&D.[376]

Approximately 52% of Canadian companies in the information technology (IT) sector

are based in Quebec, mainly in Montreal and Quebec City. For instance, there are
currently approximately 115 telecommunications companies established in the
province, such as Motorola and Ericsson.[377] About 180,000 Quebeckers work in
different fields of IT.[378] About 60,000 people currently work in computer
software development; approximately 12,900 work in over 110 such companies as IBM,
CMC, and Matrox. The multimedia sector is also dominated by the province of Quebec.
Several companies, such as Ubisoft settled in Quebec since the late 1990s.[377]

The mining industry accounted for 6.3% of Quebec's GDP.[379] As of 2011, it employs
about 50,000 people in 158 companies.[380]

The pulp and paper industry generates annual shipments valued at more than $14
billion.[381] The forest products industry ranks second in exports, with shipments
valued at almost $11 billion. It is also the main, and in some circumstances only,
source of manufacturing activity in more than 250 municipalities in the province.
The forest industry has slowed in recent years because of the softwood lumber
dispute.[382] This industry employs 68,000 people in several regions of Quebec.
[383] This industry accounted for 3.1% of Quebec's GDP.[384]

The agri-food industry plays an important role in the economy of Quebec, with meat
and dairy products being the two main sectors. It accounts for 8% of the Quebec's
GDP and generate $19.2 billion. This industry generated 487,000 jobs in
agriculture, fisheries, manufacturing of food, beverages and tobacco and food
distribution.[385]

Companies
Some of the most important national Québécois companies include: Bombardier,
Desjardins, the National Bank of Canada, the Jean Coutu Group, Transcontinental
média, Quebecor, the Métro Inc. food retailers, Hydro-Québec, the Société des
alcools du Québec, the Bank of Montreal, Saputo, the Cirque du Soleil, the Caisse
de dépôt et placement du Québec, the Normandin restaurants, and Vidéotron.[386]

Other renowned Quebec companies include: pulp and paper producers Cascades and
AbitibiBowater; milk producer Agropur; information technology company CGI; Cirque
du Soleil; convenience store chain Couche-Tard; the GardaWorld Security
Corporation; the energy distributor Gaz Métro; the marketing firm Groupe Cossette
Communication; the media and telecommunications company Quebecor; the accounting
firm Raymond Chabot Grant Thornton; the Saputo fromagerie; the Vachon bakery; the
engineering and construction group SNC-Lavalin, among others.

Exports and imports

Thanks to the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA), Quebec is experiencing an increase in its ability to compete on
the international market. As a result of these two agreements, Quebec's trade
relations with other countries have become more dynamic and the province has seen
its exports increase significantly. NAFTA is especially advantageous as it gives
Quebec, among other things, access to a market of 130 million consumers within a
radius of 1,000 kilometers. These international exchanges contribute to the
strength of the Quebec economy, most particularly in terms of employment. About 60%
of exports are made to outside of Canada.[387]

Quebec's exports to the international market. The United States is the country
which buys the most Québécois exports by far.
In 2008, Québécois exports to other provinces in Canada and abroad totaled 157.3
billion CND$, or 51.8% of Quebec's gross domestic product (GDP). Of this total,
60.4% were international exports, and 39.6% were interprovincial exports. The
breakdown by destination of international merchandise exports is as follows: United
States (72.2%), Europe (14.4%), Asia (5.1%), Middle East (2.7%), Central America
(2.3%), South America (1.9%), Africa (0.8%) and Oceania (0.7%). Though Quebec
exports much internationally, Quebec's main economic partner remains the rest of
Canada.[387]

In 2008, Quebec imported $178-billion worth of goods and services, or 58.6% of its
GDP. Of this total, 62.9% of goods were imported from international markets, while
37.1% of goods were interprovincial imports. The breakdown by origin of
international merchandise imports is as follows: United States (31.1%), Europe
(28.7%), Asia (17.1%), Africa (11.7%), South America (4.5%), Central America
(3.7%), Middle East (1.3%) and Oceania (0.7%).[387]

Natural resources

The mining town of Fermont, North Shore, the beginning of the road of iron
The abundance of natural resources gives Quebec an advantageous position on the
world market. Quebec stands out particularly in the mining sector, ranking among
the top ten areas to do business in mining.[388] It also stands for the
exploitation of its forest resources.

Quebec is remarkable for the natural resources of its vast territory. It has about
30 mines, 158 exploration companies and fifteen primary processing industries. Many
metallic minerals are exploited, the principals are gold, iron, copper and zinc.
Many other substances are extracted including titanium, asbestos, silver,
magnesium, nickel and many other metals and industrial minerals.[389] However, only
40% of the mineral potential of Quebec is currently known. In 2003, the value of
mineral exploitation reached Quebec 3.7 billion Canadian dollars.[390] Moreover, as
a major centre of exploration for diamonds,[391] Quebec has seen, since 2002, an
increase in its mineral explorations, particularly in the Northwest as well as in
the Otish Mountains and the Torngat Mountains.

The vast majority (90.5%) of Quebec's forests are publicly owned. Forests cover
more than half of Quebec's territory, for a total area of nearly 761,100 km2
(293,900 sq mi).[392] The Quebec forest area covers seven degrees of latitude.

More than a million lakes and rivers cover Quebec, occupying 21% of the total area
of its territory. The aquatic environment is composed of 12.1% of fresh water and
9.2% of saltwater (percentage of total QC area).[393]

Energy
See also: Hydro-Québec and List of generating stations in Quebec

The Beauharnois generating station is one of the more than 63 hydroelectric power
stations operated by Hydro-Québec.
Unlike most other regions of the world, Quebec stands out for its use of renewable
energy. In 2008, electricity (more than 99% of which came from renewable energy
sources) ranked as the main form of energy used in Quebec (41.6%), followed by oil
(38.2%) and natural gas (10.7%).[394] Over time, Quebec pivots more and more
towards renewable energy; in 2017, 47% of all energy came from renewable sources.
[395]

Quebec produces the vast majority of the hydroelectricity in Canada and is, on its
own, one of the main hydroelectricity producers of the world, behind only China,
Brazil and the United States.[396] Because of this, Quebec has been described as a
potential clean energy superpower.[397] In 2019, Quebec's electricity production
amounted to 214 terawatt-hours (TWh), 95% of which comes from hydroelectric power
stations, and 4.7% of which come from wind energy. Thermal electricity production
is almost completely absent from Quebec, except for a few power stations exploiting
forest biomass or diesel generators which supply some twenty remote communities.
[398]

The public company Hydro-Québec occupies a dominant position in the production,

transmission and distribution of electricity in Quebec. Hydro-Québec operates 63
hydroelectric power stations and 28 large reservoirs; they guarantee a stable and
flexible supply which adjusts according to demand.[399] Because of the remoteness
of Hydro-Québec's TransÉnergie division, with its main facilities located in James
Bay and on the Côte-Nord, the TransÉnergie division operates the largest
electricity transmission network in North America. Their network includes 34,361 km
of lines and 17 interconnections with neighbouring markets,[400] allowing for the
export of 38.3 TWh in 2018 alone.[401]

The Valero refinery in Lévis has a production capacity of 265,000 barrels per day.
As Quebec has few significant deposits of fossil fuels,[402] all hydrocarbons are
imported. Refiners' sourcing strategies have varied over time and have depended on
market conditions. In the 1990s, Quebec purchased much of its oil from the North
Sea. Since 2015, it now consumes almost exclusively the crude produced in western
Canada and the United States.[403] Quebec's two active refineries (Valero's in
Lévis, and Suncor's in Montreal) have a total capacity of 402,000 barrels per day,
which is greater than local needs, which stood at 365,000 barrels per day in 2018.
[402]

The natural gas consumed in Quebec arrives through the TC Energy transmission
network. Since 2016, Quebec's main natural gas distributor, the Énergir company,
has been getting its supply at the Dawn reception point in southwestern Ontario,
instead of at its previous main source the Empress intersection in Alberta. This
change has occurred because of an increase in the non-traditional production of
shale gas in North America, stimulating competition between the different supply
basins operated across the continent. In 2018, 86% of natural gas came from Dawn
and 12% from Empress. The rest consists of injections of natural gas produced
locally by the recovery of residual materials.[404]

The Québécois government's energy policy, updated in 2016, has the vision of making
Quebec "a North American leader in the fields of renewable energy and energy
efficiency", in order to build, by 2030, a low carbon economy.[405] The policy aims
in particular to reduce the quantity of petroleum products consumed by 40%,
increase renewable energy production by 25%, and increase the production of
bioenergy by 50%. The government estimates that its targets should reduce
greenhouse gas emissions by 16 megatonnes of CO2 equivalent by 2030.[406]

Tourism
Main articles: Tourism in Quebec and List of festivals in Quebec

The Château Frontenac is the most photographed hotel in the world

Before June 1845, Percé Rock had two holes

Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Quebec.
The tourism industry is a major economic pillar in Quebec, being the 5th largest
export class. The Ministry of Tourism ensures the development of this industry
under the commercial name "Bonjour Québec".[407] The Institut de tourisme et
d'hôtellerie du Québec also educates and trains professionals for this field.[408]

The industry provides employment to over 400,000 people.[409] These employees work
in the more than 29,000 tourism-related businesses in Quebec, most of which are
restaurants or hotels. 70% of tourism-related businesses are located in or close to
Montreal or Québec. It is estimated that, in 2010, Quebec welcomed 25.8 million
tourists. Of this number, 76.1% came from Quebec, 12.2% from the rest of Canada,
7.7% from the United States and 4.1% from other countries. Those from other
countries mostly came from France, the United Kingdom, Germany, Mexico or Japan. In
2010, it was tourists from France who sojourned the longest (14.9 days on average)
and it was tourists from Mexico who spent the most per day ($176 on average).[410]
Annually, tourists spend more than $6.7 billion in the different spheres of
Quebec's tourism industry.[411] Quebec possesses 21 tourism regions and their
development is taken care of by an autonomous network of regional tourism
associations.[412]

Finally, Quebec is the theatre where many international events take place. These
events often include sports competitions (e.g., Canadian Grand Prix, Rogers Cup,
etc.) and festivals (e.g., Quebec Winter Carnival, Montreal International Jazz
Festival, Festival d'été de Québec, etc.).

Ranking in the Canadian economy

Quebec is the 3rd most attractive province for investment from the mining industry
(2016)[413]
Quebec is in 2nd place for child care services (2019)[414]
Quebec is in 1st place for the highest amount of milk produced and biggest amount
of farms engaged in the dairy industry (2019)[415]
Quebec produces most of Canada's hydroelectricity and is the 2nd biggest
hydroelectricity producer in the world (2019)[416]
Quebec is the province with the most syndicates (2019)[417]
Quebec is in 8th place for the general performance of its healthcare system (2019)
[418]
Quebec is the 2nd most important province for tourism in Canada, receiving 21.5% of
tourists' spending (2021)[419]
Quebec has the most registered electric vehicles of any Canadian province (2019)
[420]
Science and technology

In 1969, Héroux-Devtek designed and manufactured the undercarriage of the Apollo

Lunar Module.
Science and technology are key factors in the economic position of Quebec, with
more than one million people in Quebec are employed in the science and technology
sector.[370]

In 2007, the Government of Quebec launched the Stratégie québécoise de la recherche

et de l'innovation (SQRI) aiming to promote development through research, science
and technology. The government hoped to create a strong culture of innovation in
Quebec for the next decades and to create a sustainable economy.[421] The spending
on research and development reached some $7.824 billion in 2007, roughly the
equivalent of 2.63% of Quebec's GDP.[421]

As of March 2011, Quebec is ranked 13th in the world in terms of investment in

research and development (R&D).[422] The R&D expenditures were more than 3% of the
province's GDP in 2013, higher than the average G7 and OECD countries.[370]

Rudolph A. Marcus, chemist and Nobel Prize in Chemistry laureate[423]

Quebec is considered as one of world leaders in fundamental scientific research,
having produced ten Nobel laureates in either physics, chemistry, or medicine.[424]
It is also considered as one of the world leaders in sectors such as aerospace,
information technology, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, and therefore plays a
significant role in the world's scientific and technological communities.[425]
Quebec is also active in the development of its energy industries, including
renewable energy such as hydropower and wind power. As of 2011, Quebec has had over
9,469 scientific publications in the sector of medicine, biomedical research and
engineering since the year 2000.[426] Overall, the province of Quebec count about
125 scientific publications per 100,000 inhabitants in 2009.[427] The contribution
of Quebec in science and technology represent approximately 1% of the researches
worldwide since the 1980s to 2009.[428] Between 1991 to 2000, Quebec produced more
scientific papers per 100,000 inhabitants than the United States and Germany.[429]

The Canadian Space Agency was established in Quebec due to its major role in this
research field. A total of four Quebecers have been in space since the creation of
the CSA: Marc Garneau, Julie Payette, and David Saint-Jacques as CSA astronauts,
plus Guy Laliberté as a private citizen who paid for his trip. Quebec has also
contributed to the creation of some Canadian artificial satellites including
SCISAT-1, ISIS, Radarsat-1 and Radarsat-2.[430][431][432]

The province is one of the world leaders in the field of space science and
contributed to important discoveries in this field.[433] One of the most recent is
the discovery of the complex extrasolar planets system HR 8799. HR 8799 is the
first direct observation of an exoplanet in history.[434][435] Olivier Daigle and
Claude Carignan, astrophysicists from Université de Montréal have invented an
astronomical camera approximately 500 times more powerful than those currently on
the market.[436] It is therefore considered as the most sensitive camera in the
world.[437][438][439] The Mont Mégantic Observatory was recently equipped with this
camera.[440]

Quebec ranks among the world leaders in the field of life science.[441] William
Osler, Wilder Penfield, Donald Hebb, Brenda Milner, and others made significant
discoveries in medicine, neuroscience and psychology while working at McGill
University in Montreal. Quebec has more than 450 biotechnology and pharmaceutical
companies which together employ more than 25,000 people and 10,000 highly qualified
researchers.[441] Montreal is ranked 4th in North America for the number of jobs in
the pharmaceutical sector.[441][442]

Education
Main articles: Education in Quebec, Higher education in Quebec, List of
universities in Quebec, List of colleges in Quebec, and List of schools in Quebec
The education system of Quebec differs from those of other Canadian provinces. From
the establishment of Canada in the 16th century up to the Quiet Revolution in the
1960s, the Catholic Church was in charge of the education system of Quebec. Today,
this education system is administered by the government of Quebec's Ministry of
Education and Higher Education.

The province has five levels of education: first preschool, then primary school,
then secondary school [fr]; then CEGEP (see College education in Quebec); and
finally university education [fr]. Attached to these levels are the options to also
attend professional development opportunities, classes for adults, and continuing
education. For every level of teaching, there exists a public network and private
network: the public network is financed by taxes while the private options must be
paid for by the student. In 2020, school boards were replaced by school service
centres.[443]

All universities in Quebec exist by virtue of laws adopted by the National Assembly
of Quebec in 1967 during the Quiet Revolution. Their financing mostly comes from
public taxes, but the laws under which they operate grants them more autonomy than
other levels of education.[444]

Teachers are represented by province-wide unions that negotiate province-wide

working conditions with local school service centres and the government of Quebec.
[445][446]

School work and tests are normally graded using one of two methods (or both
simultaneously): a percentage-based 0 to 100% correct system (60% correct is
usually the minimum passing grade), or, a letter grade system going from A (best)
down to B, C, D and finally, F (failure).[447]

Infrastructure
Transportation

The ferry N.M. Camille-Marcoux, of the Société des traversiers du Québec, that used
to ensure liaison Baie-Comeau—Matane and Godbout—Matane
Main articles: List of airports in Quebec, List of Quebec railways, and List of
Quebec provincial highways
Development and security of land transportation in Canada are provided by
Transports Québec.[448] Other organizations, such as the Canadian Coast Guard and
Nav Canada, provide the same service for the sea and air transportation. The
Commission des transports du Québec works with the freight carriers and the public
transport.

The réseau routier québécois (Quebec road network) is managed by the Société de
l'assurance automobile du Québec (SAAQ; Quebec Automobile Insurance Corporation)
and consists of about 185,000 km (115,000 mi) of highways and national, regional,
local, collector and forest roads. In addition, Quebec has almost 12,000 bridges,
tunnels, retaining walls, culverts and other structures[449] such as the Quebec
Bridge, the Laviolette Bridge and the Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine Bridge–Tunnel.

In the waters of the Saint Lawrence there are eight deep-water ports for the
transhipment of goods. In 2003, 3886 cargo and 9.7 million tonnes of goods
transited the Quebec portion of the Saint Lawrence Seaway.[450]

Concerning rail transport, Quebec has 6,678 km (4,150 mi) of railways[451]

integrated in the large North American network. Although primarily intended for the
transport of goods through companies such as the Canadian National (CN) and the
Canadian Pacific (CP), the Quebec railway network is also used by inter-city
passengers via Via Rail Canada and Amtrak. In April 2012, plans were unveiled for
the construction of an 800 km (497 mi) railway running north from Sept-Îles, to
support mining and other resource extraction in the Labrador Trough.[452]

The upper air network includes 43 airports that offer scheduled services on a daily
basis.[450] In addition, the Government of Quebec owns airports and heliports to
increase the accessibility of local services to communities in the Basse-Côte-Nord
and northern regions.[453]

Various other transport networks crisscross the province of Quebec, including

hiking trails, snowmobile trails and bike paths; the Green Road being the largest
with nearly 4,000 km (2,500 mi) in length.[454]

Healthcare
Québécois public health pursues a health policy that emphasizes prevention
(especially with hygiene and diet), is based on the analysis of health-related
data, and evolves with the needs of the population. Like in other nations, the
public health policies implemented in Québécois society have enabled Québécois to
considerably extend their life expectancy since the mid-20th century.[455]
Health and social services are part of the same administration. The Quebec health
system is also public, which means that the state acts as the main insurer and
administrator, that funding is provided by general taxation, and that patients have
access to care regardless of their income level.

There are 34 health establishments in Quebec, 22 of which are a Integrated Health

and Social Services Centre [fr] (CISSS). They ensure the distribution of different
services on the territories they are assigned to. Quebec has approximately 140
hospitals for general or specialised care (CHSGS). Quebec also has other types of
establishments in its healthcare system, such as Centre local de services
communautaires (CLSC), Centre d'hébergement et de soins de longue durée (CHSLD),
Centre de réadaptation and Centre de protection de l'enfance et de la jeunesse.
Finally, there are private healthcare establishments (paid for directly by the
patient) like Groupe de médecine de famille [fr], pharmacies, private clinics,
dentists, community organisations and retirement homes.[456]

Culture
Main article: Culture of Quebec
Quebec has developed its own unique culture from its historic New France roots. Its
culture also symbolizes a distinct perspective: being a French-speaking nation
surrounded by a bigger English-speaking culture. Quebecois nationalism has been one
expression of this perspective. The culture has also been influenced by First
Nations, the British, Americans, other French-speaking North Americans like the
Acadians and Franco-Ontarians, English-speaking Canadians and some immigrants.
Quebec is the centre of French America.

Montreal's cabarets rose to the forefront of the city's cultural life during the
Prohibition era of Canada and the United States in the 1920s. The cabarets
radically transformed the artistic scene, greatly influencing the live
entertainment industry of Quebec.[457] The Quartier Latin (English: Latin Quarter)
of Montreal, and Vieux-Québec (English: Old Quebec) in Quebec City, are two hubs of
activity for today's artists. Life in the cafés and "terrasses" (outdoor restaurant
terraces) reveals a Latin influence in Quebec's culture, with the théâtre Saint-
Denis in Montréal and the Capitole de Québec theatre in Quebec City being among the
principal attractions.

A number of governmental and non-government organizations support cultural activity

in Quebec. The Conseil des arts et des lettres du Québec (CALQ) is an initiative of
the Ministry of Culture and Communications (Quebec). It supports creation,
innovation, production, and international exhibits for all cultural fields of
Quebec. The Société de développement des entreprises culturelles (SODEC) works to
promote and fund individuals working in the cultural industry. The Prix du Québec
is an award given by the government to confer the highest distinction and honour to
individuals demonstrating exceptional achievement in their respective cultural
field. Other Québécois awards include the Athanase David Awards (Literature), Félix
Awards (Music), Gémeaux Awards (Television and film), Jutra Awards (Cinema),
Masques Awards (Theatre), Olivier Guimond Awards (Humour) and the Opus Awards
(Concert music).

Civic values and social order

Quebec is a free and democratic society that abides by the rule of law.[458] The
Government of Quebec cites five statements that represent the key values of
Québécois society:[459][460]

Quebec is a francophone society

Quebec is a democratic society
Women and men are equal
Québécois have rights and responsibilities
Quebec is a laïque society
Québécois society bases its cohesion and specificity on a set of statements, a few
notable examples of which include:

The Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms[461]

The Charter of the French Language[462]
The Civil Code of Quebec[463]
Music and dance
Main articles: Music of Quebec and Dance in Quebec
Traditional music is imbued with many dances, such as the jig, the quadrille, the
reel and line dancing, which developed in the festivities since the early days of
colonization. Various instruments are more popular in Quebec's culture: harmonica
(music-of-mouth or lip-destruction), fiddle, spoons, jaw harp and accordion. The
podorythmie is a characteristic of traditional Quebec music and means giving the
rhythm with the feet.[464] Quebec traditional music is currently provided by
various contemporary groups seen mostly during Christmas and New Year's Eve
celebrations, Quebec National Holiday and many local festivals.

Being a modern cosmopolitan society, today, all types of music can be found in
Quebec. From folk music to hip-hop, music has always played an important role in
Quebercers culture. From La Bolduc in the 1920s–1930s to the contemporary artists,
the music in Quebec has announced multiple songwriters and performers, pop singers
and crooners, music groups and many more. Quebec's most popular artists of the last
century include the singers Félix Leclerc (1950s), Gilles Vigneault (1960s–
present), Kate and Anna McGarrigle (1970s–present) and Céline Dion (1980s–present).
[465] The First Nations and the Inuit of Quebec also have their own traditional
music.

From Quebec's musical repertoire, the song A La Claire Fontaine[466] was the anthem
of the New France, Patriots and French Canadian, then replaced by O Canada.
Currently, the song Gens du pays is by far preferred by many Quebecers to be the
national anthem of Quebec. The Association québécoise de l'industrie du disque, du
spectacle et de la vidéo (ADISQ) was created in 1978 to promote the music industry
in Quebec.[467] The Orchestre symphonique de Québec and the Orchestre symphonique
de Montréal are respectively associated with the Opéra de Québec and the Opéra de
Montreal whose performances are presented at the Grand Théâtre de Québec and at
Place des Arts. The Ballets Jazz de Montreal, the Grands Ballets and La La La Human
Steps are three important professional troupes of contemporary dance.

Film, television, and radio

Main articles: Cinema of Quebec and Television in Quebec
The Cinémathèque québécoise has a mandate to promote the film and television
heritage of Quebec. Similarly, the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), a federal
Crown corporation, provides for the same mission in Canada. In a similar way, the
Association of Film and Television in Quebec (APFTQ) promotes independent
production in film and television.[468] While the Association of Producers and
Directors of Quebec (APDQ) represents the business of filmmaking and television,
the Association of Community Radio Broadcasters of Quebec (ARCQ) (French acronym)
represents the independent radio stations.[469] Several movie theatres across
Quebec ensure the dissemination of Quebec cinema. With its cinematic installations,
such as the Cité du cinéma and Mel's studios, the city of Montreal is home to the
filming of various productions.[470] The State corporation Télé-Québec, the federal
Crown corporation CBC, general and specialized private channels, networks,
independent and community radio stations broadcast the various Quebec téléromans,
the national and regional news, interactive and spoken programmations, etc.[471]
[472] Les Rendez-vous du cinéma québécois is a festival surrounding the ceremony of
the Jutra Awards Night that rewards work and personalities of Quebec cinema.[473]
The Artis and the Gemini Awards gala recognize the personalities of television and
radio industry in Quebec and French Canada. The Film Festival of the 3 Americas,
Quebec City, the Festival of International Short Film, Saguenay, the World Film
Festival and the Festival of New Cinema, Montreal, are other annual events
surrounding the film industry in Quebec.

Literature and theatre

Main article: Quebec literature

Émile Nelligan, a Quebec poet famous for his poem Winter evening
From New France, Quebec literature was first developed in the travel accounts of
explorers such as Jacques Cartier, Jean de Brébeuf, the Baron de La Hontan and
Nicolas Perrot, describing their relations with indigenous peoples. The Moulin à
paroles traces the great texts that have shaped the history of Quebec since its
foundation in 1534 until the era of modernity. The first to write the history of
Quebec, since its discovery, was the historian François-Xavier Garneau. This author
will be part of the current of patriotic literature (also known as the "poets of
the country" and literary identity) that will arise after the Patriots Rebellion of
1837–1838.[474]

Many Quebec poets and prominent authors marked their era and today remain anchored
in the collective imagination, like, among others, Philippe Aubert de Gaspé, Octave
Crémazie, Honoré Beaugrand, Émile Nelligan, Lionel Groulx, Gabrielle Roy, Hubert
Aquin, Michel Tremblay, Marie Laberge, Fred Pellerin and Gaston Miron. The regional
novel from Quebec is called Terroir novel and is a literary tradition[475] specific
to the province. It includes such works as The Old Canadians, Maria Chapdelaine, Un
homme et son péché, Le Survenant, etc. There are also many successful plays from
this literary category, such as Les Belles-sœurs and Broue (Brew).

Among the theatre troupes are the Compagnie Jean-Duceppe, the Théâtre La Rubrique
at the Pierrette-Gaudreault venue of the Institut of arts in Saguenay, the Théâtre
Le Grenier, etc. In addition to the network of cultural centres in Quebec,[476] the
venues include the Monument-National and the Rideau Vert (green curtain) Theatre in
Montreal, the Trident Theatre in Quebec City, etc. The National Theatre School of
Canada and the Conservatoire de musique et d'art dramatique du Québec form the
future players.

Popular French-language contemporary writers include Louis Caron, Suzanne Jacob,

Yves Beauchemin, and Gilles Archambault. Mavis Gallant, born in Quebec, lived in
Paris from the 1950s onward. Well-known English-language writers from Quebec
include Leonard Cohen, Mordecai Richler, and Neil Bissoondath.

Fine arts

La Cavalière by Charles Daudelin, 1963, installed in front of the pavilion Gérard

Morisset of the Quebec National Museum of Fine Arts in Quebec City
First influenced since the days of New France by Catholicism, with works from Frère
Luc (Brother Luke) and more recently from Ozias Leduc and Guido Nincheri, art of
Quebec has developed around the specific characteristics of its landscapes and
cultural, historical, social and political representations.[477]

Thus, the development of Quebec masterpieces in painting, printmaking and sculpture

is marked by the contribution of artists such as Louis-Philippe Hébert, Cornelius
Krieghoff, Alfred Laliberté, Marc-Aurèle Fortin, Marc-Aurèle de Foy Suzor-Coté,
Jean Paul Lemieux, Clarence Gagnon, Adrien Dufresne, Alfred Pellan, Jean-Philippe
Dallaire, Charles Daudelin, Arthur Villeneuve, Jean-Paul Riopelle, Paul-Émile
Borduas and Marcelle Ferron.

The Fine arts of Quebec are displayed at the Quebec National Museum of Fine Arts,
the Montreal Museum of Contemporary Art, the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, the
Quebec Salon des métiers d'art and in many art galleries. While many works decorate
the public areas of Quebec, others are displayed in foreign countries such as the
sculpture Embâcle (Jam) by Charles Daudelin on Québec Place in Paris and the statue
Québec Libre! (free Quebec!) by Armand Vaillancourt in San Francisco. The Montreal
School of Fine Arts forms the painters, printmakers and sculptors of Quebec.

Various buildings reflect the architectural heritage that characterizes Quebec,

such as religious buildings, city halls, houses of large estates, and other
locations throughout the province.

Circus and street art

The show Dralion, Cirque du Soleil, introduced in 2004

Several circus troupes were created in recent decades, the most important being
without any doubt the Cirque du Soleil.[478] Among these troops are contemporary,
travelling and on-horseback circuses, such as Les 7 Doigts de la Main, Cirque
Éloize, Cavalia, Kosmogonia, Saka and Cirque Akya.[479] Presented outdoors under a
tent or in venues similar to the Montreal Casino, the circuses attract large crowds
both in Quebec and abroad. In the manner of touring companies of the Renaissance,
the clowns, street performers, minstrels, or troubadours travel from city to city
to play their comedies. Although they may appear randomly from time to time during
the year, they are always visible in the cultural events such as the Winterlude in
Gatineau, the Quebec Winter Carnival, the Gatineau Hot Air Balloon Festival, the
Quebec City Summer Festival, the Just for Laughs Festival in Montreal and the
Festival of New France in Quebec.

The National Circus School and the École de cirque de Québec were created to train
future Contemporary circus artists. For its part, Tohu, la Cité des Arts du Cirque
was founded in 2004 to disseminate the circus arts.[480]

Heritage
Main articles: Quebec Cultural Heritage Directory and Bibliothèque et Archives
nationales du Québec

The school and the convent of the Congregation of Our Lady of Good Council, the
ghost town of Val-Jalbert, Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean
The Cultural Heritage Fund is a program of the Quebec government[481] for the
conservation and development of Quebec's heritage, together with various laws.[482]
Several organizations ensure that same mission, both in the social and cultural
traditions in the countryside and heritage buildings, including the Commission des
biens culturels du Québec, the Quebec Heritage Foundation, the Conservation Centre
of Quebec, the Centre for development of living heritage, the Quebec Council of
living heritage, the Quebec Association of heritage interpretation, etc.

Several sites, houses and historical works reflect the cultural heritage of Quebec,
such as the Village Québécois d'Antan, the historical village of Val-Jalbert, the
Fort Chambly, the national home of the Patriots, the Chicoutimi pulp mill (Pulperie
de Chicoutimi), the Lachine Canal and the Victoria Bridge. Strongly influenced by
the presence of the Catholic Church, the development of the religious history of
Quebec is provided by organizations like the Council of the religious heritage of
Quebec. Since 2007, the government promotes, with the various players in the field,
the conclusion of agreements on the use of property belonging to episcopal
factories and corporations to establish "partnerships in financing the restoration
and renovation of religious buildings."[483]

As of December 2011, there are 190 National Historic Sites of Canada in Quebec.
[484] These sites were designated as being of national historic significance.[485]

Various museums tell the cultural history of Quebec, like the Museum of
Civilization, the Museum of French America, the McCord Museum or the Montreal
Museum of Archaeology and History in Pointe-à-Callière, displaying artifacts,
paintings and other remains from the past of Quebec. Many literary works reproduce
the daily lives of the past, following the social and cultural traditions of Quebec
television series reproducing the old days[486] such as the trilogy of Pierre
Gauvreau (Le Temps d'une paix, Cormoran and Le Volcan tranquille), La Famille
Plouffe, Les Belles Histoires des Pays-d'en-Haut, La Petite Patrie, Entre chien et
loup, Les Filles de Caleb, Blanche, Au nom du père et du fils, Marguerite Volant,
Nos Étés or Musée Éden, among others.

Cuisine
Main article: Cuisine of Quebec

A classic poutine from La Banquise in Montreal

Montreal-style smoked meat from Schwartz's in Montreal

The traditional Quebecois cuisine descends from 16th century French cuisine, the
fur trade and a history of hunting. French settlers populating North America were
interested in a new cuisine to confront the climate and the needs arising from the
work of colonization. It has many similarities with Acadian cuisine. Quebec's
cuisine has also been influenced by learning from First Nation, by English cuisine
and by American cuisine. Quebec is most famous for its Tourtière, Pâté Chinois,
Poutine, St. Catherine's taffy among others. "Le temps des sucres" is a period
during springtime when many Quebecers go to the sugar shack (cabane à sucre) for a
traditional meal. Traditional dishes are also the star of Le temps des fêtes
(holiday season, a period which covers the winter holidays.

Quebec is the biggest maple syrup producer on the planet.[487] About 72% of the
maple syrup sold on the international market (and 90% of the maple syrup sold in
Canada) originates from Quebec. The province has a long history of developing and
perfecting the craft of producing maple syrup, and creating new maple-derived
products.

Quebec has produced beer since the beginning of colonization especially with the
emergence of spruce beer. Quebec also produces a great number of high-quality wines
including ice wine and ice cider. Because of the climate and available resources,
it is only since the 1980s that these drinks can be produced in industrial
quantities. Today there are nearly a hundred breweries and companies, including
Unibroue, Molson Coors, Labatt and many others.

Quebec has produced cheese for centuries. Most of the first cheeses were soft
cheeses, but after the Conquest of New France, hard cheese began to be created as
well. The first cheese-making school in North America was established in Saint-
Denis-de-Kamouraska in 1893. It was at this moment that the monks of La Trappe of
Oka began to produce the famous Oka cheese. Today there are over 700 different
cheeses in Quebec.

Sports

The Montreal Canadiens at the Bell Centre

Sports in Quebec constitutes an essential dimension of Quebec culture. The practice
of sports and outdoor activities in Quebec was influenced largely by its geography
and climate. Ice hockey remains the national sport. This sport, which was played
for the first time on March 3, 1875, at the Victoria Skating Rink in Montreal and
promoted over the years by numerous achievements, including the centenary of the
Montreal Canadiens, still raises passions.[488] Other major sports include Canadian
football with the Montreal Alouettes, soccer with Club de Foot Montréal, the Grand
Prix du Canada Formula 1 racing with drivers such as Gilles Villeneuve and Jacques
Villeneuve, and professional baseball with the former Montreal Expos. During its
history, Quebec has hosted several major sporting events; including the 1976 Summer
Olympics, the Fencing World Championships in 1967, track cycling in 1974, and the
Transat Québec-Saint-Malo race created for the first time in 1984.

Québec athletes have performed well at the Winter Olympics over recent years. They
won 12 of Canada's 29 medals at the most recent Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang
(2018); they won 12 of the 27 Canadian medals in Sochi (2014); and 9 of the 26
Canadian medals in Vancouver (2010).[489]

Folklore and legends

Main article: Folklore of Quebec

La chasse-galerie (1906) by Henri Julien, showing a scene from a popular Quebec

folk legend.
When the early settlers arrived from France in the 17th century, they brought with
them popular tales from their homeland. Adapted to fit the traditions of rural
Quebec by transforming the European hero into Ti-Jean, a generic rural habitant,
they eventually spawned many other tales. Many were passed on through generations
by what French speaking Québécois refer to as Les Raconteurs, or storytellers.[490]
Almost all of the stories native to Quebec were influenced by Christian dogma and
superstitions. The Devil, for instance, appears often as either a person, an animal
or monster, or indirectly through Demonic acts.[491] Other forms of folklore
include superstitions associated with objects, events and dreams.

Various tales and stories are told through oral tradition, such as, among many
more, the legends of the Bogeyman, the Chasse-galerie, the Black Horse of Trois-
Pistoles, the Complainte de Cadieux, the Corriveau, the dancing devil of Saint-
Ambroise, the Giant Beaupré, the monsters of the lakes Pohénégamook and
Memphremagog, of Quebec Bridge (called the Devil's Bridge), the Rocher Percé and of
Rose Latulipe, for example.[492]

Quebec's French-speaking populace has the second largest body of folktales in

Canada (the first being First Nations).[493] The Association Quebecoise des Loisirs
Folkloriques is an organization committed to preserving and disseminating Quebec's
folklore heritage. It produces a number of publications and recordings, as well as
sponsoring other activities.[494]

Institutions

The Musée d'art contemporain de Montréal

See also: List of museums in Quebec and List of art schools in Quebec
Quebec's rich heritage of culture and history can be explored through a network of
museums, which include the Musée d'art contemporain de Montréal, the Musée de la
civilisation and the Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec. Many of Quebec's
artists have been educated in universities' arts faculties and specialized art
schools. Notable schools include the Conservatoire de musique et d'art dramatique
du Québec, the École nationale de théâtre du Canada and the École nationale de
cirque. Finally, many public institutions have been created following the Quiet
Revolution to catalogue and further develop Québécois culture. Notable public
agencies include the Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec, the Conseil des
arts et des lettres du Québec and Télé-Québec.

Architecture
Main article: Architecture of Quebec

Maison Routhier in Sainte-Foy. This kind of Canadien-style house remains a symbol

of Canadien nationalism.
Québécois architecture is characterized by its unique Canadien-style buildings as
well as the juxtaposition of a variety of styles reflective of Quebec's history.
When walking in any city or town, one can come across buildings with styles
congruent to Classical, Neo-Gothic, Roman, Neo-Renaissance, Greek Revival, Neo-
Classical, Québécois Neo-Classical, Victorian, Second Empire, Modern, Post-modern
or Skyscrapers.

Canadien-style houses and barns were developed by the first settlers of New France
who settled along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River. These buildings are
rectangular one-storey structures with an extremely tall and steep roof, sometimes
almost twice as tall as the house below. It is thought that this roof design may
have been developed to prevent the accumulation of snow. They were usually built
out of wood, but the surviving ones are almost all built out of stone.

Canadien-style churches also developed. Each new village would build its own
church, often being inspired by the churches of Québec and Montreal in the process.
These churches long served as landmarks while traversing rural Quebec and were
built in the center of the town. Quebec is often said to possess the most beautiful
churches in North America.[495]

Comedy
Main article: Comedy in Quebec

Louis-José Houde, a Québécois comedian and actor, performing during Quebec's Fête
Nationale.
Comedy is a vast cultural sector. Quebec has created and is home to several
different comedy festivals, including the Just for Laughs festival in Montreal, as
well as the Grand Rire festivals of Quebec, Gatineau and Sherbrooke.[496] The
Association des professionnels de l'industrie de l'humour (APIH) is the main
organization for the promotion and development of the cultural sector of humour in
Quebec and the National School of Humour [fr], created in 1988, trains future
humorists in Quebec. The Ligue nationale d'improvisation (LNI), created in 1977,
promotes a number of comedians by combining humour with improvisation theater.[497]
The Gala les Olivier [fr], in honour of the former humorist Olivier Guimond [fr],
rewards the personalities of Quebec comedy.[498]

Many popular Québécois comedy shows exist, such as Cré Basile, Le zoo du Capitaine
Bonhomme, Lundi des Ha! Ha !, Démons du midi, La petite vie, Les Bougon, Le sketch
show, etc. There are also many comedy and cartoon shows for children, such as La
boîte à surprise, Bobino, Le pirate Maboule, Fanfreluche, La Ribouldingue, Les 100
Tours de Centour, Patofville, Passe-Partout, Robin et Stella, Iniminimagimo,
Vazimolo, Télé-Pirate, Bibi et Geneviève, Watatatow, Caillou, Cornemuse, Macaroni
tout garni, Toc toc toc, Ramdam, Tactik, etc.[499]

Fashion

A Voyageur wearing a fur hat and a capote coat.

During the 17th century, the nobles and the bourgeois followed the fashions of
France. They were always one year late to the fashion of Paris because it took one
year for the King's ship to arrive.[500] The habitants, including the lords and
serfs of the seigneuries, adapted their clothes to the customs of Native Americans:
women wore shorter skirts and shawls, and men wore mitasses (a type of leggings
originating with First Nations), moccasins and woolen toques. Many poorer women
often arranged their hair on Sunday in a more sophisticated fashion, despite
administrators of the colony stating that this style was reserved for the bourgeois
and nobles. Some women wore clothes deemed indecent, with breasts almost visible.
[501]

The Coureur des bois and Voyageurs wore similar clothing. During the colder months,
they would wear a large coat made of deer, moose, or caribou skin with a large belt
around the middle, called a Ceinture fléchée, made of leather or colorful wool.
Voyageurs had the option of wearing clothes supplied by their employer, so a
Voyageur who worked for the Hudson's Bay Company might have chosen to wear a capote
coat with the traditional HBC stripes on them. Though, those who decided to make
their own capot could style it to their whims. On their heads, they either wore a
fur hat or a toque (a close-fitting knitted cap). Red toques appear frequently in
artwork, but other colours like grey and blue were worn too.

Today, Québécois clothes follow the styles of mass-produced fashion. Québécois

haute fashion is pioneered today with stylists, such as Marie Saint-Pierre, Marie-
Claude Guay, Philippe Dubuc, Leo Chevalier, etc. Works are sold in boutiques and
shops like La Maison Simons, Ogilvy's, Holt Renfrew, Les Ailes de la Mode, etc. The
internationally renowned designers who do business in Quebec are mainly
concentrated in Les Cours Mont-Royal. La Grande Braderie exhibits the works of
Québécois fashion designers. The gala de la Griffe d'or rewards the best of those
creators.

Holidays and traditions

St-Jean-Baptiste Day celebrations at Maisonneuve park in Montréal.

Quebec is home to a number of unique holidays and traditions not found anywhere
else. St-Jean-Baptiste Day is Quebec's national holiday and is one of Quebec's
biggest holidays. Festivities include parades, bonfires, fireworks, drinking,
feasts, musical concerts, flag waving, contests and patriotic speeches.[502]
National Patriots' Day is also a unique public holiday, which honours the patriotes
who fought the British in the Patriots' War with displays of the patriote flag,
marches, music, public speeches, ceremonies and banquets.[503]

Moving Day is a tradition where leases terminate on July 1. This creates a social
phenomenon where everyone seems to be moving out at the same time.[504] The
Construction Holiday was born out of legislation which synchronized a two-week
holiday in July for the entire construction industry.[505] Other traditions
include: the Temps des sucres [fr] (a time in March when people go to sugar
shacks),[506] Québécois snowbirds (people who migrate to Florida every winter),
[507] the Noël des campeurs [fr] (campgrounds celebrating Christmas in July),[508]
etc…

Quebecois can also have different ways of celebrating certain holidays. A good
example is the Réveillon, a giant feast and party which takes place during
Christmas Eve and New Year's Eve and goes on until midnight. Traditional dishes
like tourtière or cipâte are offered, and rigaudon, spoon and/or violin may be
played.[509] April Fools' Day is called Poisson d'Avril ("April's Fish") because
while pulling pranks is still important, there is another major tradition: sticking
fish-shapped paper cutouts to people's backs without them noticing.[510] During
Halloween, the sentence used instead of "trick-or-treat!" varies depending on the
region.

Religion
Main article: Religion in Quebec
Religion, more precisely the Roman Catholic Church, has long occupied a central and
integral place in Quebec society since the arrival of the first French settlers in
New France. However, since the Quiet Revolution and the Second Vatican Council in
the 1960s, there has been a real separation between state and religion, and society
in general sees religion as a private matter. Nevertheless, Catholicism still
represents the beliefs of 75% of the Quebec population in 2011.[511]

François de Montmorency-Laval, the founder of the séminaire de Québec and of the

apostolic vicariate of New France.
With a membership rate of 75% among the Québécois population, Catholicism is the
main religion in Quebec,[511] although the traditional practice is followed by 10%
of believers in Quebec.[512] From the beginning of Canada, and throughout French-
Canadian history, catholicism and the Catholic Church have played a preponderant
role in the social and political development of Quebec.

The first Québécois mass was celebrated by the priest accompanying Jacques Cartier
on his voyage to the New World in 1535. Amerindians were evangelized by Catholic
missionaries before the founding of parishes. In 1627, Cardinal Richelieu recited a
royal proclamation by Louis XIII which banished all non-Catholics, including
Huguenots, from New France. In 1658, the apostolic vicariate of Quebec was founded,
followed by the Archdiocese of Quebec in 1674. The archbishop of Quebec, who today
is the primate of the Catholic Church of Canada, was once part of the Sovereign
Council of New France.[513]

The extraordinary power that the Catholic Church once had in Quebec is reflected in
all areas of culture, from language to the fine arts, theater, literature and film.
[513] The golden age for ecclesiastics would come in the mid-nineteenth century
(around 1840) as this was a period during which the Church, influenced by
ultramontanism, concretized its influence (see Clericalism in Quebec). The
influence of the Church began to wane a hundred years later, when, after the Grande
Noirceur, Quebec society was profoundly transformed by the Quiet Revolution.
Created in 1966, the Assembly of Catholic Bishops of Quebec [fr] deals with current
issues concerning ethical and moral values (ex. gay marriage, euthanasia and
abortion).

Several holy men and women from Quebec have been recognized for their venerable
actions and canonized as saints:

Saint Brother André Bessette canonized in 2010 by Pope Benedict XVI.[514]

Saint Kateri Tekakwitha canonized on October 21, 2012 by Pope Benedict XVI.[515]
Saint Mary of the Incarnation canonized in 2014 by Pope François.[516]
Saint François de Laval canonized in 2014 by Pope François.[517]
Other religions

The Cathedral of the Holy Trinity is an important symbol of the protestant religion
in Quebec.
Protestantism, a practice consisting of reformed catholicism, has been present in
Quebec for a long time. From the very beginning of Canada, several Huguenots of the
calvinist religion were present in Quebec. Huguenots have been identified in almost
all classes of society: settlers, fishermen, daughters of the king, etc. During the
early French Regime, the number of protestant immigrants was estimated to be 1,450
people. In 1627, protestantism became no longer tolerated in New France.[518] After
Quebec fell under British rule, the protestant religion, more particularly of the
anglican faith, became a religion tolerated on Quebecois territory again. This was
because the English immigrants who came to certain regions of Quebec followed this
religion.

The Amerindian religions of Quebec [fr] preceded Catholicism in Quebec.

While the first synagogue was established in Montreal in 1777, Jews remained a
negligible religious group in Quebec until the early 20th century when a wave of
Jewish immigrants settled in Montreal. The Jewish community of today, established
mainly on the island of Montreal, now numbers about 120,000 people.[519] In 2010,
this community was made up of 26.1% traditionalist Jews, 24.3% orthodox, 15.2%
conservative, 9% reconstructionist and reformist, and 25.4% of Montreal Jews say
they have no religious affiliation.[520] In the 20th century, successive waves of
immigrants from Africa, Asia, Greece, Ireland and Italy settled in Montreal,
bringing their cultural and religious customs. Some religious communities, such as
Eastern Christians, then established places of worship.
Churches

The Basilica of Sainte-Anne-de-Beaupré.

The oldest parish church in North America is the Cathedral-Basilica of Notre-Dame
de Québec. Its construction began in 1647, when it was then known under the name
Notre-Dame-de-la-Paix, and it was finished in 1664.[521] Its first mass was
celebrated by Father Vimont on December 24, 1650. This church obtained the status
of cathedral in 1674, when François de Laval became archbishop of Quebec, and then
the status of minor basilica in 1874. It was also rebuilt twice after the siege of
Quebec in 1759 and the fire of 1922.[522]

The most frequented place of worship in Quebec is the Basilica of Sainte-Anne-de-

Beaupré. This basilica welcomes millions of visitors each year, especially during
the novena of Saint Anne, on July 26. The Sainte-Anne-de-Beaupré basilica is
recognized for its numerous miracles, which is why thousands of crutches can be
found at its entrance.[523]

Saint Joseph's Oratory is the largest place of worship in the world dedicated to
Saint Joseph. Located beside Mount Royal, it is known for its 283 steps, which
pilgrims come to climb on their knees every year, reciting a prayer on each of the
steps.

Many pilgrimages include places such as Saint Benedict Abbey, Sanctuaire Notre-
Dame-du-Cap [fr], Notre-Dame de Montréal Basilica, Marie-Reine-du-Monde de Montréal
Basilica-Cathedral, Saint-Michel Basilica-Cathedral, Saint-Patrick's Basilica, etc.

Another important place of worship in Quebec is the anglican Holy Trinity

Cathedral, which was erected between 1800 and 1804. It was the first anglican
cathedral built outside the British Isles.[524]

In August 2019, the Minister of Culture, Nathalie Roy, announced the allocation of
$15 million to preserve the cultural heritage that the churches of Quebec embody,
and $5 million for the requalification of places of worship.[525]

National symbols
Main article: Symbols of Quebec

Quebec's fleur-de-lis are most often blue or white.

In 1939, the government of Quebec unilaterally ratified its coat of arms to reflect
Quebec's political history: French rule (gold lily on blue background), followed by
British rule (lion on red background), followed by Canadian rule (maple leaves),
and with Quebec's motto below "Je me souviens".[526] Je me souviens ("I remember")
was first carved under the coat of arms of Quebec's Parliament Building in 1883. Je
me souviens is an official part of the coat of arms and has been the official
licence plate motto since 1978, replacing the previous one: La belle province ("the
beautiful province"). The expression La belle province is still used as a nickname
for the province. The fleur-de-lis, one of Quebec's most common symbols, is an
ancient symbol of the French monarchy and was first shown in Quebec on the shores
of Gaspésie in 1534 when Jacques Cartier arrived in Quebec for the first time.
Saint-Jean-Baptiste, the patron saint of Canadiens, is honoured every 24 June
during Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day. Finally, the Great Seal of Quebec is used to
authenticate documents issued by the governmnent of Quebec.

The Fleurdelisé flying at Place d'Armes in Montreal

When Samuel de Champlain founded Québec City in 1608, his ship hoisted the French
merchant flag, which consisted of a white cross on a blue background. Later on, at
the Battle of Carillon, in 1758, the Flag of Carillon was flown. This flag inspired
the first members of the Saint-Jean-Baptiste Society to create the Carillon Sacré-
Coeur flag, which consisted of a white cross on an azur background with white
fleur-de-lis in each corner and a Sacred Heart surrounded by maple leaves in the
centre. The Carillon Sacré-Coeur and French merchant flag went on to be the major
inspirations for Québécois when creating Quebec's current flag in 1903, called the
Fleurdelisé. The Fleurdelisé replaced the Union Jack on Quebec's Parliament
Building on January 21, 1948, and it has flown there ever since.

Three new official symbols were adopted in the late 1900s:

Iris versicolor, the floral emblem of Quebec since 1999. It was chosen because it
blooms around the time of Quebec's Fête nationale.[527][528]
The snowy owl, the avian emblem of Quebec since 1987. It was selected by the
Québécois government to symbolize Quebec's winters and northern climate.[527][529]
The yellow birch, the tree emblem of Quebec since 1993. It was picked to emphasize
the importance Québécois give to the forests. The tree is admired for its diverse
uses, its commercial value and its autumn colours.[527]
In 1998, the Montreal Insectarium sponsored a poll to choose an official insect for
Quebec. The white admiral butterfly (Limenitis arthemis)[530] won with 32% of the
230 660 votes. However, the white admiral was never accepted by the Government of
Quebec as an official symbol.[531]

The snowy owl is the avian emblem of Quebec.

Holidays
In 1977, the Quebec Parliament declared June 24, the day of La Saint-Jean-Baptiste,
to be Quebec's National Holiday. La Saint-Jean-Baptiste, or La St-Jean, honours
French Canada's patron saint, John the Baptist. On this day, the song "Gens du
pays", by Gilles Vigneault, is often heard. This song is commonly regarded as
Quebec's unofficial anthem. Festivities occur on June 23 and 24 all over Quebec. In
big cities like Quebec City or Montreal, shows are organized in main public spaces
(such as on the Plains of Abraham in Quebec City, or in Maisonneuve Park in
Montreal) where several of the most popular Québécois artists sing until late at
night.

National Patriots' Day, a statutory holiday in Quebec, celebrates the patriots that
fought in the Lower Canada Rebellion against British forces. Le Vieux de '37 ("The
Old Man of '37") is an illustration by Henri Julien that depicts a patriot of this
rebellion.[532] Le Vieux de '37 is one of the best known symbols of the rebellion
and is sometimes added at the centre of Patriote flags.

External relationships
International relationships-wise, Quebec's closest partner is the United States of
America. Quebec and the United States have a long history of economic relations
(such as the Québécois government borrowing from Wall Street to create Hydro-
Québec, the Grande Hémorragie, etc.) and military-related interactions (e.g.,
American assistance in the Lower Canada Rebellion; American invasion in the War of
1812, etc.).[533] Today, 87% of Quebec's international exports head to the United
States, and Quebec has several economic and military pacts with the U.S. like
NAFTA, NORAD, etc.[387] Products of American culture like songs, movies, fashion
and food strongly affect Québécois culture.

When it comes to other countries, Quebec usually has associations for specific
countries that it is interested in maintaining relationships with. Quebec has a
historied relationship with France as it was a part of the French Empire and both
regions share a language. The Fédération France-Québec [fr] and the francophonie
are a few of the tools used for relations between Quebec and France.[534] In Paris,
a place du Québec was inaugurated in 1980 and renovated in 2011.[535] Quebec also
has a historied relationship with the United Kingdom, having been a part of the
British Empire. Quebec and the UK currently share the same head of state.
General delegations
Main article: Quebec Government Offices
Quebec possesses a network of 32 offices in 18 countries. These offices serve the
purpose of representing Quebec in the country in which they are situated and they
are overseen by Quebec's Ministry of International Relations. Quebec, like other
Canadian provinces, also maintains representatives in some Canadian embassies and
consulates general.

As of 2019, the Government of Quebec has delegates-general (agents-general) in

Brussels, London, Mexico City, Munich, New York City, Paris and Tokyo; delegates to
Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, and Rome; and offices headed by
directors offering more limited services in Barcelona, Beijing, Dakar, Hong Kong,
Mumbai, São Paulo, Shanghai, Stockholm, and Washington. In addition, there are the
equivalent of honorary consuls, titled antennes, in Berlin, Philadelphia, Qingdao,
Seoul, and California's Silicon Valley.

Québec also has a delegate for the Francophonie, a representative to UNESCO and a
particular participation in the Organization of American States.[536]

Francophonie
Main article: Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
Quebec and New Brunswick are the only Canadian provinces that are members of the
Francophonie.[537]

Quebec maintains relations with the Francophonie and the francophone regions of
Canada outside of Quebec.[538][539] In 1987 and 2008, the Francophonie Summit, the
annual meeting of heads of states from member states of the Francophonie, took
place in Quebec. The Canadian Francophone Games [fr], a francophone Canadian sports
event which takes place every three years, has taken place in Quebec twice since
its inception in 1999.

Quebec's diaspora
Main article: Quebec diaspora
The earliest immigrants to the Canadian prairies were French Canadians from Quebec.
These individuals were usually involved in the fur trade and frequented the
aboriginals of the area. Most Franco-Albertans, Fransaskois and Franco-Manitobans
are descended from these emigrants from Quebec.

From the mid 1800s to the Great Depression, Quebec experienced the Grande
Hémorragie ("Great Hemorrhaging"), a massive emigration of 900,000 people from
Quebec to New England.[540] French Canadians often established themselves in Little
Canadas in many industrial New England centers like Lowell, Lawrence and New
Bedford (Massachusetts); Woonsocket (Rhode Island); Manchester and Nashua (New
Hampshire); Biddeford, Brunswick and Lewiston (Maine), among others. Of the 900,000
Québécois who emigrated, about half returned.[541] Most of the descendants of those
who stayed are now assimilated to the general American population, though a few
Franco-Americans remain, speaking New England French.

Some tried to slow the Grande Hémorragie by redirecting people north, which
resulted in the founding of many regions in Quebec (ex. Saguenay-Lac-St-Jean, Val-
d'Or, etc.) but also in Northeastern Ontario. The northeastern Franco-Ontarians of
today, which are primarily concentrated in Timmins, Hearst, Moosonee and Sault
Sainte Marie, among others, are the descendants of emigrants from Quebec who worked
in the mines of the area.[542]

In recent times, Québécois snowbirds often migrate to southern Florida during the
winter, resulting in the emergence of temporary "Québécois regions" there.
Economic diaspora

A Couche-Tard branch in Winnipeg.

Many of Quebec's national companies have expanded outside of Quebec for various
reasons. The Bank of Montreal has branches in the United States and in the other
Canadian provinces.[543] Hydro-Québec, the state-owned electricity provider for
Québécois, has contracts with much of the northeastern United States. The value of
Hydro-Québec's exports currently stands at approximately $1 billion per year.[544]
Bombardier is also present in many countries.[545] Couche-Tard[546] has a network
of more than 6,000 branches around the globe.[547] Desjardins has infrastructure to
assist members no matter where they are in the world. In addition, in the U.S.
state of Florida, 3 Desjardins branches exist to assist Québécois snowbirds.[548]

In the realm of litterature and international publishing, the Québec Édition group
is a committee created by the National Association of Book Editors dedicated to the
international influence of French-language publishings from Quebec and Canada.[549]

The world of song in Quebec has a modest size and impact at the international
level. Quebec has produced a number of internationally renowned celebrities,
including Alys Robi (1923 - 2011) and Céline Dion (1968 -), among others. The
popular and long-running song competition Star Académie has created many
celebrities, including some that originate from outside of Quebec.[550]

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This article was partially translated from its French-language counterpart Quebec,
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Further reading
English
Anderson, Fred (2000). Crucible of Wars: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of
Empire in British North America, 1754–1766. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-40642-
3.
Bergeron, Léandre (1975). The History of Québec: a Patriote's [sic] Handbook,
trans. from the 5th French ed. by Baila Markus and rev. by the author. Updated ed.
New Canada Publications. ISBN 0-9196-0035-2
Bergeron, Léandre (1974). Why There Must Be a Revolution in Québec. Toronto: New
Canada Publications. 0-919600-16-6
Cave, Alfred A. (2004). The French and Indian War. Westport, Connecticut – London:
Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-32168-9.
Courville, Serge; Howard, Richard (2009). Quebec: A Historical Geography. Univ of
British Columbia Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-1426-3.
Dickinson, John Alexander; Brian J. Young (2003). A short history of Quebec.
McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-2393-7.
Gairdner, William D. Constitutional Crack-up: Canada and the Coming Showdown with
Québec. London: Stoddart Publishing Co., 1994. N.B.: On verso of t.p.: "A brief
version ... appeared in the revised edition of the author's The Trouble with
Canada." ISBN 0-7737-5658-2
Gauvreau, Michael (2005). The Catholic origins of Quebec's Quiet Revolution, 1931–
1970. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-2874-1.
Grenon, Jean-Yves (2000). Pierre Dugua De Mons: Founder of Acadie (1604–5), Co-
Founder of Quebec (1608). Translated by Phil Roberts. Annapolis Royal, NS:
Peninsular Press. ISBN 978-0-9682016-2-6.
Hunter, William A. (1999). Forts on the Pennsylvania Frontier, 1753–1758.
Wennawoods. ISBN 978-1-889037-20-2.
Kokker, Steve (2002). Québec. Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74059-024-2.
Lefkowitz, Arthur S. (2008). Benedict Arnold's Army: The 1775 American Invasion of
Canada during the Revolutionary War. El Dorado Hills, California: Savas Beatie.
ISBN 978-1-932714-03-6.
Maclure, Jocelyn (2003). Quebec identity: the challenge of pluralism. McGill-
Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-2553-5.
McRoberts, Kenneth, and Dale Posgate (1984). Québec: Social Change and Political
Crisis. Toronto, Ont.: McClelland and Stewart. Rev. and updated, including a post-
Referendum epilogue, 1984, cop. 1980. x, 325 p. N.B.: The revision statement is
from the front cover of the book. ISBN 0-7710-7185-X
Merriam; Webster (2003). Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.). New
York: Merriam-Webster, Inc. ISBN 978-0-87779-809-5.
Riendeau, Roger E. (2007). A brief history of Canada. New York, NY: Infobase
Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-6335-2. Retrieved July 12, 2011.
Roussopoulos, Dimitrios I, compiler (1974). Québec and Radical Social Change. First
ed. Montréal, Qué.: Black Rose Books. ISBN 0-919618-51-0 pbk.
Scott, Colin (2001). Aboriginal autonomy and development in northern Quebec and
Labrador. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-0844-6.
Taucar, Christopher Edward (2002). Canadian Federalism and Quebec Sovereignty.
Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-6242-4.
Webb Hodge, Frederick (1912). American Indians North of Mexico, Volume 4,
Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Handbook. Scituate, MA:
Digital Scanning Inc. ISBN 978-1-58218-751-8. Scanned in 2003
French
Armony, Victor (2007). Le Québec expliqué aux immigrants. Montréal: VLB Éditeur.
ISBN 978-2-89005-985-6.
Babin, Andrée (1986). L'interatlas: Ressources du Québec et du Canada. Montréal:
Centre éducatif et culturel. ISBN 978-2-7617-0317-8.
Bergeron, Léandre (1970). Petit manuel d'histoire du Québec. [Montréal]: Éditions
Québécoises. Without ISBN
Bergeron, Léandre and Pierre Landry (2008). Petit manuel d'histoire du Québec,
1534–2008. Trois-Pistoles, Qué.: Éditions Trois-Pistoles. N.B.: This ed. is a major
revision, very considerably enlarged, rewritten this time in collaboration, and
updated, of the 1970 text of the work, thus constituting essentially almost a
different work than the original. ISBN 978-2-89583-183-9
Binot, Guy (2004). Pierre Dugua de Mons: gentilhomme royannais, premier
colonisateur du Canada, lieutenant général de la Nouvelle-France de 1603 à 1612.
Vaux-sur-Mer: Bonne anse. ISBN 978-2-914463-13-3.
Brûlotte, Suzanne (2009). Les oiseaux du Québec. Boucherville: Éditions Broquet.
ISBN 978-2-89654-075-4.
Comeau, Robert, ed. (1969). Économie québécoise, in series, Les Cahiers de
l'Université du Québec. Sillery, Qué.: Presses de l'Université du Québec. 495 p.
Commission politique et constitutionnelle (1967). États généraux du Canada
français: exposés de base et documents de travail. Montréal: Éditions de l'Action
nationale.
Desautels, Guy, et al. (1978). Pour l'autodétermination du Québec: plaidoyer
marxiste. Éditions Nouvelles frontières. Sans ISBN
Duguay, Raoul (1971). Musiciens du Québec. Montréal: Éditions du Jour. 331 p. N.B.:
The emphasis is on "classical" then- contemporary composers and on those of
"musique actuelle".
Dupont, Jean-Claude (2008). Légendes du Québec – Un héritage culturel. Sainte-Foy:
Les éditions GID. ISBN 978-2-89634-023-1.
Les Écossais du Québec. Montréal: Conseil québécois du Chardon, [1999]. N.B.: This
is primarily a descriptive cultural and commercial directory of the Scottish
community of Québec.
Gagnon, Henri (1979). Fermatures d'usines, ou bien liberation nationale. Saint-
Lambert, Qué.: [s.n.]: Presses de Payette et Simms, imprim[eur]; distribution,
Éditions Héritage. Without ISBN
Institut de la statistique du Québec (2010). Le Québec chiffres en main (PDF).
Government of Quebec. ISBN 978-2-550-49444-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on
August 27, 2010.
Lacoursière, Jacques; Provencher, Jean; Vaugeois, Denis (2000). Canada-Québec 1534–
2000. Sillery: Septentrion. ISBN 978-2-89448-156-1.
Lacoursière, Jacques (2005). Histoire du Québec, Des origines à nos jours. Paris:
Édition Nouveau Monde. ISBN 978-2-84736-113-1.
La Rochelle, Louis (1982). En flagrant délit de pouvoir: chroniques des événements
poliltiques, de Maurice Duplessis à René Lévesque. Montréal, Qué: Boreal Express.
ISBN 2-89052-058-7
Liebel, Jean (1999). Pierre Dugua, sieur de Mons, fondateur de Québec. Paris: Le
Croît vif. ISBN 978-2-907967-48-8.
Linteau, Paul-André (1989). Histoire du Québec contemporain; Volume 1; De la
Confédération à la crise (1867–1929). Montréal: Les Éditions du Boréal. ISBN 978-2-
89052-297-8.
Linteau, Paul-André (1989). Histoire du Québec contemporain; Volume 2; Le Québec
depuis 1930. Montréal: Les Éditions du Boréal. ISBN 978-2-89052-298-5.
Ministry of Environment of Quebec (2002). Water. Life. Future. National Policy on
water (PDF). Government of Quebec. ISBN 978-2-550-40074-5.
Morf, Gustave (1970). Le Terrorisme québécois. Montréal, Éditions de l'Homme. 219,
[3] p.
Parizeau, Jacques (1997). Pour un Québec souverain. [Montréal]: V.L.B. éditeur.
ISBN 2-89005-655-4
Pelletier, Réal, ed. Une Certaine Révolution tranquille: 22 juin [19]60-[19]75.
Montréal: La Presse, 1975. 337 p., ill. chiefly with b&w port. photos. Without ISBN
Pilon, Robert, Isabelle Lamoureux, and Gilles Turcotte (1991). Le Marché de la
radio au Québec: document de reference. [Montréal]: Association québécoise de
l'industrie du dique, du spectacle et de la video. unpaged. N.B.: Comprises: Robert
Pilon's and Isabelle Lamoureux' Profil du marché de radio au Québec: un analyse de
Média-culture. – Gilles Turcotte's Analyse comparative de l'écoute des principals
stations de Montréal: prepare par Info Cible.
Rivière, Sylvain (2007). Léandre Bergeron, né en exil. Trois-Pistoles, Qué.:
Éditions Trois-Pistoles. N.B.: Collection of essays on various Québec subjects,
including a biography of L. Bergeron. ISBN 978-2-89583-165-5
Trudel, Jean (1969). Profil de la sculpture québécoise, XVIIe-XIXe siècle[s].
Québec, QC.: Ministère des affaires culturelles, Musée du Québec. 140 p., ill. with
photos, mostly b&w. Without ISBN or SBN
Venne, Michel (2006). L'annuaire du Québec 2007. Montréal: Fides. ISBN 978-2-7621-
2746-1.
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Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ
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This page was last edited on 5 August 2021, at 17:26 (UTC).
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