LEC 1 Dental Material Dr.

Zainab Alraheem
Introduction

D.M .Topics

 Impression materials

 Gypsum Products

 Investments

 Waxes

 Metallic Dental material

 Polymers

 Filling materials

 Cements and temporary fillings

 Implant dental materials

 Polishing and abrasive dental material

 Safety dental material

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DENTAL MATERIALS: it is the science which deals with the materials used in
dentistry, their physical, chemical and mechanical properties and with their
manipulation as such properties are related to the proper selection and use by
the dentist.

Dentistry started since the Christian era, gold bands and wires were used by
the Phoenicians for the construction of partial dentures. it is evident that
many of the restorative and accessory materials of today have been in use for
quite some time ago.

In the middle of the nineteenth century, research studies on amalgam were done
by G.V. Black. Later on the American dental association determined the physical
and chemical properties of dental materials and the development of new dental
materials, instruments and test methods. The primary objective of it is to
formulate standards or specification for dental materials and to certify the
products which meet those requirements.

The objective of this course is to learn the physical, chemical and mechanical
properties of some of dental materials and their manipulation.

The study of dental material enables the dentist to understand the behavior of these
materials and how to use them to their best advantage. The service that a
restoration or appliance gives to the patient is largely determined by the proper
selection and use by the dentist.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF DENTAL MATERIALS

All materials have physical properties like color, weight, solubility, thermal
conductivity and others, also mechanical properties like hardness or softness,
strength or weakness. There is no material till now which has ideal physical or
mechanical properties. Most materials have some good and bad properties and
sometimes a property that is bad in one material may be good or acceptable in
another.

The following general properties are important in the study of dental materials:

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:

1. COLOR

Many dental restorative materials have to look like natural teeth and should not
stain or change color by time. The anterior filling and artificial tooth material should
be translucent. Translucence is the optical property that allows the light to go short
way in the material before being reflected out again. Also should look like natural
tooth substance at different light conditions, such as day light and artificial light, ex.
an artificial tooth may be acceptable in ordinary light but may be discovered by the
relative darkness of the material in fluorescent light.

For dentures the material should have the same appearance of natural gum acrylic
material can be made with various shades of pink to look as normal gum.

2. LINEAR COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION

As the temperature rises, a solid material will expand and on cooling it will contract,
this is measured by the linear coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction
which is the change in length per unit length for 1 temperature change.

Hard tooth structure has the smallest coefficient, metals are intermediate, polymers
have the largest.

tooth cm\cm.

gold cm\cm.

Impression compound cm\cm.

Filling materials should have the same coefficient as the tooth, if it does not, it will
press too hard against the cavity wall on expansion and may cause pressure on the
pulp or pull away from the wall when chilled by cold water. The later effect may
cause the filling to leak temporarily, which may in turn, lead to further caries. Gold
alloy is used to cast crown or bridge. After cooling of the gold from the melting
temperature, it will contract and so the crown will be smaller. To compensate for
this contraction we use certain type of investment which will expand the same
amount.

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3. DIMENTIONAL STABILITY

Many materials change shape when they set or harden. Impression materials should
not change dimensions when set. Also dental materials should have no dimensional
changes after setting.

Amalgam is filling material for posterior teeth, it may sometimes change shape
permanently as a result of heavy biting force. This is bad property, on the other
hand, the investment material that forms the mold for dental casting should expand
for certain amount to compensate for the contraction of the molten metal after it is
cooled from the molten stage.

4. DENSITY

Lightness is nearly always an advantage in restorative materials, but sometimes tin

or lead is used inside full lower denture to make it heavy in order to control its
mobility.

Density of gold=14 gm\

Acrylic=1.2 gm\

Chromium/cobalt=8.3 gm\

Water=1 gm\

5. SOLUBILITY

Restorative materials should not dissolve in the mouth, and if it dissolves, it should
not release toxic substances.

Solubility of silicate=0.7-1.6%

Solubility of composite=0.01%

6. ABSORPTION OF FLUIDS

Some materials will absorb water or other fluids. If it is too much or continued for
long time, this will result in serious dimensional changes and the material will also
be unhygienic. On the other hand, some materials like acrylic will absorb water for a
day and stops after that ,so it is acceptable.

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7. TISSUE REACTION

Some restorative materials are damaging to the living tissues which are in contact
with, like silicate filling and zinc-phosphate cement which is acid and may kill the
dental pulp unless a protective lining is used. Dental material should not show any
allergic reaction to the tissues and also should not provide good culture for the
growth of bacteria and candida albicans to grow and cause infection, like soft lining
materials.

8. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Generally metals are better heat conductors than non-metals. Metal filling material
like amalgam sometimes cause pulp pain by transmitting heat or cold more than
natural tooth especially in deep cavities, thus they require heat insulating layer
between the filling and the pulp. Here it is undesirable property on the other hand
the thermal conductivity of metallic denture base is an advantage as it gives feeling
closer to the normal condition and the patient will feel normal also it will protect
him from drinking very hot drinks which may burn his mouth.

9. ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY

It is the ability of metals to ionize by losing electrons. If there is a high difference in

the electrode potentials of two metals in contact with the same solution like gold
and aluminum an electrolytic cell may develop and the patient may feel discomfort.

GALVANISM: The presence of metallic restorations in the mouth may cause a

phenomenon called galvalnic action, or galvanism. This results from a difference in
potential between dissimilar fillings in opposing or adjacent teeth. These fillings, in
conjunction with saliva or bone fluids such as electrolytes, make up an electric cell.
This cell short-circuited, and if the flow of current occurs through the pulp, the
patient experiences pain and the more anodic restoration may corrode like Gold
with Amalgam

10. ADHESION AND COHESION

Adhesion is the force which causes two different substances to attach when they are
brought in contact with one another.

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When the molecules of the same substance hold together; the forces are said to be
cohesion.

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 Dental material dr.Zainab Alraheem
Table of contents
 Mechanical properties of dental material
 Stress
 Strain
 Strength
 Stress strain curve

Mechanical Properties: One of the most important properties of dental

materials is their ability to withstand the various mechanical forces applied on
the material during its use such as a restoration, impression ,model, tools, and
investment material.

Stress:
It is the force per unit area produced in the body in response to an externally applied force;
it s measured in kg/cm 2 or N/m 2 or P.S.I. (pound per square inch) or Pascal, mega Pascal
(Mpa), or gega Pascal or it is the internal reaction to the external force which it is equal in
intensity and opposite in direction to the applied external force .

Types of stress
There are different types of stresses according to the direction of application:
1- Tensile stress: it is the stress caused by a load that tend to stretch or elongate a body it
is always a ccombanied by Tensile strain .
2- Compressive stress: it is the force per unit area produced in the body in response to an
externally applied force, which tend to compress (shorten) the material; it is
accompanied by compressive strain.

3- Shear stress: it is the force per unit area produced in the body in response to an
externally applied force, which is tend to resist the sliding of one portion of a body over
another, it is accompanied by shear strain. e.g. tearing of the paper or card. It is
important in dental crown if one part of dental crown is in occlusion and the rest is not,
shear stress will result in accompanied by shear strain. –

The 3 types of stresses may occur at the same time.For example when we bend a wire.
Filling material, investment material and mold material they should have high compressive

3) Strength: is the stress at which the matrial begins to function in a plastic

manner it has the same unit of stress .it is of three types:
1- Transverse strength: It is the strength of the beam to a force applied on the
centre of the beam when it is supported at its two ends.
2- Fatigue strength: It is the resistance of the material when the material is
constantly subjected to change in shape and dimensions due to frequent application of
force like clasp arm or acrylic denture, e.g. the clasp material has high fatigue
strength.
3- Impact strength: It is the ability of the material to resist the break of sudden
impact, e.g. the denture material has high fatigue strength.stress.
Failure under repeated / cyclic loading is therefore dependent on, The magnitude of
the load and The number of loading repetition. For some materials stress can be
loaded infinite number of times without failure - Endurance Limit .

The imperfections lead first to the development of micro-cracks, which coalesce and
ultimately lead to a macroscopic crack and failure.

 YIELD STRENGTH Defined as the stress at which a material exhibits a specified

limiting deviation from proportionality of stress to strain. It is the amount of
stress required to produce a predetermined amount of permanent strain usually
0.1% or 0.2% which is called the Percent Offset. Useful property because it is
easier to measure.

stress-strain curve
Proportional limit: It is the greatest stress that a material will sustain without a
deviation. below this limit no permanent deformation occur and when the stress is
removed the structure will return to its original dimension. the stress is directly
proportional to the strain .
Elastic limit: It is the greatest stress produced in the material in which the material
will return to its original dimension if the force is removed, if we increase the stress
beyond the P.L. or E.L. the material will deform and if we remove stress, the material
will not return to its origin dimension, this is called permanent. If we apply more force
the material will break
Flexibility : Ability of a material to return to its original form indicates its elasticity,
but the strain taking place at elastic limit is known as flexibility. Flexibility is bending
capacity . These can be defined as the strain that occurs when the material is stretched
to its proportional limit Flexibility with respect to impression material is important
Flexibility =Elastic recovery

Resilience Defined as the amount of energy absorbed within a unit volume of a

structure when it is stressed to its proportional limit. The property is often described
as "springback potential. A high modulus of resilience is desirable for orthodontic
wires - they are capable of storing energy which may then be delivered over an
extended period of time.

Ductility: It is the amount of plastic deformation produced in the material when it is

subjected to tensile stress, it is the ability of the material to withstand or show
permanent deformation under tensile force without fracture, depend on plasticity and
tensile strength.
Malleability: It is the greatest amount of plastic deformation produced in the material
in response to compressive stress; or it is the ability of the material to be with drawn
within a thin sheet.
Modulus of elasticity (Young s modulus): It is the constant of proportionality; it is
when any stress value divided by its corresponding strain value within the
proportional limits. Hardness: It is the resistance of the material to deformation caused
by penetrating or scratching forces for the surface.
Toughness and Brittleness: Total work of energy required breaking the material. It is
the total area under the stress-strain curve.
Brittleness: Is the opposite of toughness, it requires leak of elasticity.
LEC 3 & 4 Dental Material Dr. Zainab Al-Raheem
Gypsum Products

Topics
Gypsum
Types of gypsum
Setting time
Factors affect setting time
Strength of gypsum
Factors affect strength
Setting expansion
Hygroscopic expansion

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A number of gypsum products are used in dentistry as adjuncts to dental operation. Various
types of gypsum products are used to form molds and casts on which dental prosthesis and
restorations are constructed.

APPLICATION IN DENTISTRY

1- Impression material.
2- Casts and dies.
3- Mounting to the articulator.
4- Molds for processing dental polymers.
5- Gypsum-bonded investment.

PROPERTIES OF IDEAL MODEL MATERIAL

1- Dimensional stability, no expansion or contraction during or after setting.

2- High compressive strength to withstand the force applied on it.
3- Hardness, soft material can be easily scratched.
4- Reproduce the fine details.
5- Produce smooth surface.
6- Reasonable setting time.
7- Compatible with the impression material.
8- Can be disinfected without damaging the surface.

TYPES
1. Type 1: impression plaster.
2. Type 2: plaster.
3. Type 3: stone.
4. Type 4: die stone.
5. Type 5: high strength high expansion stone.

METHODS OF PRODUCTION
Gypsum products are produced by partial dehydration of mineral gypsum, which is calcium
sulfate DI-hydrate (Ca S .2 O).they are supplied as powder when mixed with water
they form slurry or paste, which set to form a rigid mass.

PLASTER
When the gypsum is heated in open container to 110-120 , it gives part of its water to
form plaster, which is CaS ⁄ O

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 110-120 C
CaS .2 O--------------- CaS .1/2 O
The crystals of plaster are irregular in shape and porous and called Beta.

STONE
Chemically stone is the same as plaster that is CaS .1/2 O but it is made by heating
gypsum in wet condition under super heat steam to 125 ,the crystals are dense and regular
and have prismatic shape,they are called Alpha particles.

DIE STONE
It is produced by boiling gypsum with CaC (Calcium Chloride),the crystals are also
dense,regular and have prismatic shape called Alpha.

SETTING REACTION
When mixing any type of gypsum product (plaster or stone or die stone) with water, they
are converted back to gypsum and set to a hard mass.
The probable sequence is as follows:
A. plaster or stone or die stone (CaS .1/2 O) dissolves in water.
B. it reacts with water to form gypsum (CaS .2 O).
C. gypsum is less soluble in water and the solution becomes super-saturated (unstable
condition).
D. gypsum crystallizes, allowing more particles to dissolve and to form gypsum. This will
continue until all the particles have been converted to gypsum(CaS .2 O).each crystal
as it forma becomes nucleus for crystallization.during this process part of the gypsum
forms a gel, which acts as a cementing medium between the crystals. Then the rigid mass is
formed by the interlocking network formed by the long needle-like gypsum crystals.
CaS .1/2 O+ O ----------- CaS .2 O+HEAT (exothermic reaction)

MANIPULATION
The powder is mixed with water at a certain ratio according to the type of gypsum product
W/P ratio for plaster is 0.5 that is 50 ml of water for 100 gm of plaster powder.
W/P ratio for stone is 0.3
W/P ratio for die stone is 0.2
The difference in the W/P ratio is due to the difference in the bulk volume of the powders.
The water is measured and put in a clean rubber bowel then the powder is stiffed on it
gradually, allow the powder to settle then mix with clean spatula for 1 min. until creamy
mix is obtained.

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SETTING TIME
Setting time is the time from the beginning of mixing the powder with water until the
material hardens. This time may be measured by GILMORE NEEDLE APPARATUS or
by VICAT APPARATUS, in which needle of different weight and thickness is used,
penetration of these needles being measured at various times during setting.

FACTORS EFFECTING THE SETTING TIME

1. W/P ratio
The more water is used for mixing, the fewer nuclei there will be per unit volume, and
consequently the setting will be prolonged.
2. FINENESS
The finer the particle size of the hemihydrates, the faster the mix will harden. The rate of
solution of the hemihydrate will be increased, also the gypsum nuclei will be more
numerous and therefore a more rapid rate of crystallization will occur.
3. MIXING
The longer and more rapidly the plaster is mixed, the shorter is the setting time. When the
powder is brought into contact with the water some gypsum crystals will be formed. As
mixing begins, more particles will be exposed to water and thus form more crystals at the
same time the crystals are broken up by mixing and they are distributed throughout the
mixture and result in the formation of more nuclei for crystallization, thus the setting time
is decreased.
4. TEMPERATURE
There is little change in the setting time between 0-50 but if the temperature exceeds
50 the setting time will be retarded. As the temperature approaches 100 no setting will
take place.
5. IMPURITIES
If the manufacture adds gypsum, the setting time will be shortened because of the increase
in the potential nuclei for crystallization.
6. RETARDERS and ACCELERATORS
The addition of retarders and accelerators are the most effective and practical way to
control the setting time.
Retarder is the chemical material added to the gypsum product to increase the setting time
ex. Glue Borax, and Gum Arabic. It will reduce the dissolution of the hemihydrates and
might deposit on the nuclei of crystallization and effectively reduce the rate of
crystallization and so retard setting time.

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Accelerator is the chemical material added to the gypsum product powder to decrease the
setting time, ex. Sodium Chloride and Potassium sulfate in certain concentration. These
salts increase the rate of hemihydrate dissolution and thus the saturation of the solution
occur more rapidly.

Dimensional changes on setting (setting expansion)

Regardless of the type of gypsum product, an expansion of the mass can be detected during
the change from the hemihydrate to the dihydrate after mixing with water. This expansion
could be explained on the basis of the mechanism of crystallization.

There is an outward growth of crystals from nuclei of crystallization, as a result of growth,

there is an enlargement and there is an interception between the crystals. If one crystal
intercepts another, there will be stress at the point of interception in the direction of growth
that impinging the crystals. If the process is repeated by thousands of crystals during
growth, it is possible that the outward stress or thrust could produce an expansion of the
mass. The final structure immediately after setting is composed of interlocking crystals
between which micro pores containing excess water. On drying the excess water is lost and
the total empty space is greatly increased.

Factors affecting the setting expansion

1- W/P ratio
The higher the W/P ratio, the less expansion; because of fewer nuclei of crystallization
per unit volume are present than thicker mixes and since it can be assumed that space
between the nuclei will be greater in such a case, it follows that there will be less
growth interaction of the dehydrate crystals with less outward thrust result.
2- Addition of chemicals (accelerators and retarders)
Both will reduce the setting expansion. The reduction of the expansion is due to that the
initial rate of crystallization is so rapid that subsequent growth is resisted with
accelerators. For the retarders, the crystalline form may be changed and the crystals
may become thick and short so the thrusting between the crystals is reduced so the
expansion is reduced.

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Hygroscopic expansion: if the setting process is allowed to occur under water, the
setting expansion may be more than in magnitude, this is called hygroscopic expansion.
This increased expansion is due to the additional growth of the crystals permitted and
no difference in the chemical reaction.

Strength
The strength of gypsum products is generally expressed in term of compressive strength
although tensile strength is also considered.
Factors affecting the strength
1- W/P ratio: the strength of gypsum increases rapidly as the material hardens after
initial setting time. The excess water present in the set mass affect the strength.
Therefore, there is wet strength and dry strength. The wet strength is when there is
excess water left in the mass. The dry strength is that when the excess water has
been dried in air or in oven in warm temperature, the dry strength may be two times
greater then the wet.
Drying period Compressive strength Kg/cm2
2h 98
8h 119
24h 238

2- Mixing: mixing time also affect the strength. Increasing mixing increase the strength
but over mixing will reduce strength because it will break up crystals which are
formed and will result in less crystal interlocking.
3- Drying: The effect of drying is to remove the excess water between crystals. The
excess water reduces cohesion between the crystals themselves. 40 % of the strength
is due to the cohesive forces between the crystals in addition to the strength which
can be attributed to the interlocking of the crystals during growth.
4- Chemicals: the addition of accelerators and retarders lowers both the wet and dry
strength. This is due to the reduction in the inter-crystalline cohesion.
5- Porosity: the set plaster or stone is porous. The greater the W/P ratio the greater the
porosity and the fewer the crystals.
Storage
Plaster and stone powder absorbs moisture, which causes gradual deterioration,
Hydration begins on the surface of the hemihydrate particles forming fine coat of
gypsum and this will act as effective nuclei for crystallization and this shortens the
setting time.

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 To avoid deterioration, the plaster and stone powders should be stored in airtight
waterproof containers in a dry region of the laboratory.

Gypsum Product Compressive strength Kg/Cm2 Expansion W/P ratio

Plaster 98-140 0.3% 0.5
Stone 210- 280 0.2% 0.3
Die stone 350 0.1% 0.2

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LEC 5 Dental Material Dr. Zainab Alraheem
Impression Materials
A dental impression material is a negative record for tissue of the oral cavity. It is used to
reproduce the form of the teeth and surroundings tissues. A positive reproduction is
obtained by pouring dental stone or other suitable material into the impression and
allowing it to harden. The positive reproduction of a single tooth is described as a die, and
when several teeth or a whole arch is reproduced, it is called a cast or model. The material
is carried to the mouth using either stock tray or special tray.

Requirements of an ideal impression material:

1. A pleasant odor, taste, and esthetic color
2. Absence of toxic or irritant constituents
3. Adequate shelf life for requirements of storage and distribution
4. Economically commensurate with the results obtained
5. Easy to use with the minimum of equipment
6. Setting characteristics that meet clinical requirements
7. Satisfactory consistency and texture
8. Readily wets oral tissues
9. Elastic properties with freedom from permanent deformation after strain
10. Adequate strength so it will not break or tear on removal from the mouth
11. Dimensional stability over temperature and humidity ranges normally found in
clinical and laboratory procedures for a period long enough to permit the production of
a cast or die
12. Compatibility with cast and die materials
13. Accuracy in clinical use
14. Readily disinfected without loss of accuracy
15. No release of gas during the setting of the impression or cast and die materials

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Classification of Impression material

There are several classifications:

1- According to elasticity (properties of set material):

a- Rigid impression materials: cannot engage undercuts. There use is restricted to
edentulous patient (patient without bony undercuts), like
 Impression plaster
 Impression compound
 Zinc oxide Eugenol
 Impression Waxes
b- Elastic impression materials: can engage undercuts and may be used in edentulous,
partially dentate, or fully dentate patients. They are subdivided into:
I. Hydrocolloids
 Reversible hydrocolloid (Agar)
 Irreversible hydrocolloid (Alginate)
II. Elastomers
 Polysulfide
 Silicone (condensation polymerization silicone, and addition polymerization
silicone)
 Polyether

2- According to mode of setting:

a- Set by chemical reaction (irreversible): like Impression plaster, Zinc Oxide Eugenol
(ZOE), Alginate, Polysulfide, Polyether, and Silicone.
b- Set by temperature change (reversible): they are thermoplastic materials like
impression compound, Waxes, and Agar.

3- According to viscosity of material before setting:

a- Muco-static: not compress the tissue during seating of the impression
b- Muco-function: compress the tissue during seating of the impression, the material is
more viscous.
c- Pseudo Plastic: the material fairly viscous when under low stress conditions and may
become fluid during recording of impression.

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 4- According to Compatibility with saliva
a- Hydrophilic: the material is compatible with saliva and moisture like polyether.
b- Hydrophobic: the material repels saliva. A dry field is essential for such material like
Silicone.

Rigid Impression Material:

1- Impression Plaster

Presentation: it is present as powder that mixed with water in a ratio (W/P = 0.6)

Composition

1- calcium sulphate β- hemihydrate.

2- potassium sulphate (K2So4): to reduce expansion and to accelerate setting reaction.
3- Borax: reduce the rate of setting (counter act K2So4 )
4- Starch: to help disintegration of impression on separation from plaster / stone model

When the cast sets, the impression and the cast are placed in hot water. The starch
swells and the impression disintegrate, making the cast easy to separate from the
impression.

Properties

1- Setting time (3-5 min).

2- The mixed material has low viscosity so it is Muco-static.
3- It is hydrophilic and adapts readily to the soft tissues, recording their surface details
with great accuracy.
4- The material is best used with special tray.
5- The dimensional stability is very good (dimensional changes during setting 0.06%)
6- A separating medium must be used between the model and the impression plaster
(solution of sodium alginate, or soap and water).
7- The material is rigid once it sets, thus unable to record under cuts.
8- Patients complain very dry sensation after having impression recorded because of
water absorption nature of material.

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Uses

1- Final impression for completely edentulous patient.

2- Used to mount cast on articulator.
3- Occlusal bite registration.

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LEC 6 Dental Material Dr. Zainab alraheem
Impression Materials
2- Dental Impression Compound

Thermoplastic material

Composition

1- Resins and waxes: Resins e.g.(Shellac, resins, dammar). Waxes e.g. (Bees wax), if
resins and waxes are used on their own, tend to produce brittle material with
tendency towards tackiness.
2- Plasticizers (Stearic acid)
3- Filler: (Calcium carbonate and limestone), they are added to:
I. Overcome tackiness.
II. Control degree of flow.
III. Minimize shrinkage due to thermal contracting.
IV. Improve rigidity of impression material.

Types of impression compound

1- Type I (lower fusing) impression compound: supplied either in sheets, sticks, or

cones.
 Sheet form material: is softened using water bath, a temperature in range (55-
60 оC) found to be ideal to knead the material after it has been heated to
ensure that it is at a uniform temperature. Storage in hot water should not be
so long, because important constituents such as Stearic Acid can be leached
out. Over heating make the compound sticky and difficult to handle.
 Stick form material: is softened over a flame. The compound should not be
allowed to boil, otherwise the plasticizers are volatilized.
2- Type II (higher fusing) tray compound: it is stiffer and has less flow than regular
impression compound.
 The difference in fusing temperature between type I and type II reflects a
difference in composition of thermoplastic components of each (waxes and
resins).

Uses

1- Type I (sheet form) impression compound: is used for recording primary impression
of edentulous ridge using stock tray.
2- Type I (stick form) impression compound: is used for border molding of an acrylic
special tray during filling of the tray.

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 3- Type II tray compound: used to make a special tray (now largely replaced by acrylic
tray).

Properties

1- It is muco-compressive and most viscous impression material used, therefore; the

reproduction of surface details is not very good.
2- Not used to record under cuts (it is rigid once cooled)
3- Poor dimensional stability. The material has high value of coefficient of thermal
expansion and undergoes considerable shrinkage on removal from mouth. Also,
because of the pressure that applied during impression taking, there will be residual
stress exists in cooled impression; the gradual relief of internal stresses may cause
distortion of impression. That’s why the model should be poured as soon as possible.
4- Dental compound has low thermal conductivity, therefore it must be given enough
time during heating or cooling to allow dental compound to come to uniform
temperature.
5- The material can be reused a number of times (for the same patient only) in case of
errors. Inaccurate portions can be remade without having to make the entire
impression.

3- Wax as an impression

Impression waxes are rarely used to record complete impression but are used to correct
small imperfection in other impression.

These materials consist of low melting paraffin wax and bees wax in ratio about 3:1.
Waxes have larger coefficient of thermal expansion of any material used in restorative
dentistry.

4- Zinc oxide eugenol impression material

Zinc oxide and eugenol combination is widely used in dentistry for:

1- Cementing and insulating medium.

2- Temporary filling.
3- Root canal filling.

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 4- Surgical pack in periodontal surgical procedures.
5- Bite registration paste.
6- Temporary relining material for dentures.
7- Impression material for edentulous patient.

Classification of Zinc Oxide Eugenol impression material:

1. Type I or hard.
2. Type II or soft.

They are available in paste form as two pastes

 Base paste (whit color).

 Accelerator or reactor or catalyst paste.

Composition

Base Paste: Accelerator Paste:

Zinc oxide 87% Oil of cloves 12%
Fixed vegetable or mineral oil 13% Gum or polymerized resin 50%
Filler (silica type) 20%
Lanolin 3%
Resinous balsam 10 %
Accelerator solution (CaCl2)
Coloring agent 5%

- Zinc Oxide (reactive component), take part in setting reaction. Zinc oxide should
contain slight amount of water.
- Fixed vegetable or mineral oil act as plasticizer.
- Eugenol (reactive component).
- Gum or polymerized resin, it speed the reaction.
- Resinous balsam, improves flow and mixing properties.
- CaCl2 act as an accelerator of setting.

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Setting Reaction
H2o
Zinc oxide + Eugenol Zinc eugenol + Zinc oxide (un-reacted)

The set material consists of a mixture of amorphous zinc eugenol matrix which holds un-
reacted zinc oxide particles together.

Properties

1. Setting time
Initial setting time Final setting time
Type I 3-6 min 10 min
Type II 3-6 min 15 min

Factors controlling setting time (ways to control Setting time):

i. By varying lengths of the pastes, this is not recommended.

ii. Setting time can be decreased by adding zinc acetate, or a drop of water, or acetic
acid.
iii. Longer mixing time, shorten the setting time.
iv. High atmospheric temperature and humidity shorten the setting time.
v. Cooling the mixing the mixing slab and the spatula, or adding small amount of oil or
waxes, will delay the setting time
2. It registers surface details accurately due to the good flow. The material has muco-
static properties (recording tissue in uncompressed state).
3. Once it sets, the material is rigid; so it cannot be used to take impression for the
teeth or undercuts.
4. It requires a special tray to make impression. It has adequate adhesion to acrylic tray.
5. It has advantages of being dimensionally stable. A negligible shrinkage (less than
0.1%) may occur during setting.
6. No separating medium needed before stone pouring, as it does not stick to the cast
material.
7. The paste tends to adhere to skin, so the skin around the lips should be protected
with petroleum jelly (Vaseline) to make the cleaning process much easier.
8. Eugenol can cause burning sensation and tissue irritation.

4
 A non eugenol paste was developed, where the zinc oxide is reacting with carboxylic
acid.
9. It can be checked in mouth repeatedly without deforming.

Manipulation

The mixing is done on an oil impervious paper or glass slab.

Equal lengths of the base paste and catalyst paste squeezed on the mixing slab and mixed
until a uniform color is observed. Mixing time is 1 minute.

Uses

1. Final impression of edentulous ridge.

2. Occlusal bite registration.

5
LEC 7 Dental Material Dr. Zainab Al-raheem
Impression Materials
Elastic impression materials
1- Hydrocolloid impression material

The colloid can exist in the form of a viscous liquid known as a sol, or in a solid form
described as a gel.

If the particles are suspended in water, the suspension is called hydrocolloid.

Hydrocolloid impression material is based on colloidal suspension of polysaccharide in

water.

In sol form: there is random arrangement of polysaccharide chain.

In gel form: The long polysaccharide chains become aligned and material become
viscous and develops elastic properties.

Gelation: is the conversion of sol to gel.

Types of hydrocolloids

Based on the mode of gelation, they are classified as:

1- Reversible hydrocolloids set by lowering temperature like AGAR. This makes them
reusable.
2- Irreversible hydrocolloids set by chemical reaction like ALGINATE. Once it sets, it is
permanent.

Reversible hydrocolloids (AGAR)

It was the first successful elastic impression material to be used in dentistry. It has been
largely replaced by alginate hydrocolloid and rubber impression material.

1
Uses

1- Used for cast duplication (during fabrication of cast metal removable partial denture).
2- Full mouth impression without deep undercuts.
3- Used for crown and bridge impressions before the elastomers been in the market.
4- As tissue conditioner.

Supplied as

1- Gel in collapsible tube (for impressions).

2- A number of cylinders in a glass jar (syringe material).
3- In bulk containers (for duplication).

Gel is used with water cooled impression tray.

Composition of gel tray type

Component Amount(%) Purpose

Agar 12% Colloid
Borax 0.2% Improve strength of gel
Potassium sulphate 1-2% Ensure proper setting of gypsum cast against agar (accelerator
for model material
Alkyl benzoate 0.1% Preservatives
Dyes of flavoring Trace Appearance and taste
Water 85% Act s as dispersion medium

The syringe applied material has same components but a lower concentration of agar (6-
8 %).

Manipulation

Agar hydrocolloid requires special equipments:

1. Hydrocolloid conditioner
2. Water cooled rim lock trays

Agar normally conditioned prior to use, using specially designed conditioning bath
(temperature controlled water bath).

2
The conditioning bath consist of three compartments each hold at different temperature.

100 оC 65-68 оC 46 оC

• liquefaction section • Storage section • Tempering section

(10min) (2min)

1- Boiling section or liquefaction section

 Tube of gel converted to viscous liquid after ten minutes in boiling water 100 оC.
 The sol should be homogenous and free of lumps.
 Every time the material is re-liquefied, three minutes should be added. This
because it is more difficult to break down the agar brush heap structure after a
previous use.
 It should not be reheated more than four times.
2- Storage section
 65 – 68оC temperature is ideal when agar can be stored in the sol condition till
needed.
3- Tempering section
 46оC for about two minutes with material loaded in the tray. This is done to
reduce the temperature so that it can be tolerated by the sensitive oral tissue.
It also makes the material viscous.

The tray containing the tempered material is removed from the bath. The outer
surface of the agar sol scraped off, then the water supply is connected to the tray
and the tray is positioned in the mouth. Water is circulated at 18 – 21оC through
the tray until gelation occur. Rapid cooling (e.g. ice cold water) is not
recommended as it can induce distortion.

Properties of agar hydrocolloids

1- It is a muco-static impression.
2- It provides very accurate reproduction of surface details because in sol form agar
is sufficiently fluid.
3- In gel form agar is sufficiently flexible to be easily removed.

3
 4- Agar impressions are highly accurate at the time of removal from the mouth.
Storage of agar impression should be avoided; the cast should be poured
immediately. Storage in air result in dehydration (shrinkage), and storage in water
result in swelling of the impression; it absorbs water by process known as
Imbibition. The gel may loose water by exuding fluid in a process known
Syneresis. During syneresis, small droplets of exudates are formed on the surface
of hydrocolloid and the process occurs irrespective of the humidity surrounding
atmosphere. If storage cannot be avoided, then it should be limited to one hour in
100% relative humidity (by wrapping it in wet towel) which results in least
dimensional changes.
5- Poor mechanical properties and low tear resistance, but it is better than alginate.
6- The material is viscoelastic, so it is important that the tray is removed by rapid
snap action, this enhance elastic recovery and reduce the permanent
deformation.
7- It is necessary to have reasonable thickness of impression material to limit the
extent of deformation arising on removal from the undercut.
8- It is cheap and is used in some laboratories for making duplicate models as it can
be recycled up to four times.

Disadvantages of agar impression material

1- Need special equipments such as water cooled tray and temperature controlled
bath and there is an initial cost in providing this equipment.
2- Water cooled tray is very bulk.
3- Great attention are must be exercised to ensure that the water baths do not get
contamination.

4
Irreversible hydrocolloid (ALGINATE)

Alginate is one of the most widely used dental impression materials, it supplied as powder
mixed with water. A plastic scoop is provided for dispensing the bulk powder, and a
plastic cylinder is supplied for measurement of the water. A wide blade, stiff spatula is
used to mix powder and water.

Composition

Ingredients Amount(%) Function

Sodium alginate
Calcium sulphate dihydrate
Sodium phosphate (Na3PO4)
Potassium sulphate (KSO4)
Filler (diatomaceous earth or 56
silicate powder)
Organic glycol
Pigments
Quaternary ammonium
Reactive indicator (present in
some brads)
18 Hydrogel former (dissolve in water and reacts with
calcium ions)
14 Provides calcium ions of the cross linking reaction
that converts the sol to gel
2 Control working time, & serves as retarder when
react with calcium sulphate
10 To counteract the inhibition effect of alginate on the
setting of gypsum model material (gypsum
hardener)
Control consistency of the mix
Small To coast powder particles to minimize dust during
amount dispensing
Trace To provide color
Trace To provide self disinfection
Give multi chromatic effect when setting is
complete

When powder and water are mixed, a chemical reaction occurs that cross links the
polymer chain, forming a three dimensional network structure.
chemical reaction
Sol (powder + water) gel
Water
Sodium + Calcium Sodium + Calcium
alginate sulphate sulphate alginate
dihydrate (gel)

5
 The Calcium alginate precipitates into fibrous network with water occupying the
intervening capillary spaces.

Mixing

Powder should be mixed thoroughly before use to eliminate the segregation of component
that may occur during storage.

During mixing powder with water a vigorous figure eight motion is best with the mix being
swiped against the side of rubber bowel with intermitted rotation of spatula to press out air
bubbles. The mix should be smooth, creamy, with minimum voids and does not drip off the
spatula when it is raised from the bowel.

Properties

1- Alginate has a well controlled working time but does vary from brand to another.
There are regular setting and fast setting versions of alginate impression material.
Setting time for regular set 2 - 4.5 minutes
Setting time for fast set 1 – 2 minutes
Lengthening the setting time is better accomplished by using cold water (18 – 24oC) in
the mix.
2- The clinical setting time can be detected by the loss of tackiness of the surface.
3- The material is muco – static and also hydrophilic.
4- The material should be left in place for 2 – 3 minutes after loss of tackiness of the
surface because the tear strength and resistance to permanent deformation increase
significantly during this period.
5- The surface production with alginate is not as good as that with agar or elastomers,
they are not recommended for crown and bridge; they are popular for partial
denture work.
6- Alginates are susceptible to evaporation, syneresis, imbibition, giving poor
dimensional stability (like agar). Therefore; the cast should be poured immediately. If
storage cannot be avoided, keeping in humid atmosphere of 100% relative humidity
results in least dimensional changes (no more than 1 hour).

6
 7- Like agar, it is highly viscoelastic and a snap removal technique need to be employed
in order to get an elastic response. The permanent deformation is somewhat higher
than agar.
8- Alginate impressions have lower tear strength than agars and have poor mechanical
properties.
9- Set gypsum model should not remain in contact with the alginate impression for a
period of hours because contact of slightly soluble calcium sulphate dihydrate with
alginate gel containing a great deal of water is detrimental to surface quality of
model.
10- Thin layers of alginate are weak. The thickness of alginate impression between the
tray and tissue should be at least 3mm.
11- Retention means to hold the material to the tray is needed. Therefore perforated
tray or rim lock tray should be used.
12- They restrict the choice of the model and die materials to those of gypsum type
(cannot prepare metal dies).
13- Low cost.
14- Alginate hydrocolloid are highly elastic but less when compared to agar.

Uses

o It is used to prepare study models.

o Not recommended for making impression of cavity preparation or crown and bridge
works.

7
LEC 8 Dental Material Dr. Zainab Al-raheem
Cement Materials

Also called cement base or lining, used underneath the filling material to act as a barrier against thermal,
electrical, and chemical stimuli; also against irritant fillings.

Luting cement : is a cement base used for cementation of crown and bridge restorations

Requirements of ideal cement material

1- It should has adequate strength to withstand the forces applied

2- Protect the pulp from chemical irritants of the filling like acrylic monomers in some of resin based
filling materials
3- Form a protecting barrier against thermal stimuli especially under metallic restorations and acrylic
based fillings
4- Protect the pulp from electrical current created when the amalgam restoration placed in contact
with gold restoration
5- It should have sufficient working and setting time
6- It should be compatible with the filling material
7- Should not irritate the pulp
8- Should not absorbed by oral fluid especially for luting cement

Classification

1- Cements based on phosphoric acid

A. Zinc phosphate cement
B. Silicophosphate cement
C. Copper cement
2- Cements based on organo metallic chelate compounds
A. Zinc oxide/eugenol cement
B. Ortho-ethoxybenzoic acid (EBA)
C. Calcium hydroxide cement
3- Cement based on polyalkenoic acids
A. Zic polycarboxylate cement
B. Glassionomer cement
4- Polymeric cements (resin based cement)

Zinc phosphate cement

Supplied as powder and liquid, or two pastes.

Powder: zinc oxide (reactive component) and other oxides like magnesium oxide.

Liquid: aqueous solution of phosphoric acid buffered by zinc oxide and aluminum oxide.

1
Uses:

1- Lining material
2- Luting material
3- Sometime used under temporary filling material

Properties:

1- Have sufficient working time

2- Proper film thickness when used as luting agent (35-40 µm), depend on particle size and P/L ratio.
3- Ultimate compressive strength. For luting agent reach about 80 MPa for luting material, while for
lining material 140 MPa, so it can withstand the force applied during amalgam condensation.
Should wait for 5min. before placing amalgam filling.
4- Low solubility in water
5- High initial acidity (2-4) especially when freshly placed, this depends on the P/L ratio, so in deep
cavity a sub-liner should be used underneath it.
6- Good thermal insulator.
7- The material is opaque due to high amount of un-reacted zinc oxide, so it should not used under
porcelain teeth

Manipulation

- The P/L ratio is according to manufacturer instructions

Usually for cavity lining putty like consistency is used (P/L ratio 3.5:1) while for the luting more fluid
mix required to have adequate flow
- Low P/L ratio high acidity and week mix irritation of the pulp
High P/L ratio thick mix decrease setting time insufficient working time

Mixing is done on cold slab, because the reaction is exothermic, the powder is best incorporated in the
liquid by small increments until the desired consistency is reached.

Advantages of mixing on cold slab:

1- Delay the set slightly and create more working time

2- Allow sufficient powder to be incorporated into the liquid which lead to higher strength achieved in
the final set material

Silicophosphate cement

Supplied as liquid: which is phosphoric acid and powder which is mixture of zinc oxide and alumino-silicate
glass

- The set material is more soluble than zinc phosphate cement, but more translucent cement so can
be used under porcelain restoration

2
 - It contains sufficient amount of fluoride. Leaching of fluoride ion has a significant anti-cariogenic
influence on the surrounding tooth substance

Used : as luting cement and temporary filling material

Copper cement
Supplied as powder which is a mixture of zinc oxide and copper oxide while the liquid is phosphoric acid

- Has a bacteriocidal effect produced by the presence of copper but has black appearance
- Used in deciduous teeth

Zinc oxide eugenol cement

Supplied as:

- Powder: zinc oxide and zinc acetate (accelerator)

- Liquid: eugenol, olive oil (control viscosity)
- Also produced as two pastes

Uses:

1- Temporary filling
2- Retention of temporary crowns
3- Cement base especially resin reinforced zinc oxide eugeol
4- Root canal paste but has certain additives

Properties:

1- Compressive strength 20 MPa, so not used under amalgam, while the reinforced material has a
higher strength 40 MPa so can be used under amalgam
2- Can be used in deep cavity without sub-liner (not irritate the pulp)
3- Higher solubility, so not used as a luting agent
4- Free eugenole has an effect on resin based filling. It interferes with polymerization and stteing time,
also cause discoloration; that’s why it is not used as a lining with these types of fillings
5- Effective thermal barrier

Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2

Either suspension of Ca(OH)2 in water or mostly as two pastes

- One paste contains Ca(OH)2 and accelerator (zinc sterate)

- Other paste contains Glycol Slicylate with inert fillers, pigments, and radio-pacifier.

Indications: as a subliner material and pulp capping

3
Properties:

1- Set within few seconds, setting time affected by moisture. The setting time of light activated
material is more controlled by the operator
2- Relatively weak compressive strength 20 MPa
3- High solubility in aqueous media, not used as a luting agent. Light activated Ca(OH)2 is less soluble
than conventional one
4- Sufficient biocompatibility when placed adjacent to the pulp and can destroy any remaining
bacteria, also it is able to initiate decalcified tissue regeneration by formation of secondary layer at
the base of cavity, so it is used as pulp capping material.
5- It can be used under resin based filling material. Ex: composite filling material
6- Not used as a luting agent

Polycarboxylate cement

Supplied as:

- Powder: which contains zinc oxide and aluminum oxide

- Liquid: which is aqueous solution of polyacrylic acid 40%

Properties:

1- Ultimate compressive strength 80MPa which can withstand forces of condensation

2- Acidic but less irritant than zinc phosphate cement
A. Polyacrylic acid is a weaker acid than phosphoric cement
B. Polyacrylic acid has a large molecules and lack mobility to penetrate dentinal tubules but it
is not used in deep cavities without subliner
3- Higher solubility than zinc phosphate and glass ionomer but used widely as luting agent
4- Form an adhesive bond with enamel and dentine, weak bond with gold and strong wit stainless
steel, so used for bonding ortho bands
5- Set material is opaque and this may detract from appearance of porcelain crown especially if
cement lute margin is visible

Glass Ionomer Cement

Supplied as:

- Powder with water

- Light cure glass ionomer cement
- Powder: which contain calcium fluoroaluminum glass
Liquid: 47% solution of 2:1 polyacrylic acid/Taconic acid in water
For the powder and water product: polyacrylic acid is incorporated in powder.

4
Uses:

1- Cement base
2- Luting agent
3- Bonding of ortho bands
4- Restoration of deciduous teeth

Manipulation

Either P/L ratio is 1.3:1 or P/W ratio 3.3:1

Mixing on a paper pad with stiff cement spatula, the powder is divided into two portions, mixing time is 30-
60 seconds, and the cement should be used immediately because the working time is 2 minutes. Working
time increased when mixing is done on cold glass slab

Properties

1- Compressive strength ranges from 60 MPa cement material and 220 MPa for filling material
2- Adhere well to the tooth structure (the free carboxlate group bonds to the hydroxyapetite of
enamel and dentine and give initial adhesion)
3- Lower solubility than zinc polcarboxylate and zinc phosphate cement
4- Translucent due to the presence of un-reacted glass
5- High acidity of fresh mix, but PH increased gradually
6- Has a substantial fluoride release.

5
LEC 10 Dental Material Dr. Zainab Al-raheem
Temporary Filling Material

These materials are indicated for:

1- During treatment of root canal fillings

2- Inlay and onlay preparation.TF should be placed after preparation until the final restoration is
placed
3- After pulp capping in case of traumatic exposure, to give time for the pulp healing process and
production of dentine.
4- Pedodontic practice

Requirements

1- Should be easily removed from the cavity

2- Should have sedative effect to the tooth and promote pulp healing
3- Reasonable strength and abrasive resistance
4- Radio-opaque
5- Reasonable setting time and has low flow after setting

Types of TF

1- ZOE (Zinc Oxide Eugenol)

2- ZP (zinc phosphate)
3- ZSP (Zinc Silico Phosphate)
4- GP (Gutta Percha)

1- Zinc Oxide Eugenol

According to ADA specifications. There are 4 types of ZOE
 Type I: temporary cementation
 Type II permanent cementation of the restorations
 Type III: temporary filling
 Type IV: cavity liner
 It is the material of choice as temporary filling.
It is supplied as:
Powder: zinc oxide, zinc acetate.
Liquid: olive oil, eugenol mixing is done according manufacturer’s instructions

Or they are supplied as 2 pastes or 1 paste

1
 Properties:
1- It has sedative effect on the tooth, reasonable sealing of the cavity, but it has low strength, low
abrasive resistance, low flow after setting
2- The strength and abrasive resistance could be improved by adding 20-40% wt of fine polymer
particles and treating the surface of zinc oxide particles with carboxylic acid (reinforced ZOE
type)
3- Sufficient powder should be added to the liquid to achieve putty consistency
 Placement of ZOE TF should not exceed few days, maximum few weeks

2- Zinc Phosphate Cement

It is supplied as powder and liquid
Properties:
1- Has a higher strength and abrasive resistance than ZOE, and has a relatively low solubility in oral
fluids. But it is still has low abrasive resistance in area subjected to high load of mastication.
2- Higher powder/ liquid is required for low acidity and high strength
3- Reinforced zinc phosphate is more durable and could be used when longer time TF required

3- Zinc Silico Phosphate

Powder: zinc oxide powder and silicate glass
Liquid: phosphoric acid
 Used as TF because of fluoride presence in its composition
Properties:
1- Has superior strength and it is more translucent than zinc phosphate
2- Do not promote healing of the pulp
3- Used when longer time for filling is required

4- Gutta Percha
Composition: natural gutta percha, zinc oxide, wax or resin and metal slatsto give radio-opacity
 It is applied by softening the gutta percha on the flame and put it inside the cavity
Disadvantages:
1- Lack the ability to seal the cavity that cause micro-leakage
2- Heat that cause pain to the patient
3- Low strength

2
LEC 11 Dental Material Dr. Zainab Al-Raheem
Filling Materials
Direct filling materials are used to replace a missing part of the tooth

Factors causing loss of the tooth substance are:

1- Dental caries
2- Trauma
3- Abrasiuon

Parts of teeth which require replacement by a restorative material vary in size, shape and location in
mouth.

No single restorative material is suitable for all cases. For some situations, the strength and abrasion
resistance of material may be the prime consideration. In other situations, appearance and adhesive
properties may become more important.

Requirement of an ideal filling material:

1- Working time should be sufficiently long to enable manipulation and placement of material before
setting.
2- Setting time should ideally be short for comfort and convince of both the patient and clinician.
3- The material must withstand large variation in Ph and a variety of solvents which may be taken into
mouth in drink, food stuffs and medicaments
4- Metallic material should not undergo excessive corrosion, or be involve in the development of
electrical currents which may cause (Galvanic pain)
5- Filling should be good thermal insulator, protecting the dental pulp from the harmful effect of the
hot and cold stimuli (low thermal diffusity)
6- Material should have coefficient of thermal expansion similar to those of enamel and dentine
7- Should have satisfactory mechanical properties to withstand the force applied like abrasion
resistance, compressing and tensile strength, modulus of elasticity
8- It should adhere well to the tooth walls and seal the margin, prevent the ingress of bacteria and
fluids. Also reduces the amount of cavity preparation required in order to achieve retention of the
filling
9- It should be harmless for both operator and patient and should not irritate to the pulp and soft
tissue.
10- Easily polished
11- Should be bacterio-static
12- It should be radio opaque

1
Classification of filling materials

Filling material

Metallic Non metallic

Amalgam Direct gold filling Polymeric Non polymeric

Unfilled resin Filled resin Silicate Glass Ionomer

(acrylic) (composite) cemen cement
t

Other classifications:

a- Anterior filling material (tooth colored filling)

b- Posterior filling material

For Anterior filling material:

1- Silicate cement
2- Acrylic
3- Composite

1- Silicate cement
Not used now a days because:
i. It irritate pulp due to low Ph (5-3.5)
ii. Brittle and has week mechanical properties
iii. Shrink on setting
iv. High solubility and disintegration
2- Acrylic resin
Unfilled acrylic polymer where introduced about 1945 and were improved so that they were in
modereate usage in 1960s. The unfilled acrylic materials possess improved resistance to solubility
and had no problems with dehydration, but still it had a problem with staining, large dimensional
change on setting and with temperature that resulting in percolation of saliva at margins, low
mechanical strength and stiffness, low resistance to wear, and problems with recurrent decay.

2
3- Composite materials
The term composite material may be defined as a compound of two or more distinctly different
materials with properties that are superior or intermediate to those of the individual constituents.
Composite is polymeric filling material reinforced with filler particles. It was developed in 1962 to
overcome the disadvantages in physical and mechanical properties of acrylic filling and of silicate
cement. It is most popular anterior filling material. Now a days, composite is used as anterior and
posterior filling material

Composition and structure

The essentials of a composite resin are:
1- Resin matrix (binder) like Bis GMA or urethane dimethacrylate
2- Filler like quartz, colloidal silica, glasses, or ceramic containing heavy metals
3- Coupling agent like organo silanes
4- Hydroquinone, inhibitor to prevent premature polymerization
5- UV absorber, to improve color stability
6- Opacifiers like titanium dioxide and aluminum oxide
7- Color pigments, to match tooth color

Filler particles

Resin matrix

Coupling agent

1- Resin matrix: Bis-GMA ( Bisphenol - A – Glycidyl MethAcrylate) monomer is the most commonly
used one. Its properties were superior to those of acrylic resins. It had a high viscosity which
requires the use of diluent monomer. The commonly used diluents monomer is TEGDMA (Tetra
Ethyl Glycol DiMethAcrylate)
2- Filler particles: addition of filler particles into resin matrix significantly improves its properties,
how?
i. As less resin is present, so less resin will cured resulting in less shrinkage.
ii. Reduced water sorption and coefficient of thermal expansion
iii. Improves mechanical properties like strength, stiffness, hardness and abrasion resistance

3
  Important factors with regard to filler, that determine the properties and clinical application of
composite:
i. Amount of filler added
ii. Size of particles and its distribution
iii. Index of refraction
iv. Radiopacity
v. Hardness

Size of particles and its distribution: in order to increase the amount of fillers in the resin, it is necessary to
add fillers with different particles size. If large particle size is used, a space will exist between particles, so a
smaller particles size needed to fill these spaces.

Refractive index: for esthetic purposes, the filler should have translucency similar to tooth structure. To
achieve this, the reflective index of filler should closely match that of the resin. Most glass and quartz filler
have a refractive index 1.5, which match that of Bis-GMA.

Types of fillers: Composite resin use 3 types of fillers:

I. Quartz filler: they are obtained by grinding or milling the quartz. They are mainly used in
conventional composites. They are chemically inert and very hard. This make restoration more
difficult to polish and can cause abrasion of opposing teeth and restoration
II. Colloidal silica: referred as to micro fillers. They are added in small amount (5%wt) to modify the
paste viscosity. Colloidal silica particle have large surface area thus even small amount of micro
fillers may thicken the resin. In micro-filled composites, it is only inorganic fillers are used.
III. Glasses, ceramics containing heavy metals: these fillers provide radiopacity to resin restorations
and have a refractive index of 1.5, example of these fillers Barium, Zirconium and Stronium glasses.
The most commonly used one is the barium glass which is not inert as quartz; some barium may
leach out.

3- Coupling agents: coupling agents bond the filler particles to the resin matrix. This allows the more
plastic resin matrix to transfer stresses to the more stiffer filler particles

Function of coupling agents:

I. They improve the physical and mechanical properties of resin

II. They prevent water from penetrating the filler-resin interface ( micro leakage of fluids into filler-
resin interface lead to surface staining)
III. Prevent filler from being dislodged from resin matrix
 The most commonly used coupling agent is organo saline

4
Types of composites

A) Based on curing mechanism

i. Chemically activated composite
ii. Light activated composites
iii. Dual cure composites
B) Based on size of filler particles
i. Conventional composites
ii. Micro filled composite
iii. Small particle composites (packable composites)
iv. Hybrid composites

Classification of composite according to curing method

1- Chemically activated composite resins

This is two pastes system:
- Base paste: contains benzoyl peroxide initiator
- Catalyst paste: tertiary amine activator

Setting: when two pastes are spatulated the amine reacts with the benzoyl peroxide to form free
radicals which starts the polymerization

2- Light activated composite resins

 UV light activated systems: the earliest system used ultraviolet light. It is not used now a days, it
was limited due to
 Limited penetration of the light into resin
 Lack of penetration through tooth structure
 Irritant to soft tissue
 Visible light activated resins: these totally replaced the UV light system. They are widely used than
the chemically activated resins.
These are single paste system containing:
- Photo initiator: camphoroquinone 0.25% wt
- Amine accelerator: Di ethyl-amino-ethyl-methacrylate (DEAEMA 0.15% wt)

Setting: under normal light they don’t interact. However, when exposed to light of the correct wave
length, the photo initiator is activated and reacts with amine to form free radicals. Camphoroquinone
has an absorption range between 400 and 800 nm; this is in the blue region of visible light spectrum. In
some cases inhibitors are added to enhance its stability under room light or dental unit light

5
  Comparison of light activated and chemically activated resins
Light activated
Require light of correct wave length for its
activation
Cure only where sufficient intensity of light is
received
Working time, under control of operator
Supplied as single component in tight syringes
Less chance of air entrapment during
manipulation. More homogenous mix
Chemically activated
Activated by peroxide amine system
Cure throughout its bulk
Working time is limited
Supplied as two component system
Air may be incorporated during mixing resulting
in reduction of properties

3- Dual –cured composites:

To solve the problems associated with light curing a combined chemical- curing and visible light-
curing material were introduced, which consists of two- light –curable pastes, one contains
peroxide, and the other contains a tertiary amine. The two paste are mixed together in order to
initiate self curing at slow rate, then light cured at a rapid rate. They are designed to cure only those
portions that are not adequately light cured or in deep areas where the curing light cannot
penetrate well.

Classification of composite based on size of filler particles

1- Conventional composite (traditional or macro filled composite)

Ground quartz is most commonly used as filler. There is a wide distribution of particle size. Average
size 8-12 µm, particles as large as 50 -100 µm is also be present.
Filler loading: 70- 80 % wt or 50 -60 % vol
The conventional composite have improved properties compared to unfilled restorative resin, it has
more compressive strength, tensile strength, elastic modulus and hardness, and it has less water
sorption and coefficient of thermal expansion.
Although the conventional composite were superior to unfilled resin, they had certain
disadvantages:
- Polishing was difficult and result in rough surface. This is due to selective wear of softer
resin matrix leaving the hard filler particles elevated
- Poor resistance to occlusal wear
- Tendency to discolor, the rough surface tends to stain

Effect of polishing on conventional composite

6
2- Micro filled composite
They were developed to overcome the problems of surface roughness of conventional composite.
The resin achieved the smoothness of unfilled acrylic direct filling resins and yet had advantages of
having filler. Colloidal silica is used as micro filler. The problem with colloidal silica was that it had a
larger surface area that could not be adequately wetted by matrix resin. Thus addition even small
amounts of micro filler result in thickening of the resin matrix. Thus it was not possible to achieve
the same filler loading as conventional composite
Methods to increase filler loading in micro filled composite:
1) One method is to fuse the colloidal silica particles, thereby reducing surface area
2) Addition of pre-polymerized fillers. They are prepared by adding 60-70% wt of saline coated
colloidal silica to monomer, which is held at slightly higher temperature to reduce its
viscosity. Then it is heat cured and ground. The composite is obtained by adding these
polymerized filler along with more saline coated micro fillers into un-polymerized resin
matrix
Filler loading: with inclusion of pre-polymerized fillers, the filler content is 80% wt or 70% vol.
However, the actual inorganic content is only 50% wt
Properties: with exception of compressive strength, their mechanical properties are inferior to
other type. This is because of their higher resin content (50% vol). Their biggest advantages are
their esthetics. The micro-filled composite is the resin of choice for esthetic restoration of anterior
teeth, especially in non stress bearing area. In stress bearing situations like Cl lV and Cl ll
restoration, they have greater potential for fracture.

3- Small particles composite ( packable)

Small particles composite were introduced in an attempt to have good surface smoothness (like
micro filled composite) and yet retain or improve the physical and mechanical properties of
conventional composite. The small particles composite use fillers that have been ground to smaller
size.
The fillers employed are:
- Glass containing heavy metals which are radio-opaque and this is an important property for
materials used in the restoration of posterior teeth. Ground quartz is also used
- Colloidal silica is also added in small amount, 5% wt to adjust the paste viscosity

The average filler size 1-5 µm, however the distribution is fairly broad (it helps to increase the filler
loading). Filler content 65 - 77% vol or 80-90% wt

Properties: due to the higher filler content the best physical and mechanical properties are
observed with this type. And due to their improved strength and abrasion resistance they can be
used in areas of atress such as Cl l and Cl ll restorations. Some products have reasonably smooth
surface for anterior are still not as good as the micro filled and hybrid composite in this regard.

7
4- Hybrid composites
These were developed so as to obtain better surface smoothness than that of small particle, but yet
maintain the properties of latter. The hybrid composites have a surface smoothness and esthetics
competitive with micro filled composite for anterior restoration
Two kinds of filler particles are employed:
- Colloidal silica: present in a higher concentration 10-20% wt and contributes significantly to
the properties
- Heavy metal glass: average particle size is 0.6-1 µm. 75% of ground particles are smaller
than 1µm

Filler content: 70-80 % wt or 50-60 % vol, the overall filler loading is not as high as small particle
composition

Properties: their properties range between conventional and small particle. The hybrid composite
are widely used for anterior restorations, including Cl lV, because of its smooth surface and good
strength.

The hybrid are also being widely employed for stress bearing restoration, evfen though its
mechanical properties are somewhat inferior to small particle composites

8
LEC 12 Dental Material Dr. Zainab Al -Raheem
Amalgam Filling Material
Dental amalgam is an alloy produced by mixing liquid mercury with solid particles of silver, tin, copper, and
sometimes zinc, palladium, indum and selenium, this combination of solid metals is known as the amalgam
alloy.

In dentistry, the amalgam has been successfully used for more than a century as a restoration material for
tooth decay.

Classification of amalgam alloys:

1- Based on copper content:

 Low copper alloys: contain less than 6% copper (conventional alloys).

 High copper alloys: contain more than 6% copper.

The high copper content is further classified as:

 Admixed or dispersion or blended alloys.

 Single composition or unicomposition alloys.

2-Based on zinc content:

 Zinc-containing alloys: contain more than 0.01 zinc.

 Zinc-free alloys: contain less than 0.01 zinc.

3-Based on shape of the alloy particle:

 Lathe cut alloys – irregular shape.

 Spherical alloys.

4-Based on number of alloyed metals:

 Binary alloys e.g: silver-tin.

 Tertiary alloys e.g: silver-tin-copper.
 Quaternary alloys e.g: silver-tin-copper-indium.

Manufacturing of alloy powder:

1- Lathe cut alloy powder: to produce lathe cut alloys, the metal ingredients are heated and protected
from oxidation until melted, then poured into a mold to form an ingot. The ingot is cooled slowly. After the
ingot has been completly cooled, it is heated for various period of time to produce a more homogenous
distribution of Ag3Sn

An annealed ingot of sliver-tin is placed in a milling machine or in a lathe and is fed into a cutting tool.

1
Aging: a freshly cut alloys reacts too rapidly with mercury. If the alloy filling are stored at room
temperature for a few months, the reactivity gradually decreases. Such alloys are said to have been aged.
Aging can be done quickly by boiling the fillings for 30 minutes in water. They can also be treated with acid.
Aging also improves the shelf life of product.

2- Spherical alloy powder: the spherical alloy is prepared by an atomization process. The liquid alloy is
sprayed under high pressure of an inert gas through a fine crack into large chamber. If the droplets solidify
before hitting a surface, the spherical shaped is preserved. Like the lathe cut powder, spherical powder is
aged.

Composition:

Low copper Admixed High copper

(unicomposition)
Particle shape Lathe cut or spherical Lathe cut spherical spherical
Silver 63-70% 40-70% 40-65% 40-60%
Tin 26-29% 26-30% 0-30% 22-30%
Copper 2-5% 2-30% 20-40% 13-30%
Zinc 0-2% 0- 0% 0-4%

Function of each constituent:

1- Silver:
 Major element in reaction
 Whitens the alloy
 Decrease the creep
 Increase strength
 Increase expansion on setting
 Increase tarnish resistance in the final resulting amalgam
2- Tin:
Control the reaction between silver and mercury. Without Tin the reaction would be
unacceptable
 Reduces strength and hardness
 Reduces resistance to tarnish and corrosion, hence the Tin content should be controlled
3- Copper:
 Increase hardness and strength
 Increase setting expansion
4- Zinc:
 In small amounts, it does not influence the setting reaction or properties of amalgam. Zinc
act as scavenger or deoxidizer during manufacturing thus prevents the oxidation of these
important elements like silver, copper, or Tin. Oxidation of these elements would seriously
affect the properties of the alloy and amalgam. Alloys without zinc are more brittle, and
amalgam formed is less plastic

2
  Zinc cause delayed expansion if the amalgam mix is contaminated with moisture during
manipulation
5- Platinum:
 Hardens the alloy and increases resistance to corrosion
6- Palladium:
 Hardens and whitens the alloy

Low copper alloys:

Available as:

 Lathe-cut alloys two types: coarse or fine grains.

 Spherical alloys.
 Blend of lathe-cut and spherical particles (admixed).

Setting reaction:

When alloy powder and mercury are triturated.

Mercury diffuses into the alloy particles and starts reacting with the silver and tin present in it, forming
silver-mercury and tin-mercury compounds.

Ag3Sn + Hg Ag2Hg3 + Sn8Hg + Ag3Sn

Ƴ ƴ1 ƴ2 ƴ
Gamma Phase Gamma1 Gamma2 Gamma Phase

(Unreacted particles) (Unreacted Particles)

The alloy particles do not react completely with mercury. About 27% of the original Ag3Sn remains as
unreacted particles.

Set amalgam consist of unreacted particles (ƴ) surrounded by matrix of the reaction products ƴ1 and ƴ2.

o If more ƴ1 phase is present, the stronger the amalgam

o If more ƴ2 phase is present, the weakest compound and least stable to corrosion process.

3
High copper alloy:

They are preferred because of their improved mechanical properties, resistance to corrosion, and better
marginal integrity (the weak ƴ2 phase is eliminated in high copper amalgam)

Admixed Alloy Powder

The admixed alloy was developed in 1963. They are made by mixing one part silver copper eutectic alloy
(high copper spherical particles) with two parts silver tin alloy (lower copper, lathe cut particles).

Setting reaction may be simplified as follows:

Ag3Sn + Ag-Cu + Hg Ag2Hg3 + Sn8Hg + Ag3Sn + AgCu

Eutectic ƴ1 ƴ2 ƴ
unreacted

And later,

Sn6 + AgCu Cu6Sn5 + Ag2Hg3

Ƴ Eutectic Ƞ ƴ1
Eta Phase

Single composition alloys

Each particle of alloy has the same composition therefore they are called single composition or uni-
compositional alloys

Setting reaction:

AgSnCu + Hg Cu6Sn5 + Ag2Hg3 + AgSnCu

Ƴ + Eutctic Ƞ unreacted

Eta Phase

4
Properties of Set Amalgam:

1- Dimensional changes:
Amalgam may expand or contract depending on its manipulation. Ideally, dimensional changes
shpuld be small.
ADA Sp. No.1 requires that amalgam should not expand or contract more than 20µm/cm at 37oC,
between 5 and 24 hours from beginning of trituration.
The initial contraction after short time (the first 20 minutes) is believed to be associated with the
solution of mercury in the alloy particles.
After this period an expansion occurs (although the total change remains negative) which is
believed to be result of reaction of the mercury with silver and tin, and the formation of the
intermetallic compounds. The ƴ1 crystals as they grow impinge against each other and produce an
outward pressure tending to oppose contraction.
If there is sufficient mercury present to provide a plastic matrix, an expansion will occur when
ƴ1crystals impinge. Reducing mercury in the mix will favor contraction.

Factors favoring contraction are:

1- Low mercury / alloy ratio

2- Higher condensation pressure (squeezes out mercury)
3- Smaller particle size (accelerate mercury consumption because of its large surface area)
4- Longer trituration times (accelerates setting)

Modern amalgams show a net contraction, whereas older amalgams always showed expansion.
Two reasons for this difference are:

 Older amalgams contained larger alloy particles and were mixed at higher mercury :
alloys ratio
 Hand trituration was used before; modern amalgams are mixed with high speed
amalgamators (equivalent to increase in trituration time).

The dimension become nearly constant after 6-8 hours, and thus the values after 24 hours is
final values. The only exception to this statement is the excessive delay dimensional change
resulting from contamination of zinc containing alloy with water during trituration or
condensation. It is usually starts after 3-5 days and may continue for months. This is known as
delayed expansion or secondary expansion.

H2O + Zn ZnO + H2 (gas)

The hydrogen gas does not combine with the amalgam, but collect within restoration creating
internal pressure and expansion of the mass.

5
 Amalgam without zinc tend to be less plastic and less workable; used only for cases where it is
difficult to control moisture, eg.: patient have excessive salivation, sub-gingival caries, …etc.

2- Strength:
Hardened amalgam has good compressive strength. But cannot with stand high tensile or bending
stress, therefore the cavity design should be such that the restoration will receive compression
forces and minimize tension or shear forces in service.
Compressive strength 1 hour 7 days
Low copper 145 mpa 343mpa
Admixed 137 mpa 431mpa
Single composition 262mpa 510mpa
While tensile strength 48 – 70mpa

Factors affecting strength:

1) Effect of trituration: either under trituration or over trituration will decrease the strength for
both low copper and high copper amalgams
2) Effect of mercury content: sufficient mercury should be mixed with the alloy to wet each
particle of the alloy. Otherwise a dry, granular mix results which has rough and pitted surface
that invites corrosion.
Excess mercury in the mix can produce a marked reduction in strength, the reason that the high
mercury amalgam has more ƴ content (which is the weakest phase)
3) Effect of condensation: higher condensation pressure result in higher compressive strength
(only for lathe cut alloy)
A good condensation technique will minimize porosity and remove excess mercury from lathe
cut amalgam
If heavy pressure is used in spherical amalgam, the condenser will punch through. However
spherical amalgam condense with lighter pressures produce adequate strength
4) Effect of porosity: voids and porosity reduce strength
Porosity is caused by :
a- Decrease plasticity of the matrix, which is caused by
I. Too low Hg/alloy ratio
II. Under trituration
III. Over trituration
b- Inadequate condensation pressure
c- Irregularly shaped particle of alloy powder
d- Insertion of too large increments
Increase condensation pressure improves adaptation at margins and decreases the number
of voids. Fortunately voids are not a problem with spherical alloy

6
 5) Effect of rate of hardening: amalgam does not gain strength as rapidly as might be desired. The
ADA stipulates a minimum of 80 mpa at 1 hour. Patient should be cautioned not to bite too hard
for at least 8 hours after placement. The time at which at least 70% of its strength is gained.
6) Effect of cavity design:
I. The cavity should be designed to reduce tensile stresses
II. Amalgam has strength in bulk; therefore the cavity should have adequate depth.

3- Creep:
It is defined as a time dependent plastic deformation. Creep of dental amalgam is a slow
progressive permanent deformation of set amalgam which occurs under constant stress (static
creep) or intermittent stress (dynamic creep)
Creep is related to marginal breakdown of low copper amalgams. The higher the creep, the greater
is the degree of marginal deterioration (ditching)
 Low copper amalgam creep = 0.8 – 8.0%
 High copper amalgam creep = 0.4- 0.1%
 According to ADA Sp No.1 creep should be below 3%
 The ƴ2phase is associated with higher creep rates
 Increase in zinc content gives less creep

Effect of manipulative variables (for increase strength and low creep):

 Hg / alloy ratio should be minimum

 Condensation pressure should be maximum fro lathe cut or admixed alloys
 Careful attention should be paid to timing of trituration and condensation. Either under or
over trituration or delayed condensation tend to increase the creep rate.

4- Tarnish and corrosion:

Amalgam restoration often tarnishes, and corrodes in mouth.
Tarnish: mean loss of luster from the surface of metal or alloy due to the formation of a surface
coating. The amalgam is always tarnish due to formation of sulphide layer on the surface. This
causes no change in the mechanical properties of the alloy.
Corrosion: the multi-phase structure of amalgam makes it prone to corrosion. The different phases
form anode and cathode and saliva (provides the electrolytes), electrolytic cell is readily setup
Corrosion is the progressive destruction of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its
environment. Excessive corrosion can lead to increased porosity, reduced marginal integrity, loss of
strength, and the release of metallic product into oral environment.

7
 Factors related to excess tarnish and corrosion
1) High residual mercury
2) Surface texture-small scratches and exposed voids
3) Contact of dissimilar metals eg. Gold and amalgam
4) Patient on high sulfer diet
5) Moisture contamination during condensation
6) Type of alloy, low copper amalgam is more susceptible to corrosion (due to greater ƴ2 content)
than high copper. Also Ƞ phase (Cu6Sn5) of high copper is less susceptible to corrosion.
7) High copper amalgam is cathodic in respect to a low copper amalgam, so mixed high and low
copper restoration should be avoided

Corrosion of amalgam can be reduced by:

1) Smoothing and polishing the restoration

2) Correct Hg/alloy and proper manipulation
3) Avoid dissimilar metal including mixing of high, and low copper amalgams
 Corrosion has one advantage that corrosion products thought to be gathered at the
restoration – tooth interface (seal the gap) to prevent or decrease micro-leakage.

Technical consideration (Manipulation of amalgam)

The success of most amalgam restoration is highly dependent on the correct selection, and manipulation of
the alloy and cavity design. If a restoration is defective, it is usually the fault of the operator and not the
material.

1) Proportions and dispensers

o Dispensers: Because proportioning is important, manufacturers have developed some simple
dispensers for alloy and mercury. Dispensers by volume are not reliable because it is affected by
particle size and the degree of packing in dispenser (trapped air and voids)
o Tablets: This is most accurate method of dispensing, manufacturers compresses alloy powder into
tablets of controlled weight that are used with measured amount of mercury.
o Pre-proportioned capsules: Pre-proportioned capsules containing alloy particles and mercury in
components separated by a membrane. Before use, the membrane is ruptured by compressing the
capsule, and then the capsule placed in a mechanical amalgamator.

Proportions of alloy to mercury

Some alloys require HG/alloy ratio more than 1:1, whereas other use ratio of less than 1:1; the
percentage of Hg varies from 43% - 54%

8
2) Trituration ( mixing of amalgam)
Trituration of amalgam alloy and mercury is done with
o Mechanical mixing device called an amalgamator. Spherical or irregular low copper alloy may be
triturated at low speed (low energy), but most high copper alloys rquire high speed (high energy)
o Hand mixing by using mortar and pestle

Mixing time
There is no exact recommendation for mixing time, since amalgamators differ in speed, oscillation
pattern and capsule designs. Spherical alloys usually require less amalgamation time than do lathe
cut alloys. A large mix requires slightly longer mixing time than a smaller one.

Advantages of mechanical trituration

o Short mixing time
o More standardized procedure
o Requires less mercury when compared to hand mixing technique

3) Condensation
The amalgam is placed in the cavity after trituration, and packed (condensed) using suitable
instrument
Aims of condensation
o To adapt it to the cavity wall
o Remove excess mercury
o Reduce voids
Condensation could be manual or mechanical condensation

4) Shaping and finishing

Carving: the filling is carved to reproduce the tooth anatomy. The carving should not be started
until the amalgam is hard enough to offer resistance to the carving instrument
Burnishing: after carving, the restoration is smoothened by burnishing the surface and margins of
the restoration. Burnishing is done with a ball burnisher using light strokes proceeding from the
amalgam surface to the tooth surface
Polishing: polishing minimize corrosion and prevents adherence of plaque. The polishing should be
delayed for at least 24 hours after condensation. A wet abrasive powder in a paste form is used for
polishing.

9
Mercury Toxicity: mercury is toxic, free mercury should not sprayed or exposed to the atmosphere.
This hazard can arise during trituration, condensation and finishing of restoration, also during the
removal of old restoration at high speed. Mercury vapor can be inhaled. Skin contact with mercury
should be avoided as it can be absorbed
Any excess mercury should not be allowed to get into skin as it can react with some alloys used in
plumbing
Mercury has accumulative toxic effect. Dentists and dental assistants are at high risk . though it can
be absorbed by skin or by ingestion, the primary risk is from anhalation.
The clinic should be well ventilated. All excess mercury and amalgam wastes should be stored in
well sealed containers.

01
LEC 13 Dental Material Dr. Zainab al-raheem
Waxes and Investments
Waxes
Indications

The primary use of waxes in dentistry is to make pattern of appliances prior to casting as
many dental restorations are made by the lost wax technique, in which a pattern is made in
wax then putted in the mold (investment material). After setting, the wax is burnt out and
the space is filled with molten metal or plastic (acrylic).

Chemically waxes are polymers consisting of hydrocarbon and their derivatives like esters
and alcohol.

Dental waxes are mixture of natural and synthetic waxes, gums, fats, fatty acids, oils,
natural and synthetic resins, and coloring agents.

Requirements of dental waxes:

1- Must conform to the exact size and shape and contour of the appliance which is to be
made
2- Should have enough flow when melted to reproduce the fine details
3- No dimensional changes should take place once it is formed
4- Boiling out the wax without any residue
5- Easily carved and smooth surface can be produced
6- Definite contrasting in color to facilitate proper finishing of the margins

Classification of waxes according to origin:

1- Minerals
a) Paraffin wax; refined from crude oil, has relatively low melting point (50-70oC) and
relatively brittle.
b) Ceresin wax (microcrystalline): refined from petroleum, has medium melting
range (60-90oC).
2- Plants
a) Carnauba: obtained from palm trees. It is hard, tough, and has high melting point
(80-85 oC).
b) Candelilla: it is hard, tough, and has high melting point (80-85oC), used to increase
the melting point and reduce flow at mouth temperature.
3- Animals
a) Stearin: obtained from beef fat, has low melting point.

1
 b) Bees wax: obtained from honey comb, consist of partially crystalline natural
polyester. It is brittle, has medium melting temp (60-70oC)
4- Synthetic waxes
They are used to modify some properties of natural waxes like polyethylene

Classification of waxes according to use:

1- Pattern wax
a) Inlay casting wax: should be hard and brittle in order to fracture rather than to
distort when removed from undercut areas. The wax is blue in color. They are
used to make inlays, crowns and pontic replicas. They are mostly paraffin with
carnauba wax. There are 2 types:
i. Type 1: for direct technique
ii. Type 2: for indirect technique
b) Denture casting wax: used to produce the metal components of cobalt chromium
partial denture. It is based on paraffin wax with bees wax to give softness
necessary for molding and stickiness to ensure adhering to an investment
material. It is green sheets.
c) Denture base plate wax (modeling wax): it is used to form the base of the denture
and in setting of teeth. Pink sheets.
2- Processing wax : wax used during processing of the appliance like
a) Beading wax: used to make beading around the impression before pouring
gypsum to protect the margins.
b) Boxing wax: used to make box around the impression to make pouring gypsum
into impression easier and more perfect
c) Block-out wax: to block-out undercut areas on cast during processing of cobalt
chromium (Co/Cr) metal frameworks.
d) White waxes: to make pattern simulate veneer facings in crowns
e) Sticky wax: to join and stabilize temporary broken pieces of the denture before
repair.
3- Impression wax: previously discussed as they are used to make impression but they
distort upon removing from undercuts, they are highly flow.
a) Impression wax: used to make the impression
b) Corrective wax: used to record selected areas of soft tissues an edentulous arches.

2
Properties:

1- They are thermoplastic materials that soften when heated and solid at room
temperature.
2- High coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction. It is highest of dental
materials 300*10-6 – 1000*10-6 cm/cm oC. Shrinkage of wax from liquid to solid at
room temperature is 0.4%. Thermal contraction of wax is compensated by expansion
of investment.
3- Poor thermal conductivity. After softening of the wax, it is allowed to cool which
accompanied by contraction and because of poor thermal conductivity only the outer
layer will solidify while the inner mass will solidify later producing internal stresses.
Reliefing stresses occur later when the temperature increases. Greater stresses may
take place if the wax is not properly softened. The best way to soften the wax is to be
held in warm raising air area, above the flame and not in the flame itself. Another
ideal way for softening the wax is to use annealed which is thermostatically
controlled oven, keeping the wax just above the softened temperature and ready to
use.
4- Flow: should have high flow when softened but should little or no flow at room or
mouth temperature so not to distort.
5- Brittleness: inlay wax should be brittle in order to fracture rather than distort when
removed from undercuts of the cavity.

3
Investment materials
It is ceramic material used to form a mold which an alloy casted in.

Requirements of an ideal investment material:

1- Easy to use and reasonable setting time

2- Sufficient strength at room temperature
3- Must not decompose at high temperature
4- Should have enough expansion to compensate for shrinkage of wax and metal
5- Should be porous to allow air and other gases to escape
6- Should produce smooth surface and fine details
7- Should break easily after casting is completed
8- Should be inexpensive

Types:

1- Low temperature casting investment: gypsum bonded investment.

2- High temperature casting investment: phosphate bonded investment, ethyl silicate
bonded investment.

Each type of investment should be composed of:

1- Refractory material which is usually a form of silicone dioxide such as quartz,

tridymite, and cristobolite or a mixture of them.
2- Binder: as the refractory material alone does not form a coherent solid mass, the
binder is needed. So alpha calcium sulphate hemihydrate is the binder for gypsum
bonded investment or phosphate for phosphate bonded investment or ethyl silicate
for ethyl silicate bonded investment.
3- Modifiers: to modify the physical properties such as sodium chloride, boric acid, and
potassium sulphate

Gypsum bonded investment

Uses: it is used to form mold for casting gold alloys for crown and bridges.

Manipulation: the powder is mixed with water and poured around wax pattern and allowed
to set.

4
Properties:

1- Three types of expansions may develop: setting, thermal, and hygroscopic

2- Thermal, setting, and hygroscopic expansion is about 1.3-2 %.
3- It will decompose to sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide when heated above 700 oC
tending to embrittle the alloy therefore it is not used for casting Co/Cr or palladium
alloys but used for gold alloys

Phosphate bonded investment

Uses: to form mold for casting high temperature dental alloys like Co/Cr. Also as a fixture
for holding dental appliance to be soldered or welded.

It is composed of powder which is silica dioxide 80%, ammonium di-acid phosphate 20%,
and magnesium oxide. The liquid is colloidal silica suspended in water. The powder is mixed
with the liquid and poured around the wax pattern and allowed to set for 15-30 min, then
placed in a furnace to burn out the wax pattern. Then heat the investment and melt the
alloy for casting.

Ethyl silicate bonded investment

It is used for the same indications as phosphate bonded investment. It is composed of

powder which is silica dioxide, magnesium oxide, the liquid is supplied into 2-3 liquid
systems mixed to form solution that mixed with the powder. The liquid is composed of
ethyl silicate and denaturized acid. It expansion is about 1.7-2.1 %.

5
LEC 14 Dental Material Dr. Zainab Al-Raheem
Metals and Metal Alloys

Alloys: an alloy is a metal containing two or more elements at least one of which is metal
and all of which are mutually soluble in the molten state.

Requirements of casting alloys:

1- They must not tarnish or corrode in the mouth.

2- They must be sufficiently strong for intended purpose.
3- They must be biocompatible (non toxic, non allergic).
4- They must be easy melt, cast, cut, and grind (easy to fabricate).
5- They must flow well and duplicate fine details during casting.
6- They must have minimum shrinkage on cooling after casting.
7- They must be easy to solder.

Applications of dental alloys

1- Construction of metallic framework of removable partial denture.

2- Construction of metal core of crown and bridge.
3- Making orthodontic wires, bands, brackets, etc…
4- Making endodontic instruments.
5- Construction of dental implants.

Classification of metals

 Noble metals like (gold, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, osmium, and silver.
However in the oral cavity, silver is not considered noble because of tarnish.
 Non Noble metals (base metals) like (chromium, cobalt, nickel, iron, copper, etc…).

Classification of dental alloys

A- According to number of elements

I. Binary  2 elements
II. Tertiary  3 elements
III. Quaternary 4 elements
B- According to nobility
I. High noble alloys  contain 40% gold or more and 60% noble or more.
II. Noble alloys  contain 25% or more noble metals.
III. Base metal alloys  contain less than 25% noble.

1
 C- According to major elements
I. Gold alloys.
II. Silver alloys
III. Palladium alloys
IV. Nickel alloys.
V. Cobalt alloys.
VI. Titanium.
D- According to the 3 major elements
I. Gold-palladium-silver alloys.
II. Palladium- silver-tin alloys.
III. Nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys.
IV. Cobalt-chromium-molybdenum alloys
V. Iron-nickel-chromium alloys.
VI. Titanium- aluminum-vanadium alloys.

Gold

Gold foil filling (pure gold): pure gold is very malleable and ductile. Gold foil is in the form of
very thin sheath or foil about 0.001 mm thickness. It is condensed into the cavity and each
layer of foil becomes welded to material already condensed.

Advantages of Gold foil filling:

1- Perfect corrosion resistance.

2- Adequate mechanical properties.
3- Very durable

Disadvantages of Gold foil filling:

1- Highly expensive.
2- Not esthetic.
3- The technique is time consuming and depend on the skill of operator

Gold alloys are classified according to yield strength and percentage of elongation:

Type I: Soft, it is indicated for small inlay restorations not subjected to mastication stress
like Cl V cavities and Cl III cavities.

Type II: Medium, it is indicated for large inlay restorations.

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Type III: Hard, it is indicated for crown and bridge.

Type IV: Extra-hard, it is indicated for crown and bridge and removable partial denture
frames.

Compositin of gold alloys:

Gold, Copper, Silver, Palladium, and some Platinum, Zinc, Tin, and Iron.

- Copper: reduce melting point and density, increase hardness, gives red color to gold.
If it is present in high percentage, it will reduce corrosion and tarnish resistance.
- Silver: whiten the alloy, increase strength and hardness slightly. . If it is present in
large amount it will reduce tarnish resistance.
- Platinum: increase strength and corrosion resistance and melting point, has white
color.
- Palladium: it hardens and whitens the alloy, raises fusion temperature, increase
tarnish resistance. It is less expensive than gold.
- Zinc: act as scavenger for oxygen.

Properties:

1- Color: it is yellow and there is white gold depending on the whitening element
present (silver, platinum, palladium)
2- Melting range: 920-960oC.
3- Density: pure gold density is 19.3 gm/cm. gold alloy has less density.
4- Yield strength: Type III 207 Mpa, while Type IV 275Mpa
5- Hardness: Type III 121 Mpa, while Type IV 149Mpa
6- Elongation: Type III and Type IV 30-40%
7- Tarnish and corrosion resistance: they are resistant to tarnish and corrosion due to
high noble metal content
8- Casting: it is less than 1.25-.165%
9- Biocompatibility: they are relatively biocompatible
10- Gypsum bonded investment is used with such alloys.

Alternatives to gold alloys:

A- Silver-Palladium alloys: these alloys are cheaper than gold, whiter in color, their
properties are similar to type III and type IV gold alloys but
I. Lower ductility and corrosion resistance.

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 II. Lower density.
B- Titanium and titanium alloys.

Metal ceramic alloys

They are alloys that are compatible with porcelain and capable of bonding to it. A layer of
porcelain is fused to alloys to it natural tooth like appearance. Porcelain is brittle, so these
alloys reinforce porcelain (ceramic).

Requirements of metal ceramic alloys:

1- The melting temperature should be higher than the porcelain firing temperature
2- Coefficient of thermal expansion should be compatible with that of porcelain
3- It should resist creep
4- Should be able to bond with porcelain
5- Should have high stiffness (high modulus of elasticity)
6- Should not stain or discolor porcelain

Types of metal ceramic alloys:

1- High noble (gold alloys): like gold-palladium, gold-palladium-platinum, gold-

palladium-silver
2- Noble(palladium): like palladium-silver, palladium-gold, palladium-copper
3- Base metal alloys: like nickel-chromium, pure titanium. Titanium-aluminum-
vanadium.

Removable denture alloys

Requirements:

Beside all requirements of metal casting denture alloys, partial denture alloys should have:

1- Low weight, because it is large structure

2- High stiffness which help in making casting more thinner that is important in the
palate
3- Good fatigue resistance. It is important for clasps
4- Not react with denture cleaners
5- Low cost.

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Types:

Cobalt-Chromium, Nickel-Chromium, Aluminum alloys, and type IV gold alloys.

Cobalt-Chromium alloys:

They are also called satellite because of their shiny –star like appearance. Have high
strength, excellent corrosion resistance, hard.

Application

- Denture base
- Cast removable partial denture framework
- Crown and bridge
- Bar connectors

Composition

1- Cobalt (35-65%): decrease hardness, strength, and rigidity

2- Chromium (23-30%): passivity effect, decrease melting point
3- Nickel (0-20%): decrease strength and hardness, increase ductility
4- Molybdenum (0-7%): increase hardness
5- Iron (0-5%): increase hardness
6- Carbon (0.4%)

** Nickel may cause sensitivity in some patients.

Properties:

1- Density: it is half of gold alloys (8-9 gm/cm)

2- Fusion temperature: higher than gold alloy (1250-1480oC)
3- Yield strength: higher than gold alloys (710 Mpa)
4- Elongation: less than gold (1-12%)
5- Modulus of elasticity: twice than gold alloys (225*10 Mpa)
6- Hardness: harder than gold (432 HN) thus cutting, grinding, and finishing are difficult,
so special hard and high speed finishing tools are needed
7- Tarnish and corrosion resistance :
Passivity effect: the formation of layer of chromium oxide on the surface of these
alloys prevents tarnish and corrosion in the mouth. Hypochlorite and other chlorine

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 in some denture cleaning solutions should not be used because it will cause corrosion
of the alloy
8- Casting shrinkage: it is about 2.3%

Advantages of base metal alloys:

1- Lighter in weight
2- Better mechanical properties
3- Its corrosion resistance like gold alloys due to passivity effect
4- Less expensive than gold

Disadvantages:

1- More technique sensitive

2- Complexity in production of dental appliance
3- High fusing temperature
4- Extremely hard, so require special equipments for finishing. Also may cause wear of
restoration and natural teeth contacting them

Titanium and Titanium Alloys

Titanium and its alloys are now used in metal-ceramic, removable partial denture frames,
and implants.

It has excellent biocompatibility, light weight, good strength, and ability to passivity.

Application in dentistry:

1- Metal ceramic restoration

2- Dental implants
3- Partial denture frame works
4- Complete denture base
5- Bar connectors

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Properties:

1- Color: white color metal

2- Density: light metal (1-4 gm/cm)
3- Modulus of elasticity: 110 Gpa, half rigid as base metal
4- Melting temperature: high (1668 oC), special equipments needed
5- Coefficient of thermal expansion: 8.3*10 cm/cm. it is low compared to porcelain
(which is 12.7 – 14.2 *10). So special low fusing porcelain is used with it
6- Biocompatibility: it is non toxic and excellent biocompatibility with soft and hard
tissue
7- Tarnish and corrosion resistance: passivity effect and formation of oxide layer to
protect the metal from further oxidation
8- Investment: phosphate and ethyl silicate bonded investments are used

Nickel-Chromium alloys

They are used for metal ceramic crown and bridge

Composition:

1- Nickel (61-81%)
2- Chromium (11-27%)
3- Molybdenum (2-9%)
4- Minor elements like beryllium
5- Aluminum
6- Silicate
7- Copper

Properties:

1- Color: white in color

2- Melting range (115-1304 oC)
3- Density: 7.8-8.4 gm/cm
4- Casting: technique sensitive
5- Hardness: 175-360 VHN, the high hardness make them hard to cut, grind, and polish
6- Yield strength: 310-828 Mpa, it is stronger than gold.
7- Modulus of elasticity: 150 -120 Mpa, this mean we can make casting thinner and
lighter
8- Elongation: 10-28%, they are ductile but not easily burnishable
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 9- Porcelain bonding: this alloy forms adequate oxide layer which bonds to porcelain
10- Aesthetic: dark oxide layer may be seen at porcelain metal junction

Wrought stainless steel alloys

Wrought alloys are defined as alloys which are shaped without applying heat (at room
temperature) by hammering cold working

Stainless steel is an alloy of iron and carbon that contains Chromium, Nickel, and
manganese.

Cold working: the alloy is hammered, drawn, or bent into shape at room temperature. It is
called wrought alloy and it is used for making instruments, burs, wires. Among these alloys
is 18/8 stainless steel alloy; this refers to the percentage of Cr and Ni respectively.

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LEC 15 Dental Material Dr. Zainab Al-Raheem
Dental Implants
Dental implant: is medical device, made of one or more biomaterials that is placed in the mandible or
maxilla to support a reconstruction of missing teeth.

Types of implants

1- Sub-periosteal implants
Implants which are typically lie on top of the jaw bone but underneath gum tissue. The important
distinction is that they usually do not penetrate into jaw. This type of implant used in complete
denture
This type is placed under the periosteum and against bone, rather than within alveolar bone. This
modality is used in cases of advanced alveolar resorption in which the volume of the residual bone
available is insufficient for the insertion of an endosteal implant. The sub-periosteal implant is
retained by periostael integration, in which the outer layer of the periosteum provides dense
fibrous envelopment and anchors the implant to bone through Sharpey’s Fibers and also by
retentive undercut features of implant design. Total sub-periostael implants are for patients who
have lost all of their teeth in one arch. Such treatment is not considered main stream but can be
performed after experience with a number of unilateral or inter-dental cases.

Properties of sub-periosteal implant

I. Designed where residual bone is less than 8 mm
II. Mainly in mandible and less fro maxilla
III. Support an over denture
IV. Need computer generated model
V. Cobalt chromium, stainless steel, or titanium alloy

2- Trans-osseous implants
Implants which are similar in definition to endosseous implants in that they are surgically inserted
into the jaw bone. However, these implants actually penetrate the entire jaw so that they emerge
opposite to entry site, usually at the bottom of the chin. It is used mostly in case of flat lower ridge.
A reconstructive device placed through a sub-mental incision and attached to the mandible with
multiple fixation and two transosteal screws to support a full arch prosthesis. Transostael implants
are the most surgically invasive technique sensitive. They are limited to the mandible. Although
transosteal implants have proven safety and efficiency.

Properties
I. At least 10mm bone height needed
II. Only in the mandible
III. External incision of the sub-mental region
IV. 5-7 parallel holes in base of mandible with only 2 pins appear in the mouth
V. Usually support an over denture

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3- Endosseous implants
Implants that are surgically inserted into the jaw bone. The endosteal dental implant defined as
device placed into the alveolar and/or basal bone of the mandible or maxilla and transecting only
one cortical plate. It is used for partial and single tooth replacement.
Endosteal implants are placed within fully or partially edentulous alveolar ridges with sufficient
residual bone available to accommodate the selected configuration.
Some ednosteal implants are attached to components for retention of a fixed or removable
prosthesis. Endosteal implant systems are commonly referred to as one stage or two stages
There are three forms of endosseous implants:
I. Blade (or plate) form
II. Ramus frame implant
III. Root form implants

Blade (or Plate) form implants

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Ramus frame implant

Root from implant

3
Root form implants

- Root form implants are designed to resemble the shape of a natural tooth root. They are usually
circular in cross section.
- Root from can be threaded, smooth, stepped, parallel sided or tapered, and can be joined to a
variety of components for retention of a prosthesis
- As a rule, root froms must achieve osseointegration to succeed. Therefore, they are placed in a
nonfunctional state during healing until they osseoinegtrated.
- A root form can be placed anywhere in the mandible or maxilla where there is sufficeient bone
available.

Mechanical structure of root form implant

1- The fixture: is the component which is surgically placed into the jawbone, it is made of pure
titanium with machined threads on the outer surface as well as inner channel.
2- The cover screw: it is screwed into the top of the fixture to prevent down growth of soft and hard
tissue into the internal threaded area. It acts as a seal on the coronal portion of the fixture.
3- The abutment: it is the transmucosal component which is connected into the fixture using an
abutment screw. It is made of titanium in a cylindrical shape.
4- The abutment screw: inserted through the abutment and threads into the fixture to connect the
two components
5- The gold cylinder: an integral part of the final prosthesis, it is connected to the abutment with gold
screw.
6- The gold screw: inserted through the gold cylinder and threads into the abutment screw to connect
the gild cylinder and abutment.

Mechanical structure of root form implant

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Osseointegration: is defined as "the formation of a direct interface between an implant and bone, without
intervening soft tissue".

Osseointegrated implant: is a type of implant defined as "an endosteal implant containing pores into
which osteoblasts and supporting connective tissue can migrate"

Bioactive retention can be achieved in cases where the implant is coated with bioactive materials such
as hydroxyapatite. These bioactive materials stimulate bone formation leading to a physico-chemical bond.
The implant is ankylosed with the bone.

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6
LEC 16 Dental Material Dr. Zainab Al-Raheem
Abrasives: Finishing and Polishing

Dental restorations are finished before placement in the oral cavity to provide:

1- Good oral health

2- Function
3- Esthetic

Good oral health is maintained by;

a- Resisting the accumulation of food debris and pathogenic bacteria by reducing the roughness of the
surface
b- Smooth surfaces are easier to maintain in hygienic state, also with some metal restorations tarnish
and corrosion activity can be reduced if the surface is highly polished

Function is enhanced because food glides more freely over occlusal surface and embrasure surfaces during
mastication

An abrasive material: is a material which is harder than the material which needed to be abraded
(restoration or appliance). The abrasive particles should posse’s sharp edges that cut rough surface of the
abraded material

The abrasive particles could be bonded together to from grinding wheel or may be carried across the
surface of bristles of a revolving brush or “buff” or bonded to a piece of cloth or paper and rubbed across
the surface

The smoothness of the surface depends on:

1- Hardness and shape of the abrasive particles. The abrasive particles should harder than the which is
being abraded and should be strong, its elastic limit should equal to its maximum strength so that it
will fracture cleanly to form new cutting edges without permanent deformation
2- Size of the particles. Large particles have wide cutting edge and cut more than smaller size, start
with coarse cutting size and then go to the medium, fine and extra fine respectively.
3- Speed of the movement. The slower speed of movement , the deeper the scratches which are
produces but in slow speed and in high speed, the total amount of material removed will be
approximately the same
To increase the speed of the abrasive, it is suggested to use compressed air to blast an abrasive
powder on to the surface (sand blasting). It is useful fro Co/Cr alloy or to use ultra sonic frequency
vibration.
4- Pressure: only slight guiding pressure should be applied, high pressure will lead to increase the rate
of wear of the abrasive, and heat production

1
Materials used as abrasives:

1- Diamond dust: could be embedded in porcelain binder which is the most efficient abrasive for
dental use
2- Sand: an intermediate abrasive for removing the coarse scratches
3- Quartz particles obtained by crushing sand stone and bonded to paper
4- Carbides: extremely hard and brittle, used for cutting tooth surfaces fro metal, ceramic and plastic
5- Garnet: silicate of any combination of aluminum, cobalt and magnesium
6- Emery: natural aluminum oxide (corundum)
7- Pumice: fine abrasive, the powder is obtained by crushing pumice stone (porous volcano rock). It is
excellent for denture polymer; it is suitable for gold alloy, tooth surface and amalgam. Pumice
powder is mixed with water or sometimes with glycerin with low speed

Polishing
It is the material which causes the fine scratches to be filled and produce smooth surface, probably due to
the rapid movement of the polishing agent across the surface, the top layer of the material heated up and
cause it s flow and fill in the scratches.

1- Rough iron oxide. It is red powder or cake. It is dirty to handle but it produce excellent shine on gold
alloy and not used with stainless steel in which we use chromic oxide instead
2- Whiting (precipitated chalk). It is mild abrasive used for softer materials and polymers, mixed with
water.
3- Tripoli: obtained from porous rocks
4- Tin oxide: extremely fine used for polishing teeth and restoration inside the mouth