GROUP THEORY – 3

(CYCLIC GROUPS – LAGRANGE’S THEOREM)

SOME DEFINITIONS, THEOREMS AND SOME PROPERTIES:

Definition: A group G is said to be a cyclic group if G can be written as

G = {an: n }. In additive notation a cyclic group G is written as {na: n
 }. This a is called a generator of the group.

Definition: Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. For any element

a  G we define a left coset aH (right coset Ha) of H in G by aH = {ah: h
H}, (Ha = {ha : h H}).

Theorem 1: Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

Theorem 2: A group of prime order is cyclic.

Theorem 3: If a is a generator of a cyclic group G, then a-1 is also a

generator of G.

Theorem 4: Every cyclic group is abelian.

Theorem 5: Let G be a cyclic group generated by a. Then o(G) = n if and

only if o(a) = n.

Theorem 6: Let G be a cyclic group generated by a. Then g is infinite if

and only if o(a) is infinite.

Theorem 7: A finite group G of order n is cyclic if and only if there is

some element b in G of order n such that o(b) = n.

Theorem 8: Let G be a group of order n generated by a, then ar is also a

generator of G if and only if r is less than n and prime to n.

Corollary: A finite cyclic group G of order n has φ(n) generators.

Theorem 9: Every non-trivial subgroup of an infinite cyclic group is

infinite.
Theorem 10: A finite cyclic group G of order n has a subgroup of order d
for each divisor d of n.

Theorem 11: Let H be a subgroup of a group G, then hH = H if and only

if h H.

Theorem 12: Let H be a subgroup of a group G, then any two left cosets
of H in G are either disjoint or identical.

Theorem 13: Let H be a subgroup of a group G and a,b G, then the left
cosets aH and bH are identical if and only if a-1b H.

Theorem 14: Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G, then any two

left cosets of H in G have the same cardinality.

Theorem (Lagrange)15: The order of any subgroup of a finite group G

divides the order of the group G.

1. G is a nontrivial group with no nontrivial proper subgroup. Show

that G is a group of prime order .

SOLUTION:
Let G be a non-trivial group with identity element e. Let a be a
non-identity element of G. Let us consider the cyclic subgroup H
generated by a, i.e H = <a>. Since the group G has no proper
subgroup so G = H. If G is an infinite cyclic group generated by a
then <a2> is a cyclic subgroup generated by a2 and it is proper. So
G can not be infinite. Therefore G is a finite group. Let G be a
group of order n . If n is composite then n = pq for some integers p
and q. G = <a> and o(G) = pq so o(a) = pq and hence o(ap) =q, i.e
order of the cyclic group <ap> is q and it is also a proper subgroup
of G. Hence G can not be a group of composite order. Therefore G
is a group of prime order.

2. If an abelian group G of order 10 contains a subgroup of order 5,

then show that G must be cyclic.
 SOLUTION:
Let G be a group of order 10 containing a subgroup H of order 5.
Since H is a group of prime order so H is cyclic. H = <a> . So o(a) =
5. If all elements are of order 5, then the group K = <b> where b 
G-H is also cyclic and is of order 5. Then H K is a subgroup of H
as well as of K. So by Lagrange’s Theorem o( H K ) is a divisor of
o(H) as well as of o(K) . If o( H K ) = 5, then H K =H =K. So o(
H K ) = 1. Hence o(HK) = o(H)o(K)/o( H K ) = 5.5/1 = 25 but HK
is a subgroup of G and o(G) = 10. Therefore each element of G- H
is of order 2. Let b  G-H. So o(b) = 2. Since G is commutative and
gcd(2,5) = 1 so o(ab) = o(a)o(b) = 2.5 =10. Hence G is cyclic.

3. If G be a group of order pq where p,q are distinct primes, show

that every proper subgroup of G is cyclic.

SOLUTION: Same as problem no. 2.

4. Prove that all the proper subgroups of a group G of order 8 are

commutative.

SOLUTION:
The orders of subgroups of a group G of order 8 are divisors of 8,
i.e 1,2,4,8. So the orders of proper subgroups of G are 1,2,4. If H
be a subgroup of order 1, then the group is obviously commutative.
If H is of order 2 then H is a group of prime order hence H is
cyclic, so H is commutative. If H is of order 4, then each non-
identity element of H is of order 2 or 4, (divisors of 4). If there
exists an element a of order 4 then H is cyclic and hence H is
commutative. If each non-identity element is of order 2 then for
any two elements a and b, o(a) = o(b) = o(ab) = 2, i.e a2 = b2 =(ab)2=
e, where e is the identity element of G. So a = a-1, b = b-1 , (ab) =
 (ab)-1 = b-1a-1 = ba, i.e ab = ba. So H is commutative. Hence each
proper subgroup of G is commutative.

5. G is a non-commutative group of order 10. Show that G must have

a subgroup of order 5.

SOLUTION:
Let G be a non-commutative group of order 10. The order of each
element of G is a divisor of 10 i.e 1,2,5 or 10. If there is some
element of order 10 , then the group is cyclic and hence
commutative but the group is non-commutative, a contradiction
arises. So there is no element of order 10. If each non-identity
element is of order 2, then a2 = e for all a  G where e is the
identity element of G. a2 = e  a  a1 for all a G . Then ab = (ab)-1
= b-1a-1 = ba, i.e G is commutative. Again we have arrived at a
contradiction. So each non-identity element of G is not of order 2.
Hence there is some element of order 5 and a subgroup of order 5.

6. G is a group of order 27. Prove that G must have a subgroup of

order 3.

SOLUTION:
Let G be a group of order 27. The orders of elements of G are the
divisors of order of G, i.e 1,3,9,27. If G contains an element of
order 27, then the group is cyclic. Let G be generated by a and o(a)
= 27, i.e o(a9) = 3. So the group <a9> is a subgroup of order 3. If
there is some element b of order 9, then o(b3) = 3 and the subgroup
<b3> is a subgroup of order 3. If there is some element c of order 3
then the group <c> is a subgroup of order 3. So in any case G
contains a subgroup of order 3.

7. G is a non-abelian group of order 8. Prove that G must have an

element of order 4.
 SOLUTION: Left as an exercise.

8. Let G be a nonabelian group of order 2p , p odd prime. Find the

number of elements of order p.

SOLUTION: Left as an exercise.