er vy Ch, eS N DC Machines Inside this Chapter 4242 Operating Characteristics of DC Motors 12.13 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motors 12.15 Characteristics of Compound Wound DC M of DC Motors * Highlights * Exercises « Operating Characteristics of DC Series Motors 12.14 Operating Operating Characteristics of Separately-Excited DC Motors 12.16 Operating lotors 12.17 Speed Control of Separately-Excited DC Motors 12.18 Applications ‘Short Answer Type Questions With Answers « Problems 124 WROBUCTION, DC machine is actually an alternating current machine, but furnished with a special device, called the commutator, which under certain conditions converts ac into de and vice versa. The term “generator” denotes that it generates electrical energy but actually it does not. It simply converts mechanical energy supplied to it into electrical energy. A de generator may be compared with a Water force pump to make operation of a de generator more clear. As the force pump does not produce water but causes a mechanical pressure which forces the existing Water into an elevated reservoir against the back pressure due to its weight, in the same way the generator does hot produce electricity but creates potential difference, which causes the electric current to flow from low Pressure terminal to high pressure terminal in the machine and from high pressure terminal to low pressure ‘terminal in the external circuit against the resistance of the circuit. The generator operates on the principle of the production of dynamically induced emf i.e, whenever flux 'S cut by the conductor, dynamically induced emf is produced in it according to the laws of electromagnetic induction, which will cause a flow of current in the conductor if the circuit is closed. For production of dynamically induced emf, three things ate necessary, a magnetic field, a conductor and motion of the conductor with respect to the field. In de generators the field is produced by the field magnets “hich are stationary. Permanent magnets are used for very small capacity machines and electromagnets are ted for large machines to create magnetic flux. The conductors are situated on the periphery of the armature “6 rotated by the prime mover. | . An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy where as a pattitor is that machine which converts anechanical energy into electrical one, As regards fundamental Principles the de motors are identical with the de generators which have the same type of excitation ie. a chine that runs as a motor will also operate satisfactorily asa generator. the 9.’ OMly difference lies, however, in the mode of construction, which is due to the fact that the frame of ig eterator can as a rule be open but those of motors should be either partly or totally enclosed. A cae to Lally placed in a suitable position and mechanical protection for the coils and armature may be re pa "tihimum, Also the generator is handled by technical persons. Hence there is no risk in having the frame oBasic Electrical Engineerin 8 On the other hand, motors have toy, chemical fumes and liability to mechanical damage ia osed oF totally the generator open, i ns of dampness, dirt, inflammable gases therefore, protection must be adequate and motor frames are made flame-proof, partly enc enclosed according to the requirements of service. Both induced emfs and mechanical forces are developed in a machine whether itis a generator or Motor As such a de generator and motor have identical construction. In this chapter de machines used ag ‘generator, although much of what is said concerning generators is equally applicable to motors, are dealt with, <7 1 DC machine (whether a generator or motor) with four consists of four parts mainly 1, Field magnets 2. Arma bled de machine is shown in Fig. 12.2 polesiis shown in Fig. 12.1. In construction, de machine ture 3. Commutator 4. Brush and brush gear. Disaseme ene. Frei &YE io one -vE BEARING ‘SHIELD ‘SHOE yore FRAME Bevan SHIELD oR TERMINAL AR GaP. ; _ ROCKER Fea COVER ae BRUSH Ba ( HOLDER SHAFT ARMATURE = core! os ‘commutator: h bi) ARMATURE coMmuTATOR reer 12.2, DC Machine (Disassembled) Fig. 12.1. 4-Pole DCMachine (WE Riaa(systemarhe object of the field system is to create a uniform magnetic field, within which the armature rotates. Electromagnets are preferred in comparison with permanent magnets on account of its greater magnetic effect and its field strength regulation, which can be achieved by controlling the magnetising curren. Field magnet consists of four parts given below: (i) Yoke or Frame (ii) Pole cores (iii) Pole shoes and (iv) Magnetising coils. Cylindrical yoke is usually used which acts as a frame of the machine and carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles. In small machines, cast iron yokes are used, because of cheapness but / SHOE yoke of a large machine is invariably made of val fabricated steel due to its high permeability Pole core is usually of circular section and is used to carry the coils of insulated wires carrying the exciting (or field) current. The pole shoe act ya yo as a support to the field cols and spreads out the nyrees flux over the armature periphery more uniformly and also being of larger cross section reduces the reluctance of the magnetic path. The field poles are usually formed of lami- nations (thin sheets of steel) and are bolted to the frame or yoke to which are also fastened the end bells with their bearings and the brush rigging. In small machines the poles are cast integral with MAGNETISING [OR EXCITING COL ana mene Aue ‘SLOTS Fig. 12.3 Cross Section of Field System of a DC Generator ettDC Machines ihe yoke from cast iron due ots low cost and less machining required by individual parts. In some machines the yoke art le cores are made in single casting and laminated pole shoos areattached tothe pole cores. The pole faces or pole shoes wna always laminated to avoid heating and eddy current losses caused by the fluctuations in the lux distribution on the pole face due to movement of armature slots and teeth The object of the magnetising or field coils isto provide under the various conditions of operation, the number of am, pere-tums of excitation required to give the proper fux through the armature to induce the desired potential difference. The magnetic flux produced by the mmf developed by the field coils pass through the pole pieces, the air gap, the armature core and the yoke or frame, In Fig. 12.3, the dotted lines indicat magnetic circuit. There are several field constructions adopted field, many turns of fine wire are used, in series field few turns compound field both s tis a rotating part of ade machine and is built up in a cylindrical or drum shape. The purpose of armature is to rotate the conductors in the uniform magnetic field. It consists of coils of insulated wires wound around an iron and so arranged that electric currents are induced in these wires when the armature is totated in a magnetic field. In addition, its most important function is to provide a path of very low reluctance to the magnetic flux. The armature core is made from high permeability silicon-steel stampings, each stamping, being separated from its neighbouring one by thin paper or thin coating of varnish as insulation, A small air gap exists between the pole pieces and ‘he armature so that there will be no rubbing in the ma- chine. However this gap is kept as small as possible, since larger the air gap greater is the mmf required to create the ‘equired flux. The air-gap length is about 1.0 mm to 6 mm, (Say 1 mm for a 1 kW machine, 1.5 to 1.75 mm for me- ‘lum size machines and 6 mm for 800 kW machine). The use of high grade steel is made (a) to keep hys- tetesis loss low, which is due to cyclic change of mag- fttisation caused by rotation of the core in the magnetic field and (b) to reduce the ‘eddy currents in the core which unt and series windings are used, 325 LAMINATED. POLE CORE excrne LAMINATED. POLE SHOE: Fig. 124 Laminated Pole Core and Pole Shoe te the mean flux path through the complete according to the type of excitation. In shunt of large cross-sectional area are used and in cont ‘COMMUTATOR con ARMATURE: (a) Longitudinal View of Armature story Key way (b) Armature Lamination Fig. 12.5 Armature ae induced by the rotation ofthe core in the magnetic field, By using stampings of laminations, the path of the eddy currents is cut into several units. The laminations must be in such a direction that they are Perper dicular to the paths of eddy currents and parallel to the flux. Each lamination is about 0.3 to 0.6 mm thicl 3 Commutator ‘The commutator is a form of rotating switch placed between the armature and the xtemal Circuit and so arranged that it will reverse the connections to the external circuit atthe instant of each ® “etsal of current in the armature coils. Pern tis very im shine and serves the }portant part of a de mac . i stationary external 1. Itprovides the electrical connections between the rotating armature coils and the stationary circuit. wing purposes:Basic Electrical Engineer 9 326 2. As the armature rotates, it performs a switching action reversing the cece connections between the external circuit and each armature coil in turn so that the armature coil voltages add together. ‘and result in a de output voltage. 3. Italso keeps the rotor or armature mmf stationary in space. edge shapes cylindri re and i built up of wedge shaped segment of high ‘The commutator is essentially of cylindrical struct wedi condi hat dra copper ot drop forged coppet. These semens are insulated rom eachother yh layers of mic asuly of Oto Imm thickness), Mica is tobe prefered but cannot be used fore commutator because of the difficulty of obtaining large sheets, making the cos of larg mica spe prohibitive. On account of cost also micanite is often used for small commutators. The segments are held together by means of two V-shaped rings that fit into the V-grooves cut into the segments, y V-sI ings that fit into the V-g1 re s of 1p COPPER INSULATING — SEGMENT RISER V RINGS, END 5 RNG END RING ConmuTaror Hue TT (a) Commutator (b) Section View of Commutator Segments Fig. 12.6 ‘The commutator is pressed on to the armature shaft, and the outer periphery is then machined to provide a smooth surface with which a stationary carbon (or graphite or copper) brush can maintain continuous contact as the armature and commutator rotate, Great care is taken in building the commutator because even slight eccentricity will cause the brushes to bounce, causing undue sparking, SSeS The insulated wires housed in armature slots are suitably connected. This is called the armature winding. Ai mature winding plays vital role in ade machine, It is a place where conversion of power takes place i.e. conversion of mechanical power into electrical one in case of a generator and conversion of electrical power into mechanical one in case of motor. In lap winding finish end of one coil is connected to a commut adjacent coil under the same pole and similarly all coils are connected, The winding is known as lap windingDC Machines 327 MICA INSULATOR BRUSH By SI. (FIXED) BRUSH, yy commutators ame SPLIT RING SEGMENTS HY MOVING WiTH COIL (a) Brushes Sevan TAP WINDING | @ (b) Fig. 12.8 Ls, sf HOLE FOR BRUSH BOLT \ (b) Brush Holder Fig. 12.7 Brush and Brush Holder Ye BoD fo P =f Tat 12.8(6). In lap winding there are as many parallel paths or aie circuits through the winding as there are field poles on the Fig 129 machine. Lap winding because of larger number of parallel paths and lesser number of conductors per path is suitable for large current and low voltage machines. Wave winding is also sometimes known as series winding. In wave winding finish end of one coil is connected to the start of another coil as shown in Fig. 12.9. Thus in wave winding, the winding progresses, passing every N pole and $ pole till it returns to the coil side from where it was started. As the winding is wavy, the winding is, therefore, called wave winding. The wave winding gives always two parallel paths irrespec- tive of number of poles and, therefore, for a given number of poles and armature conductors, it gives more emf than the lap winding, Hence it is used for high voltage and low current machines. ‘th small machines, ball-bearings may be used at both ends. For larger machines, roller- bearings are used at the driving end, and ball-bearings may be used at the non-driving end, i.e, at the commutator end. Thrust bearings are used where excessive end thrust is anticipated. Sleeve-bearings, with ting lubrication are used for motors when very silent running is required. For large machines pedestal- bearings are generally used. arctic he shaft is made of mild steel with maximum breaking strength. The shaftis used conmuyator ee ra ‘0 transfer mechanical power from or to the ' END SUPPORT ‘machine. The rotating parts such as armature core, "\"° cone Commutator, cooling fan etc. are keyed to the shaft, [sary Sectional view of a de rotor consisting of < \ See ORNS armature shaft, armature core, armature winding —_LOcknuT LOCKNUT and commutator is illustrated in Fig. 12.10. BEARING Fig. 12.10 Sectional View of Rotor Assembly of a DC Machine328 Basic Electrical Engine, n As mentioned in Art. 12.1, commutator isa device which under certain conditions convert a ints g, i The commotator is a form of rotating switch placed between the armature and external arranged that it reverses the connections to the external circuit at the instant of each reversal o the armature coil, as already explained in Art, 12.2, and thus converts induced altemating cu ture coils into direct currents in the external load circuit. In case of a de motor, a direct current passes through the brushes and commutator winding; while it passes through the commutator it is converted into ac so that the group of successive field poles carry currents in opposite directions. 124_ EMF EQUATION Let @ be the flux per pole in webers, the total number of armature conductors or col sides on the amature, P the numberof poles, the number of parallel paths inthe armature and N be the rotational speed ofarmatun in revolutions per minute (rpm). As will be recalled, the induced emf is proportional to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux ie. en # at During one revolution of armature in a P-pole generator each armature conductor cuts the magnetic flux P times, so flux cut by one conductor in one revolution = P® webers. Since the number of revolutions made by the armature per minute is N so number of revolutions made pet second is N/60 and, therefore, flux cut by each conductor per second = Flux cut by one conductor per revolution x number of revolutions of armature/second Citouit and go the curent in ents in arma. to the armature onductors under =oPx © webers 60 Consequently the average emf induced in one conductor will be = oP % votts 60 ‘The number of conductors in series between a + ve brush and — ve brush is equal to the total number of conductors divided by the number of parallel paths e. number of armature conductors per parallel path = Z/A* + The total emf generated between the terminals, E = Average emf induced in one conductor x number of conductors in each circuit or parallel path = OPE Evol =O2 x © vot (121) Fora given machine the number of poles (P) and num constant, therefore, ca Generated emf, B =KON (12.2) where K= a F " where’ the angular velocity in radians/secon Thus we see that the induced emf is directly proportional to flux per pole @ and speed N. Moreover, the polarity of the induced emf depends upon the direction of the magnetic field and the directicn of rotation. I iber of armature conductors per parallel path (Z/A) a * A=2in case of wave winding and = P in case of lap winding,DC Machines 329 either of the two is reversed, the polarity of the ind u s luced emf. See aaa mf i.e brushes is reversed, but when both are reversed, pena ea beta phenomenon to all de machines whether they are operating as generators crmotr, However, when 3 pres is operating as a generator, this induced emf is called the generated amt E nachine operating as a motor itis called the counter or back emf, E,, Example 12.1. A dynamo has a rated armature current . rea pee Nr Solution: Rated armature current, 1, = 250 A. aaa Number of poles, P = 12 With simplex wave winding Number of parallel paths, A . Current per path, I, With simplex lap winding Number of parallel paths, A= P = 12 Cuentperpathf, = 2 = 29 ~an933 A ane Example 12.2. Derive emf equation of a de generator. What will be change in emf induced if lux is reduced by 20% and the speed is increased by 20%. [U.P. Technical Univ. Electrical Engineering Second Semester 2005-06} Solution: ‘Since induced emf, E » ®N © Ne 28, x08x12=096E, oN ot E, { E, = 01968 , 199 = 4% decrease Ans- So change in emf 840 conductors and flux per pole of 0.018 webers. Calculate the Example 12.3. A six pole lap wound armature has [R.G.T.U. Basic Elec. Engineering, December-2005] ‘emf generated when the machine is running at 600 rpm. Solution: Flux per pole, ® = 0.018 Wb Number of armature conductors, Z = 840 Speed or rotation of armature, N = 600 rpm Number of poles, P ‘Number of parallel paths, A .+ armature is lap wound GN , P volts = 0.018 x 840 x 2 oo A = 151.2 V Ans. EME generated, E = Example 12.4, A de generator has an armature emf of 100 V when the useful fosper ates as a a ae speed fe i) wit reflux and a speed of 1,000 rpm, (i a ae Se ae (UP. Technical Univ. Electrical Engineering January 2003] 24 mWb and a speed of 900 rpm. Solution: Generated emt, Ey ; Flux per pole, ® = 20m Wb=20 10 wo See eed speed N for a given machine i. Since induced emt is proportional to the product of flux Per pole ® and armature speed N for a Bx ON 1000 1 x 100= 125 V Ans: ee) ” 778x500 "8 55.04 V Ans. Flux per pole, ® = =9.83 mWb Ans. ample 12.14, A 4-pole, long shunt, lap wound generator supplies 25 kW at a terminal voltage of 500 V. The Piature resistance is 0.03 Q, series field resistance is 0.04 © and shunt field resistance is 200 ©. The brush drop may be taken as 1 V. Determine the emf generated. Load, P,, = 25 x 1,000 = 25,000 W 50A 258 Solution: Load voltage, V;, = 500 V = 25.000 _ soa 300 Shunt field current, I = Se = 2° =25.4 Ry, 200 ‘Armature current, I, = fy, + 1y, = 50 + 2.5 = 52.5 A V4, Ry tly Rye + brush drop 500 + 52.5 x 0.03 + 52.5 x 0.04 +1 Fig. 12.19 = 504.675 V Ans. 12.8 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DC MOTOR, The principle upon which a de motor works is very simple. If ‘magnetic field, mechanical force is experienced on the conductor, lefthand rule (also called motor rule) and hence the conductor moves in ofthe mechanical force experienced on the conductor is given by F = BIJ, newtons Where B is the field strength in teslas (Wb/m?), I, is the current flowing through the conductor in amperes and J. is the length of conductor in snetres. oe the motor is connected to the de supply mains, a direct current Te through the brushes and commutator to the armas ‘winding; while on ae through the commutator it is converted into ac so that the group of Geers Under successive field poles carry currents in the opposite ivi #8 shown in Fig. 12.20. Also the direction of current in the Dole lual conductors reverses as they pass away from the influence of one © that of the next. create 12.20, a 4-pole de motor is shown when the field and armature i are connected across de supply mains. Let the current in armature tors be outwards under the N-poles (shown by dots) and inwards lm Generated emf, E, a current carrying conductor is placed in a the direction of which is given by Fleming’s the direction of force. The magnitude iuure336 crosses). By apply’ conductor can be determin« each condutor experiences a free Whi © forces collectively produce a driving ing Fleming’s left hand rule, the direction under S-poles (shown By eo been illustrated in Fig. 12.20. From Fig. 12.29 Basic Electrica, Ent % Me % Of fore itis obo Py force which tends to rotate the motor armature in clockwise ditegn® ty Nn te Motor. In the case of a co moto, itis neccamy thatthe cen ir ed as a particular coil leaves one pole (say, the nory the coils ofthe Se ae ies ea pole which is of opposite polarity (ie aes a eae the commutator, that serves the above purpose, is given below: 0, ae oer sdora singe turn coil, whose leads are soldered to commutator Segments a and b, ACh cay brush, as illustrated in Fig, 12.21. The positive side of the supply line is connected to left han ag negative side to the right hand brush. In position I the line current arrives atthe a Segment a through the bottom side I ofthe coil away from the reader (as shown by cross in the circle) and they th upperside ofthe coi towards the reader (a shown by dot he etele), reaches the commute 6 and flows again into the fine through the brash. The coil will tend to rotate in clockwise diate determined by Fleming’s left hand rule. In position II the coil is on the magnetic 12.6.1. Commutator Action ina DC neutral line; there in no contact between the dq, p ‘commutator segments and brushes, and there q lp is no flow of current through the coil. The 7 coil crosses the neutral line by inertia. In case of a multi-turn coil, the remaining turns of $ BS the coil will supply the necessary torque. 4 In position IIL, the two sides of the coil, 1 Y and 2, have changed poles, and the current a 4 ly through them has reversed. The commutator Jd ° & segments, however, have also changed contact with the brushes. Thus the coil will continue to rotate in the same direction as before, ie. clockwise. | Fig. 12.21 Commutation in a DC Motor 1 As already explained, when the motor armature continues to rotate due {© motor action, the armature conductors cut the magnetic flux and, therefore, emfs are induced in them. The direction ofthis induced emf, Known as back emf, is such that it opposes the applied voltage. Since the back emf is induced due to the generator action, the Magnitude of iis, therefore, given by the same expression as that for the generated emf in a generator ®ZN P ie. Back: —x— . Back emf, E, 0% vols (12.28) { the symbols having their usual significance, ad | The equivalent circuit of a motor is shown in Fig. 12.22. The armature cicuit is equivalent to a source of emf, Ey it series with a resistance, R, put across a de supply mains of V voit? ; must be large enough to balance both the ivalent Cit ig. 12.22 Equivalent Fig. 12. aie ‘Armatire where V isthe applied voltage across the armature, E fio, - ator ac! the in -mf in the armature by gene" I, is the armature current and R, is the 1S the induced emf in the y armature resistance,pc Machines 337 ‘The Eq, (12.29) may be rewritten as 1, to give armature current in terms of applied voltage V, induced emf E, and armature resistance R,,. ‘As obvious from Eqs (12.28) and (12.29) the induced emf in the armature of a motor, E, depends among other factors upon the armature speed and armature current depends upon the back emf E, for a constant applied voltage and armature resistance. If the armature speed is high, back emf E,, will be large and, therefore, armature current small. If the speed of the armature is low, then back emf. E, will be less and armature fuent J, more resulting in development of large torque. ‘The presence of back emf makes the de motor a self-regulating machine ie. it makes the de motor to draw as much armature current as is just sufficient to develop the required load torque. This is explained below: When the motor is operating on no load, small torque is required to overcome the friction and windage tosses, therefore, back emf is nearly equal to the applied voltage and armature current is small. When the ‘motor is loaded, the driving torque of the motor is not sufficient to counter the increased retarding torque due to load and the effect is to cause the armature to slow down. With the decrease in the speed of armature back emf falls. The reduced back emf allows a larger current to flow through the armature. The increase in armature current results in higher electromagnetic driving torque. The motor continues to slow down till the electro- magnetic torque developed matches the load torque and the steady-state conditions are attained. The reverse phenomenon occurs when mechanical load on the motor falls. When the load on the motor falls, the electromagnetic torque developed is momentarily in excess of the Joad requirement and, therefore, the motor armature accelerates. With the increase in armature speed, back emf increases causing armature current to decrease. The decrease in armature current causes decrease in electromagnetic torque and the steady-state conditions are attained when the electromagnetic torque developed matches the load torque. Thus itis evident that back emf E,, acts like a governor i as much current as just required. 128 TYPES OFDCMOTORS Similar to de generators, the de motors can also be classified as (1) permanent magnet, (2) separately excited, (3) series wound (4) shunt wound and (5) compound wound de motors. 12801, Permaneat Magnet Motor. It consists of an armature and one or several permanent magnets encircling the armature. Field coils are usually not required. However, some of these motors do have coils wound on 1 RHEOSTAT the poles. If they exist, these coils are intended only for Techarging the magnets in the event that they lose their strength. Schematically, this motor appears as only an + 8 armature, oc SUPPLY oc suPpLY 12 Sra PE Mae: These mows ste lave field coils similar to those of a shunt wound machine, but the armature and field coils are fed from different Supply sources, as illustrated in Fig. 12.23 and may have different voltage ratings. Inaseparately-excited de motor, Armature current, Back emf developed, E, it makes a motor self-regulating so that it draws FIELD 12.23. Separately-Excited DC Motor (say) (12.30) en(12.31) Line current, V-IR,, Power drawn from supply mains, P = VI where V is supply voltage. (12:32) Mechanical power developed, P,, = Power input to armature ~ power lostin armature = VI-PR,= 1(V-IR,)=E,I (02.33)