,e Natural Topography, inctuaing arainhige ription of the ides both natural unit the focus will be L i eran] | Mem | [ vernon | [woe | {Ta features of Pakistan. ca || “Sere” | | Seonare | | Oot || Ome | f ssn Platoaux T can be divided into six major natural he Northern Mountains and a North-Western Mountaine The Western Mountains The Balochistan Plateau H | Potwar Plateau and Salt Range =| The Indus Plain a Desert Areas (ies Hitt a | {rr ener | [=H hern Mountains and __ The clash of these three great ranges makes for @ very interesting and complex geology in northern estern Mountains Pakistan To the north, north-east and north-west of Pakistan a there lie three ranges of ee mountains. Amongst these ranges are the great Himalayas which the people of central and south Asia consider to be the roof of the world. The Himalayas stretch (a continuously for about 2500 ee km from east to west. They a a! are bordered to the north- ed west by the mountain ranges of the Hindu Kush and to the north by the Karakoram. Fig.1.3 shows that the Northern Mountains comprise of three main mountain ranges: the Karakoram, the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush. TE | ooo Fig. 1.10. A traditional wooden bridge on River Swat Kalam. The During winter many peopl small-scale industries. 1 industries are carpets, emt ‘and.other handicraft items. 1 \ | tourists who visit these pl summer season, value the industries include the pro making vegetable oil, ar Processing is also an imp: shows'an apricot drying u (Wd 4 MAL 9 conditions: and teqy >mmunications. - rthern Mountaingll Muchrof the Nor acterized’ bya veryg nbined with a high rai 3 hich prevents growth ing capita income (aveig Fig. 111 Apricots are died in furtner processed fo in.a number of plac processing industy King im the mount ‘people use this bridge for crossing the river. The bridge Seems to be very unstable and risky for crossing, espe if people are carrying some luggage. The pace of develope in the northern areas has remained slow due to lack! income to pay for the improvement of communications The photograph, Fig. 1.10, shows that lifesis*difficult in the Northern Mountains due to lackofiinfrastructure facilities ©.g. bridges over the rivers and roads and s Fig. 1412 Cottage ands demand. The ‘olourul carp Most of the populationsis dependent on agriculture, primarily subsistence agriculture and cattle breeding: Farming is practised: on. terrace’ fields where wheat, rice, barley, mal and vegetables are grown There are a few resources have | Northern Mounta potential, but th _ Fesources require| | During winter: many people work in'cottage and —_isnolvavallable. The skilled tabourmeeded 10" | small-scale indus The outputs of these — organize.and manage the development of natural | esmetrios are carpetsy'embroidered material, ruge resources is also limited due to the low literacy» rates, Most of the people face'a shortage of safe ; drinking water and poor health these places, mainly during the | tourists who visit q summer-season, value these products. The major processing of food grai Moreover toadiprodudtion in the Northern Mountains imaking vegetable oll, and refining sugar. Fruit’ ; “processing is also'an important industry Bigetett- | tome 4g shows"an apricot drying unit in Baltistan. Gilgit valley located inthe north-west of IRasnat port re ae ee sw eons in the Northern Areas ike: al In number of places in the northern areas, The fru Ing industry provides employment fr the people E J Ring n the mourns s that ntains, rin the Northern Mountains ‘Theresare-a.tew.modern industries but mineral ? resources have not been explored as yet. The Northern Mountains have major hydro-electric ‘Tourismisialso popula adverse impact on regions where P butit has had a “potential, but the a Peeiesich . bers exceed the facilities available.ndent on sistence reeding terraced y, maize ee Ss Fig. 142 Cortage and smal scale eatin Tora produce Cotage arg rugs tat moet domestic and INET NSS carpal arf ppoograph shows young Bays am (olourtl carpets fr sale. ind There are a few modern industries but mineral Tesources have not/been’explored as Yel The Northern Mountains have major hydro-electric potential, but the development of nydro-electric resources requires huge capital investment which Tourism is butit hasDlerate, 1Ce Clea, ge, 19 SUffep Othe; Poor ° ‘Sa ul Muluk Lake is another example of a cirque in the northern ond of Kaghan Vatioy an 01 3,224m (10,578 foot) above soa lvel 1s arvana on st lakes in Pakistan atracing a umber of ca tours, Many of the world’s glaciers lie in the mountains of Pakistan. A glacier is a tongue shaped mass of ice moving slowly down a valley. ‘Some of the important glaciers are: 1, Baltoro: 58 km long, in the Karakoram : 58 km long, in the Hunza valley in the Karakoram Range. 3. Slachen: 78 km long, located in the Karakoram Range. How glaciers change the landscape Like rivers, when glaciers move down, they do three things: a) érosion (abrasion and plucking) of soil and rocks - these form their load ) transportation of their load ¢) deposition of their load. The glaciers can be very large e.g. the Siachen Glacier is 78 km long. The cross-section of a glacier (Fig. 1.20) shows that it may be very deep, filing most of a valley. It has a rough surface and carries on it fragments of rock which break off the mountain sides above and fall onto the ice. A glacier also causes erosion as it moves down a ‘Note: “A vericalbue line inthe valley (Fig. 1.20). margin of the text indicates the Extension material that's ot |, abrasion which is the scraping of the surface by rocks frozen into the moving ice. |i, plucking which occurs when ice freezes. ‘onto rock surfaces and pulls off pieces or blocks of rock when it moves again. Some of the features of glaciation formed in high altitude mountainous regions are mentioned below: = Snowfield is a plain area covered with perpetual snow above the snowline in high altitude mountains. There must be very heavy snowfall which allows the snow to accumulate in compact layers to form a snowfield. = Serrated landscape( elevated mountain zone used for agriculture) ‘Soree collected at the foothils of mountains in the ‘extreme north = Bare rocks in high altitude areas above the snowline (rocks without vegetation due to accumulation of snow) = Scree (a slope consisting of accumulation of loose rock debris. It is formed when water in the cracks of the rock freezes, expands and exerts great pressure within the rock. specified in the 2059/2 syllabus.Drainage Features of the Northe, Mountains Th The term ‘natural drainage’ means the natural The North off of water from an area in rivers and stream facilities. ‘Drainage patter’, ‘drainage system’ and ‘netwon, promote ¢ of rivers’ are terms used to describe the n; ature, drainage of areas. The River Indus and its tributaries, whig originate from the Northern Mountains, doming the drainage pattern of the Northern Mountaing The River Indus starts its journey from Manasarog \ y Lake in the Karakoram Range. While passin Fig. 1.22 eee. | through the Hindu Kush to the north-west, at Attog While crossing the hig Which statement de iples you have EosStrine sotograph Mauris the River Kabul joins River Indus which is already ing, River Indus and its t ea lomeratre trovprout eyes. by River Swat. After forming deeply dissects, which are normally as ae valleys and gorges River Indus takes a southey al high altitude areas turn at Kalabagh and enters into plain areas. Dur, © eae its journey the huge glaciers of the Karakoram flows downhill, t and Hindu Kush feed the river. eroded leaving | which are called ¢ Similarly the eastern tributaries of River Indus (Ray © qwatterfalls’a ste Jhelum, Chenab, Sutlej, Beas) originate fron resistant rock The rock breaks up and debris collected at the foot of the hill slopes is called scree) © Deep V-shaped valleys / gorges (steep sided deep river valleys) © Formation of U-shaped valleys due to movement of glaciers Himelayas and, after passing through Kashm: © @apids series of \ © Deeply dissected landscape due to enter into the plain area where they join River Indy @ movement of glaciers from the mount form of streams ‘© Cirque/corrie (a steep walled basin resulting the valley side. from frost and glacial action. In some cases it contains a small lake. For example Lake Saif-ul-Muluk located in Kaghan valley and Satpura Lake near Skardu are cirques). (Fig. 1.17 and Fig. 1.19) The Wester The Western Mou! ‘ranges and are Mountains. Fig. 1.2 inclide the followi Safed Koh | [Fig. 1.24 A gorge in mountains near Chitral.The Northern Mountains should be developed fer tourism by providing infrastructur Taner wi gunerece employment forthe'ccal population, incteace in GDP wl promote economic growth of the country. ‘The Northern Mountains are difficult to develot jul ip because of ‘topographical constraints and environmental damage. itis more ‘economical to develop the indus lain than the Northern Mountains. do you agree with more? Give reasons for your answer and refer to places or yave studied in Pakistan to support your answer. : While crossing the high altitude mountain ranges, River Indus and its tributaries form the features which are normally associated with river action in all high altitude areas such as: when the river erodes the land and flows downhill, the less resistant rocks are eroded leaving behind vertical hard rocks which are called gorges (Fig. 1.24) a steep fall of river water from a resistant rock @ rapids series of very short and fast waterfalls . when the snow melts jrom the mountain tops water flows down in form of streams and springs which flow out of the valley side. The Western Mountains consist of many parallel ‘ranges and are Northern’ ‘Fig, 1.25, shows the Western Mountains inclide the following ranges. The Western Mountains Valley is located at the other end of the si Kurram Pass. Itis dotted with " Safed Koh Ranges up to 4712 metres ‘ a 5 of limestone ridges. With th the valley is farmed. ugar-cane are cultivated there: Another! is Peshawar, (Fig. 1. Saf yand Swat. ‘this a-fertile, alluvial plain irrigated yy f ” emia “canals originating from the Warsak Dam on the The Safed Koh Ranges are located in an east-west River Kabul. : diection south of the Kabul River. They arevcalled ‘ \ sbeticobiggteupouateh se their peaks = Waziristan Hills Rs _ate ofien covered with snow. Fig. 1.25 shows that the , : enone aseae se The Waziristan Hills are located between the Kurram and the Gomal Rivers. They ie in 2 highly, ‘the Kurram Pass provides route into Afghanistan.mineralised (rich 1) zone. Along with the Safed Koh Ranges, these hills form a rampart between Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Bannu valley is located to the east of the Waziristan Hills. (Fig. 1.25). Bannu, near the Tochi Pass, and Dera Ismail Khan, near the Gomal Pass, are important towns and military centres. The Bannu valley is a low-lying basin bordered by hills and mountains and drained by streams, with braided channels (see Fig. 1.54b). The valley has deposits of clay and boulders brought down by streams. ‘The Kurram Dam on the Kurram River is the main source of irrigation water. Sulaiman & Kirthar Ranges Fig. 1.25 shows that the Sulaiman Range is located towards the west of the River Indus. It rises to an average height of 1500 metres. Takht-/-Sulaiman, at 3383 metres is the highest peak in the Sulaiman Range. Limestone and sandstone are the main minerals in this area. Further south it meets the Kirthar Range, which is backed by the Pab Range. Passes of the Western Mountains The passes through the Western Mountains are of special geographical and historic interest, (Fig. 1.27). Description of the Western Mountains The- description of the Western Mountains , summarized in the table, (Fig. 1.28) Life in the Western Moun of the rugged landscape infrastructure - water sui electricity, telephone line the plains. As a conse projects, e.g. mining ie |= eee Tarren | 519 Between | Hoty manera anna inan fn" |e" loweter | Bett | educational facities, he Rivers. vegetation, 4 These factors adversel See ae ae Sees eee ON State on | moves, |Rver indus | imestone, Seenmi™ necessities of life. Non ciodien | csorwont | stein and sheep and goat rear The population density Tuan ae Sutairon ie Perec per sq. km. There are al ehnhestpeak | Paton in the Western Mounta Se Soe Pee eee of extectog rer: in Sindh, Plain and exploited. oi ea Mountain Buildi and Formation to We rail Economic Activities and Lifestylei Pate Tectonics T The word ‘tectonics’ the Western Mountains “tekton’, neces : hat the surf The Western M ; ears lountains are mostly bare‘ plates of lithosphere ( vegetation. The climate and relief do not SUPP? the more mobile asth farming. Canal irrigation is not possibie because! which is about 35km b the mountainous terrain and rugged landscapt_ to the movement in tt Transportation facilities are limited. Except fo"' are in constant moti few urban centres like Peshawar and Kohat," major processes of t est of the area is not connected by air or ® continents, mountaii Networks. Only a few areas are accessible throu! Volcanic activity. Muc main (metalled) roads. Most of the areas 2" °d9es, or margins, © accessible only by unmet: | y alled roads. Note: *| Averical tueSessa ee Pais etomncratan cea eee | iirc scans sco Life in the Western Mountains is difficult because of the rugged landscape. The cost of supplying infrastructure - water supply, transport facilities, electricity, telephone lines is much higher than in the plains. As a consequence developmental projects, ¢.9. mining activities, industries, Educational facilities, have not been established These factors adversely affect the lives of the | innabitants. They are deprived of even the basic | necessities of life. Nomadic lifestyle is common and sheep and goat rearing is the main occupation. The population density is lower than 100 persons per sq. km. There are abundant mineral resources in the Western Mountains but due to the difficulty of extracting them, they have not been explored or exploited. Mountain Building Process; Origin and Formation of Fold Mountains Plate Tectonics Theory The word ‘tectonics’ comes from the Greek word ‘tekton', meaning ‘builder’. The theory suggests that the surface of the Earth is made up of rigid plates of lithosphere (Earth's crust) which ‘float’ on the more mobile asthenosphere (sof ayer of mantle which is about 35km below the Earth's crust). Owing ‘Amountain is an area of high ground which is higher (over 1000m) than a hill. A group of mountains is called a range. It takes millions of years for a mountains to be formed. The process is going on continuously as sections of the Earth’s crust are thrust, folded and broken, pushing up rocks to make new meuntains. To the rorth, north-west and west of Pakistan, there lie three ranges of mountains. They are fold mountains. Before the formation of these mountains, the area was oc by a long, narrow, shallow sea known as the 'Sea of Tethys’. The mountain building would appear to have resulted from the movement of the Earth's plates, which led to the ing and folding, and ultimately the elevation yers of sediments from the sea squet of iff The sedimentary layers are comprised of mainly sands:one but, in some parts of the shallow sea. the shells and bones of the sea animals accumulated to form layers of limestone. Fig. 1.30 shows three stages A, B and C in the formation of fold mountains. Himalaya During the mountain building process, the Earth’s crust weakened due to great strains and pressures and this occasionally resulted in earthquakes. | However, voleanoes, which are normally associated | with young fold mountains are strangely absent in the Himalayas. Since the mountain building era in ise 0 rape. to the movement in the asthenosphere, the plates _ the Earth's history, the forces of rain, wind and ice for are in constant motion. It explains many of the have been wearing away the exposed rocks of these |. th@ | major processes of the Earth, such as drifting of mountains. The rivers coming from them have | rail, continents, mountain building, earthquakes ané deposited large amounts of sediment in the plain oud) volcanic activity. Much of this activity occurs ‘atthe areas. At certain places the sediment is estimated ; ar edges, or margins, of the plates. to be around 2,000m deep. Nowe: * surnam oe nt mrp ttt to Ess masa pci E07 AE el*! when the Earth Jolted Northern Pakistan Earthquakes are one of the most dangerous and destructive form of natural hazards. They strike with sudden impact and little warning. They may occur at any time of day or any day of the year. An earthquake can devastate an entire city or a region ‘of hundreds of square kilometres. They can reduce buildings to a pile of rubble in seconds, killing and | injuring their inhabitants. How Earthquakes are Caused | The movements of massive land areas called plates, on the Earth's crust cause earthquakes. Often covering areas larger than continents, these plates are in a constant state of motion. As the plates move, stresses form and accumulate until a fracture or abrupt slippage occurs. This sudden release of stress is called an earthquake. ‘On October 8, 2005 a massive earthquake struck the India — Pakistan border with a magnitude of 7.6 on the Richter scale causing massive damage throughout northern areas of Pakistan including Kashmir. Northern Pakistan including Kashmir lies in the area of collision of the Eurasian and Indian tectonic plates. The earthquake caused widespread destruction to this region, as well as damage in Afghanistan and northern India. The ‘worst hit areas were Pakistan-administered Kashmir, Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and western and Southern parts of the Kashmir valley in the Indian- administered Kashmir. It also stecied ‘some parts of the Pakistani province of Punjab and the city of Karachi experienced a minor aftershock of magnitude 4.6. Since then there have been many ‘Secondary earthquakes in the region, mainly to the north-west of the Original epicentre, Note: * the wi pr Physical Environment fi Earthquakes cause dam environment e.g. © faults leading to la © climatic changes © soil contaminatio 9 10 the physicg ai, snowfall, duststorm, nd water pollutio, survivors waiting for help in em camps established by the government or NG ency red The earthquakes had abrupt effects on th: physical environment of northern areas ¢ Pakistan. The Earth jolted intensely generatin, deep cracks and faults causing landslides. Heavy snowfall and rainstorms further deepened th faults and cracks changing the landscape. It hat been reported that there were some volcanit eruptions in some areas which released dead) chemicals that contaminated the soil. Thes! chemicals also polluted ground water sources. Human Environment The earthquakes caused heavy damage to tht human environment in many ways: © massive loss of human life © destruction of settlements & infrastructut @ wide scale migration to lowland area © social problems © spread of diseases. A verceltiv ina tb main of te et incest Extension mt ta sot pected ne 20882 5 many by the collapse of str iat the collapse of 1 as responsible fo injuries in earthqua was almost comple eople died in Rav Muzaffarabad (near uch as roads, bri ines, hospitals and ng problems f ghway was bloc efforts. Due te arthquake iseases s Many people who lowland areas to | The earthquake s emotional losses, Effects of Ea Economy The earthquakes in many ways: emergency r rehabilitation halted touris inflow of for of Pakistan. However, inflow the economic resources to sc eoce The Balo The Balochist west of Pakist 600-3010 me 347,190 sq. k topographical identified as f a) Basins The Balochis' depressions : which are situ and the Sulai Loralai basir Note: * AverMost of the earthquake related deaths are caused by the collapse of structures. It has been estimated that the collapse of more than 60% of the buildings was responsible for the majority of deaths and juries in earthquake areas. The city of Balakot was almost completely wiped out. Thousands of people died in Rawalakot, Garhi Habibullah and Muzaffarabad (near the epicentre). The infrastructure such as roads, bridges, electricity and telephone lines, hospitals and schools were damaged severely causing problems for the survivors. The Karakoram Highway was blocked at several points, hindering | telief efforts. Due to extremely cold weather followed by the earthquake and hindrance in relief efforts, many diseases spread leading to more deaths. Many people who had lost their homes migrated to lowland areas to live in government relief camps. The earthquake survivors suffered economic and emotional losses, leading to many social problems, ySicgy storms | lution Effects of Earthquakes on the Economy The earthquakes overburdened Pakistan's economy | inmany ways: © @ emergency relief and rescue measures e rehabilitation expenditures @ halted tourism © inflow of foreign loans increasing debt burden of Pakistan. However, inflow of humanitarian assistance reduced the economic burden on Pakistan's financial resources to some extent. The Balochistan Plateau The Balochistan Plateau is located in the south- west of Pakistan with altitudes mainly ranging from 600-3010 metres. This is an extensive area of 347,190 sq. km with a number of distinct natural topographical and drainage features that can be identified as follows: a) Basins of Northern Balochistan The Balochistan Plateau has a number of irregular depressions such as the Zhob and Loralai basins Which are situated between the Toba Kakar Ranges and the Sulaiman Range. To the south-west of the Loralai i mountain ranges. As it rains infrequently, when it does rain the rivers form narrow channels and as they reach the foothills of the mountains they deposit gravel and boulders in addition to sand and silt. The deposition of material brought by the river channels forms alluvial fans on the piedmont plains, b) Basins of Western Balochistan There are a number of basins between mountain ranges such as the Chagai Hills, Ras Koh, Siahan and Central Makran. This area is almost totally devoid of vegetation and there is very little rainfall even in winter. These basins have no outlet to the sea. Therefore when rain, which is infrequent, does fall it drains into temporary rivers and streams which flow into the basins and either soak into the ground or gather in temporary lakes. These basins are therefore known as inland drainage basins. The temporary lakes are called ‘hamuns' in the local language They are salt lakes and when their water is evaporated away a salty crust is left behing; it is then called a salt pan. The largest of these temporary lakes is called the Hamun-i-Mashkel which is located in the western part of the Kharan Desert. Find another hamun on Fig. 1.33 or on an atlas map of Balochistan. c) Mountain Ranges The Balochistan Plateau's landscape is covered with a number of barren mountain ranges with an altitude of between 600 ~ 3010 metres. These ~ fh(Fig. 1.34 barren ranges are highly mineralized, especially the Chagai Hills, including copper, gold and sulphur deposits. Many are in the process of exploration Find the following ranges on Fig. 1.33: © Ras Koh © Central Brahui Range @ Hala Range @ Toba Kakar Range ‘@ Makran Coast Range @ Siahan Range d) The Coastal Areas The coastal areas of the Balochistan Plateau can be divided into eastern and western parts. The eastern part comprises the Lasbela Plain which is marked by gravel and sand dunes. The western Part is known as the Makran Coast where the Makran Coast Range projects into the sea and forms a narrow coastal plain. The importan are the Hab, Porali, Hingol and Dasht, wha" into the Arabian Sea. 'Ch fy t is a pity that Balochistan largest province in area, an resources, remained negle efforts were made in this reg - The population density is th of Pakistan, In south-wester than 10 people per sq.km. Water Resources “ 0 major sour aces a scarcit water. The jon small system, flood d er of tubewell Fig. 1.36 River Hincot Sea's the bi c inmate ‘et hee | Transport and Cor Most roads and rai without keeping in view There is an absence o producing areas and th line covers only a limite | Fig. 1.37 Balochistan Plateau is spread over an extensiv | |FI8 737 re cout-west of Patan The eroded ioraacape sat ‘dges wih scanty vegetation can be sean inthe plop | Fig: 1.38 The barren lands of Balochistan can be used for dala plantations. Deep roots ofthe trees absorb ground Wit and can survive in sandy sols. Balochistan’s Economic Potentid The Balochistan Plateau is surrounded by, crossed by, mountains. To the south is a na coastal plain bordering the Arabian Sea. The 4 has low rainfall so the climate is dry and 22 rg sap, ne with comparatively cool summers at high altiv® |" development ‘What are floo of these scherant ry hich fo iver: —§ It is a pity that Balochistan, despite being the ‘est province in area, and with vast untapped urces, remained neglected although some made in this regard but half-heartedly. nsity is the lowest in the whole th-western Balochistan it is less ie Water Resources ¥ There is no major source of water and the vince faces @ scarcity of both drinking and larg resol efforts were The population det of Pakistan. In sou than 10 people per sq.km. pr Irrigation water. The supplies are mostly dependent upon small water schemes such as the karez system, flood diversion channels and @ small number of tubewells. Transport and Communication Most of the roads and railway lines have been built without keeping in view economic considerations There is an absence of link-roads between the producing areas and the main roads. The rallway line covers only a limited area. » What aré flood diversion channels? How many of these schemes are shown in Balochistan? Economic Structure Crop farming and livestock raising are the main pursuits of the people in the province. About 67% of the labour force is engaged in agriculture. The annual per capita income recently was Rs455, higher than Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Rs360) but lower than both Sindh (Rs854) and the Punjab (Rs614) Economic Wealth of Balochistan Consists of: a) Mineral Resources is enviably rich in this regard. A start has now been made by the Resources In addition to the Development Corporation. Saindak Copper-Gold project, the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation (PMDC) is also operating three coal mines. The provines A survey has identified the geological conditions for the existence of deposits of antimony and gold in Punjgore and Kharan district. Balochistan nas appreciable deposits of crude oll and natural gas. iptout 46 per cent of the gas supply in he countryand using surface water. is obtained from Sui in Balochistan. Sui is not on the Balochistan Plateau, but is at the edge of the Lower Indus Plain. b) Agriculture i) Fruit production The main fruits grown are dates, grapes, apples, almonds, apricots, plums, peaches, melons and pomegranates. The surplus of fruits produced is estimated to be about 75% of the total production of fruit. This surplus normally moves to markets in other provinces in varying proportion depending upon the demand and prices prevailing there Karachi is the largest market for Balochistan fruits. There are good opportunities for the export of apples, grapes, apricots, melon, peaches, plums and pomegranates to the Gulf States due to their good quality. ji) Vegetable seed industry The uplands having long and cold wintefs offer the best scope for growing vegetable seeds that initially require some chilly weather for transplantation. Similarly, warm and dry summers are conducive to superior and extensive flowering and for the formation of high quality seeds. iii) Livestock and their Products Nomadic livestock farming is common in this region due to the scarcity of rainfall and lack of irrigation facilties. The most important livestock products are wool, goat hair and skins. After meeting domestic requirements, they are being exported abroad under 2 compulsory government grading scheme which Snsures the quality of exports. Exports risk being rejected by their buyers if not of a Satisfactory quality. Grier to develop Balochistan’s economy we should promote farming me by providing ‘irrigation facilities through installation of tube wells Balochistan requires infrastructure facilities, exploitation of minerals and the setting up of small-scale industries for economic development. ment do you agree with more? Give reasons for your ans’ ‘have studied in Pakistan to support your answer ee The Potwa Sait Range The Potwar Piate to the south of Is iver J er and refer to places, The height of t 300 to 6 c) Fishing ther done for domestic, | (= al purpose (to bey kets). Fishing activity is (subsistence) or for com in local and international mi The 3 main fishing ports are: i) Gwadar The total annual catch is estimated at 19, tonnes, including about 200 tonnes of shri, The major part of the catch is exported to Lanka as dry salted fish. ii) Pasni Itis the number two fishing port and the anny catch is estimated at 2,500 tonnes. Of this ata 400 tonnes are consumed locally and i balance is exported to Sri Lanka iii) Ormara The annual catch is estimated at 700 tonne most of which is exported to Sri Lanka. 1.42_P ot Future Prospects Balochistan has remained somewhat undeveloy but is now beginning to move forward. i) The mineral resources, in which the provint is quite rich, should be developed. Tt untapped sources should be utilized throu, the employment of experts and consultants li) Sheep and goats should be raised on modé scientific lines. Livestock products 2 |F ; exportable but also need improvemer F both qualitatively and quantitatively. ili) Deep-sea Gwadar Port and Saindak Copp? Gold Project should be utilized to improve resistant less resi been dis economy of the province. in Water. It iv) Development of the fishing industry by a land ist latest technology could lead to its fs argecay development.1eStic use to be soig at 10,009 f shrimps ted to Sp € annual this about and the ) tonnes, a The Potwar Plateau & the Salt Range {ne Potwar Plateau and the Salt Range are located ta the south of Islamabad between the River indus 1d the River Jhelum. It is an open, undulating land with extensive flat areas. The height of the Potwar Plateau mainly varies from 300 to 600 metres above the sea level Residual hills such as Kala Chitta and Khairi Murat ise to just over 1000 metres and are the result of Troe a Salt Range showing badiand eral var Pato can aso be Sere Aviloge near Pe nd photograph ms (Fig. 1.45) show the features snd topography’. The Soan River is the of the region. It forms gullies | plains, mainly used for agriculture eau is rich in minerals like rock Natural Topographical and Drainage Features of Potwar Plateau “Thay rise up to 1200 metres. Duet constant erosion and vinge | dopostion, rstual ile made | Ee SeBhy | Ue otreseant rock are found (cesiual its ae the har rocks | Nien rt tind er trosion) | Ridges and residual his ‘Small vers erode the land and take away the alluvium during the rainy season. A feature common in most of the landscapes. Ravines and small rivers ety [Troughs and depressions. | Son rocks eroded by water and wind create troughs and ING ‘depression (e724) — Dissected and faulted land | Land showing cracks due to d ay the uplift of the Norther Mountains during the mountain building process. cca a ‘Deep ravines in less ‘Running water excavates deep resistant rock being left behind after the erosion of resistant rocks — ue oe less resistant rock. A large part of the plateau has been dissected and eroded by the action of running water. It presents a varied landscape. This dissected land is termed as a badland topography andisa landscape of ridges, ravines and troughs (Fig: 1.48).I wy and large the Potwar Plateau is a productive ragion end accessible by road. rll and elr transport Sane urban settlements like Jhelum, Chakwal amabad have been developed. Rawalpindi / Isl Breouraging a high population density. | The Indus Plain i The River Indus and its tributaries drain the Indus ‘cated throughout most of Punjab and the Plain lo central part of Sindh (Fig: 1.50) s Plain. Tocaton of Upper and Lower Indus nid 3 Its northern part is known as the Upper Indus Plain, By Panjnad the five main tributaries of the 5 iM Indus (including the Beas which joins the Sutle} ‘After the Sutle} in india) have all joined together. joins the Chenab at Panjnad the 1 talled the Panjnad. The River Paninas ¢ further 72 kilometres before joining near Mithankot. iver is itself \d flows for the Indus raw ni ‘The general slope of the plain towards ine seais aa gentle, with an average gradient (rate of change) ‘hal of one metre to five lometres. Below Mithankot is in Sindh, the Indus flows as @ gigantic river till it falls into the Arabian Sea. This part is known as the Lower Indus Plain. 1s Plain have the following The landforms of the Indu g. 1.51. distinct features, as shown in FiTopographical Features of the Indus Plain The Active Flood Plain The narrow strip of land on both sides of the rivers is called the active flood plain area (Fig. 1.51). itis. locally known as ‘bet’ or ‘khaddar’ land. It is. inundated almost every year. At the end of the rainy season, the land is marked with dry and braided channels rich in alluvium (Fig. 1.54 a-b). The active flood plain is found along all the rivers except for [ 2-3 | braided river channel. the southern half of River Ravi due to the low volume of water. When the River Indus enters the lower Indus Plain, the flood plain is around 40km wide which makes it an important farming area Meanders, oxbow lakes and levées are important features of the active flood plain. Fig. 1.55. explains how the river forms meanders and ox, through acts of erosion and deposi” features are also shown in Fig. t-57\°"-1y ee Indus enters the Lower Indus pi, Ene Old Flood mearders and oxbow lakes. Formation gf", Meander and cover flood plains co is explained in Fig. 1.56 when the river 4% between the alluvial terraces (disc material on its bank. These features ex the Upper and Lower Indus Plains, ‘and the active flood plain. They are ing when there is heavy monsoon rain with ‘old alluvium’, alluviun covered the pas Features found on the old floc¢ ‘abandoned channels, meander ws, sometimes remai water in ‘Rand show the development of evées and the raising he ver ted Key: F= Flood plain [FERRE Formoton of tevées L= Levee F - Floodplain (© Oxbow lake © - Former chacre! B- Braiding Braided rver near bases? (a plain’ stage). Traces former meanders are vst (on the flood-plain, as re O° bow lakes, *l avert Note: | Avera bv ine nthe margin of te txt indicates the Edension material thats not specie in he 20592The Old Flood Plain Meander and cover flood plains cover the aro Notween the alluvial terraces (discussed later) oad the active flood plain. They are only flooded sinen there is heavy monsoon rainfall, They are Svered with ‘old alluvium’, alluvium deposited in Features found on the old flood plain include Fpandoned channels, meander scars and the apmains of ox-bows, sometimes stil with some water in them. >c Alluvial Terraces Alluvial terraces or bars are areas of higher ground between rivers formed by erosion of old alluvium. They are formed in the Upper Indus Plain in Chal, Rechna and Bari Doabs. They are also called ‘scalloped interfluves’. Sandal Bar on Rechna Doab, Ganji Bar on Bari Doab, Nili Bar on Bari Doab and Kirana Bar on Chaj Doab are prominent alluvial terraces. The surface of the alluvial terraces is flat and has a south-west slope, The terraces are considered ‘deal for agriculture with the help of irrigation facilities. The location of alluvial terraces can be seen in Fig, 1.50. The alluvial terrace Sandal Bar, in the Rechna Doab, the Ganji Bar in the Bari Doab, the Nili Bar in the Bari Doab and the Kirana Bar in the Chaj Doab are the prominent alluvial terraces, Part of the Bahawalpur Plain that has been reclaimed through irrigation also falls within the boundary of the Indus Plain. The height of the Bahawalpur Plain is identical with the bars of the doabs and is also an alluvial terrace. Cross Section of a Doab ‘Adoab is the land located between two rivers at the confluence. When the rivers enter into a mature valley a number of topographical features are formed Gn a doab due to the process of erosion and deposition, the two main functions of a river on 2 flood plain, These features are levées, active flood plain, old load plain (meander flood plain (M) cover food plain(C)), scarp (a long steep slope or cliff at the edge of a plateau or ridge; usually formed PY ferosion), bar upland or alluvial terraces, etc 25 labelled on Fig. 1.59. The flood plain in a doab areaalso has the features of abandoned channels, ‘ox-bow lakes etc. Find out the names of doabs on, Fig. 1.50. Doabs are favoured as areas for a number of human activities such as farming, construction of settlements, building of transport links (rail tracks and roads), and other industrial and businese activities etc. A number of topographical features contribute to a high population density in doab areas of Pakistan e.g, © the active flood plain is flooded nearly every year so it is an ideal land for the crops which require plenty of water such as rice, sugar- cane ete. ‘meander flood plains and cover flood plains are ‘900d locations for arable farming (growing crops) in fertile areas. The poor soils could be used for human settlements, © there is a well-developed link canal irrigation system in doab areas leading to a continuous Supply of water throughout the year. © the bar uplands are safe from being flooded, as they are higher places. They are ideal locations for farming and human settlements, transport links, industrial estates, storage of agricultural raw material and markets. Piedmont Plains Piedmont Plains are located at the foothills of the Sulaiman, Kirthar and Himalayan Mountains (Fig. 1.25). The most dominant features of the Piedmont Plains are the alluvial fans or cones that develop eastward from the Sulaiman and Kirthar ‘Mountains. Figs 1.60 a and b explain the formation of alluvial fans. Most of the rivers or streams Coming from the Sulaiman and Kirthar Ranges have low water flows. They become active only during the rainy season, when they flow down the mountain slopes swiftly. As they reach the foothills, they become slow and split into narrow channels that fan out on to the slopes. The material brought down by the water is dropped within the narrow channels of the streams. The gravel, sand and alluvium deposited by rivers form alluvial fans. There are extensive areas of alluvial fans on the eastern side of the Sulaiman and Kirthar Ranges, whilst smaller areas have been formed on the southern side of the Siwaliks between the Rivers Jhelum and Chenab and also between the Rivers Chenab and Ravi ‘Note: “A vertical be nen the margin of the text incicates the Extension marl that isnot specie in the 20507 5! “Aha an or Cove: Tose ms | The Indu: as ‘tidal flats’ - eros aacenss ware = MESR gwamps. The coastal area is gone located oh and inden Tra, Ket Bane’ Stet onal stant, hes Sonaly becaue te ana cone tho oe of ne water nfm Aafeutare fled to ory snunpy ld covered wh sea Sha a low enna antl Inastrcture lent wall devel hae ce oe =~ the growth of commercial and in ee a Teomicmenonrmanes | Piemaede meee cate ‘iking ue atomatg ayers Th rocuess toe wa Sot wich is excelent fer agncutre a The Indi | Gonaratied section to show how ‘material lt deposi in an alluvial one in tines of lod. The Sulaiman Piedmont plain is also known: Derajat. The Piedmont Plains are mainly agricutu: Tidal Delta The Indus delta is located to the south of That (Fig. 1.62). The formation of the delta is show Fig.1.61. A delta is often triangular or fan shag | with the main distributaries branching out om? [wey | main river like the ribs of a fan. When a river for a into the sea, its speed is soon checked and its lt of alluvium is dropped on the sea floor. Deposits un of alluvium on the banks of the distributaries matt _|-v-~-|bouncs the level of the levées higher than the adjac# | areas. Sea water often fills up the troughs betwe' [FIg#a Riverinavs denn x a eran = the distributaries, resulting in swamps. Note: * A vertical blue line in the ma[Fig 4.61 The formation ofa detta The Indus delta has ‘tidal flats’ with mang swamps. The coastal area is generally low and The Indus Delta is located to the east of Karachi and includes Thatta, Keti Bandar, Jati, Ladian and other small settlements. It has a low population density because the land is constantly exposed to the effects of sea water in form of waves and tides. Agriculture is limited to only a few areas due to swampy land covered with sea water, saline soil and a low annual rainfall (125mm-250mm). Infrastructure is not well developed discouraging the growth of commercial and industrial activities. Hyderabad ‘Karachi Division | marsh boundary of the old delta boundary of the present delta le, un-metalled roads which connect f the area are not suitable for heavy al s. Local communities are involved in fishing. Mangrove trees are used as fuel wood and their leaves as fodder for animals. Occasional tropical cyclones cause damage to farming areas, fishing and the shanty homes of the people. (Discussed under the topic “The Desert Areas”) ig Sand Plains Cuestas In the Lower Indus Plain Prominent features occurring on the Lower Indus Plain are cuestas (or escarpments). These are ridges which, in Sindh; are made of limestone. A cuesta has a steep (or scarp) slope on one side and has a gentle (or dip) slope on the other side as shown on Fig. 1.63.Fig. 1.84 ‘The photograph shows the flat land is used for cultivation n Sch (Lower indus Plain) on an extonsne see However. urban seternents with ra, 1035 and ar Wercen leks Nave also been developed on the indus Pan The Rohri cuesta attains a height of 80 m and is 48 km long. The Gango Takkar cuesta stretches southwards from Hyderabad for a distance of 24 km. These limestone ridges provide a firm foundation for the construction of barrages for irrigation. They also add to the scenic beauty of the area by varying the generally flat landscape. Economic Activities in the Indus Plain The Indus Plain is the most productive region of Pakistan. The relief and drainage of the Indus Plain encourages the growth of settlements. The doabs of the Upper Indus Plain and the old and active flood plains of the Lower Indus Plains are excellent areas for farming. Since ancient times more than 80% of the total cultivated area of Pakistan has been located in the Indus Plain. Crops are grown the whole year round on the fertile flat land and undulating slopes; cotton, rice and sugar-cane are grown in summer and wheat in winter, for example. An extensive system of canal irrigation ise pean developed because of the favourable relief for construction of canals. oo “fs The Indus Plain is ti Pakistan pro s di centre; Infra bee The Indus Plain has a number of industries y consume local raw material e.g. cotton teg the desert are sugar mills, chemical industry. The industrial 9, the water-tab! have a large domestic and foreign market Population density varies from 50 to over 400 pes wa Per sq. km. ¥ iz The Desert Areas | Desert areas in Pakistan are located at three pas (Fig. 1.67). @ The Sindh Sagar Doab or Thal Desert is loca between the River Indus and River Jhelum @ The Thar Desert is located towards so! eastern Pakistan. It is also called the so’ é eastern desert. It can further be divided lrg a7 Des three main areas: (a) Cholistan é (b) Nara Formati (c) Tharparkar (Thar) @ The Kharan Desert. = Winds are the most important agent in de! 130 0 areas and they change the landscape consi" 97 Te Rolling sand dunes, weathering of rocks, '@% be deposit 6 vegetation and bare rocks are the main featu®UPPER INDUS: PLAIN ay anal] [Located nthe note pert ofthe nus Pl | cen 2 hat! aver ndue and is major tibutaris ow her “ta dhehan, Rav and Sule have ned the | Blame rer Payacch ane | Neary fat, undulating plain sloping tow |The average width of the Indus is 1.4 kr 4.6 km near Sukkur. Rorindusie in middle coe the | ts tower cnuree towards the sou se erosion ad depostion ake pace wi Bet ein ncteaningy dorinnt soutwords ‘Meanders, oxbow lakes, braided channels & levees are present in doab areas. “Auuvial terraces or bars are formed between the rivers. Piedmont Plain with alluvial fans to the north and west. ‘Aluvial terraces or bars are non-existent as the Indus flows alone. Piedmont Piain with alluvial fans to the west. jdeal for agriculture with a network of link canal irigation, the desert areas of Pakistan. Rainfall is scanty and the water-table is extremely low. gS _Uppor and Lower Indus Pain: A comparative atid of Neural Toporapy, Dinas and Hun Aces. ‘deal for agriculture with iigation. Zs Eee curl bind a low oberon 3 formed, be dunes may Oro lrber and Fig. 168 Sand may begin fo large costae. EE Formation of Sand Dunes inant feature of desert yr a ridge of sand, Sand dunes are the most domi areas. A sand dune is a mound o g Be itis formed where an obstacle occurs in the pat of moving sand, thus forcing some of the sand to be deposited behind the obstacle, shown!" Fig. 1.68. ‘Avertical blue line in the margin of the ‘Note: | Extension material thats not specifiedIn the desert areas of Pakistan the direction of sand, dunes is mainly longitudinal because of the direction of the winds. However, some latitudinal sand dunes can also be observed. With the help of irrigation some areas have been reclaimed for cultivation, Topographical / Relief Features of the Thar Desgn © Sand plains / pattis (strips oy Sand formed by the action g wind) Gently undulating plain Sand dunes / ridges which arg longitudinal / latitudinal The wide interdunal valleys (between the Sand dunes) with silty ang clayey sediments (useful for cultivation) Barren / bare rock due to lack of water Cracks in rocks due to effects of weathering Rolling sand hills Life in desert areas is predominantiy atte the environment. Lack of water and constant of land by strong winds does not allow Productve human activities e.g. farming, Hoys desert areas can be made productive iting facilities are provided. A major part of Thar b, has been converted into farmland by canals, the Sukkur Barrage built on the Indus. These may have rich mineral deposits espec: mineral oil, shown by the recent discover ‘many oll and gas fields in the south-eastemny of the Thar desert. judi 4. With reference to Hie, drainage and, Nort ‘Mountains and the Western 2. Explain the features of topography wr 3. With reference to relief and drainage, Balochistan Plateau 4. Bal ochistan is developed, it can fe against this statement, ——— a) i) Study Fig.1 which shows Describe the relief of the i) Describe the drainage fe b) How may the following have i) deforestation, li) poor farming practices, iii) monsoon rain and thun 6. "The Indus Plain is the most de drainage of the Indus Plain hav region. 7. Explain how the desert topogr 8. i) Describe the natural drain ii) Explain why the Indus Det {(Comeridge 0 Level Poistan Ste 9 With the help of the text in Ur geographical terms: Relief / Natural Topograpt Drainage Braided channel Sand dunes Low lying areas ‘Ox-bow lakes Alluvial terraces NOOEONSThe Natural Topography, including drainage ener cere 2. Explain the features of topography which are common tc all high 1on te all highland areas. 3. With reference to relief and d rainage, explain ho P Me ecoeset 19@, explain how the Potwar Plateau is different from the 4. ‘If Balochistan is developed, it ed, it can feed the whole of Pakista Lae d the whole of Pakistan’. Give five reasons in favour or a) i) Study Fig.1 which shows a part of the Potwar Plateau Describe the relief of the part of the Potwar Plateau shown on Fig.1 ii) Describe the drainage features of the Potwar Plateau b) How may the following have contributed to the features of area ¥ on Fig.1 i) deforestation, ))_ poor farming practices, )) monsoon rain and thunderstorms? (cemorage Lev! Pekin St fegion of Pakistan’. Explain how the relief and 10 carry out a variety of economic activities in this i sdios 205002 Q1 b & ¢ Nov 2003) 6. ‘The Indus Plain is the most developed physical ré drainage of the Indus. Plain have made it possible tc region 7. Explain how the desert topographical fe of the Indus Delta. as a low density of population. (i) Now 2002) atures influence the lifestyle of the people 8. i) Describe the natural drainage ii) Explain why the Indus Delta hi {GCambrtge O Level Pakstan Studies 2050/02 02 (0 & <9/with the help of the text in Unit 1 and from your ‘studies, find out the definitions of the following geographical terms: 4. Relief/ Natural Topography Inland drainage 15, Levees 2. Drainage 9. Drylakes 16, Alluvial fans 3. Braided channel 40. Residual hills 47. Mangrove swamp 4, Sand dunes 41. Gully erosicn 18, Cuesta 5. Low lying areas 12. Aative flood plain 19. Meander and cover flood plains 6. Ox-bow lakes 43. Interfluves 7. Alluvial terraces 14, Tidal deltaClimate and Weather Weather refers to the atmospheric conditions (temperature, rainfall, humidity, and pressure) of any place for a short period of time. It is often localized. Climate is a generalization of the day to day weather conditions over a long period of time, usually thirty years. Climatic Zones Pakistan's topographical features range from lofty mountains in the north to the coastal plains in the south. The diversity of terrain leads to a variety of climates. Climatic divisions of Pakistan are: A Highland climate B Lowland climate C Coastal climate D Arid climate Fig. 2.1 shows climatic zones of Pakistan. Zone A indicates highland climate prevailing over northern, p Lowland Climate —— to arid) north-western and western mountaing, 24. This region includes ine we has lowland climate 1 OValla gyght! @XC8P! ne con end whole of the Indus Plain. Zone C hag ggyt Pisin ite &! We Cedar climate experienc the Makran goat 7078 Jol winters ar Karachi Coast and Indus Delta till the Rage eet rine amount of rant Kutch, Zone D has arid climate and incluggyy? 27th. The foothills ofthe N south-eastern desert and the south-wosteme! joau are wotter of Balochistan. A division into climatic zones does not in exactly the same conditions throughou.» zone. There are great variations in rainy temperature, humidity etc in the same cling, zone. For example, northern highlands ay, western highlands fall in the same climatic 2, but the amount and seasonal distribution , rainfall is different. Murree and Hazara hi experience more than 1500 mm average anny, rainfall mostly during the summer seasq whereas in the western highlands Quetta ay Pishin receive 250-500 mm average anny, rainfall. Winter is the wettest season A Highland Climate This region includes northern, north-western ay western highlands. The winters are long, cold an snowy and the summers remain short and mili In mountainous areas rainfall is normal) associated with altitude. The height of th Northern Mountains range from 2000 metres} above 8000 metres, while in the Weste! Mountains the height is approximately from 100 to over 4000 metres. Rainfall in the Northet Mountains is the highest in the highland zon! The Western Mountains experience less rainié From south of Kohat and Waziristan rain decreases and occurs during the winter seas! To the north-west, Gilgit and Chitral also experien? low rainfall, as they are rainshadow areas. The temperature conditions also vary from not to west depending on the altitude. Summers 2 short, mild and wet in the Northern Mountal® but dry and warm in the Western Mountains. ve rainfall fron Thunderstorms are also co north-west of the Indus Pla Indus Plain and the whole have much less rainfall temperature Cc Coastal Climat This region includes the comprising of the Indus whole of the Makran coast. by sea breezes throughou influence keeps the daily Maritime or coastal clima This shows that the influ through the prevailing w ‘sea and on land is differen of land and water by the s the sun’s heat at differe or lose it,at different sp heats up, while the ocez‘ply, the. fall, atic: and one. 1 of ills ual on, and ual B Lowland Climate (semi-ai to arid) region includes the whole of the Indus Plain coastal areas. Most parts of the Indus fiain lie at the western end of the tropical monsoon Pine. thas arid and extreme climate with hot Zemamers, cool winters and summer monsoon Srnfal. The amount of rainfall differs from north to The foothills of the Northern Mountains and This except the Fotwar Plateau are wetter than the Indus P and also receive rainfall from Western Depres ion Thunderstorms are also common in the north and west of the Indus Plain. The southern Upper Indus Plain and the whole of the Lower Indus Piain have much less rainfall and spells of very high temperature. This region includes the southern coastal strip comprising of the Indus Delta, Karachi and the ‘whole of the Makran coast. The climate is dominated by sea breezes throughout the year. The maritime influence keeps the daily range ‘of temperature low. Maritime or coastal climate is explained in Fig. 2.2 This shows that the influence of sea is felt mainly through the prevailing winds. The temperature at sea and on land is different owing to unequal heating of land and water by the sun. Land and water absorb the sun’s heat at different rates, and also radiate or lose it,at different speeds. In summer the land — ead 7 Tha piysical ference betwoon war and land accounts Triana tn sod coxing cool. In winter the land loses heat quickly and becomes cold while the ocean is much warmer and keeps its warmth for a Jong time. The humidity level is moderately high, exceeding more than 50% from April to September. Mean monthly temperature is 32°C, and May, June and October are the hottest months. During October dry winds from the south-eastern desert dominate the climate. Rainfall is scanty throughout the year. From Karachi up to the Rann of Kutch, the coast experiences most of its rainfall during the monsoon season, while on the Makran coast it falls in winter. D Arid Climate ‘An arid climate is experienced in south-western Balochistan and the south-eastern desert. It is markedly dry and hot. Hot dusty winds prevail almost continuously from mid-May to mid— September. Most of the scanty rainfall in south- western Balochistan takes place during the winter In the south-eastern desert, summer heats up, while the ocean remains comparatively Se8S0? Winter Early Summer ‘Late Summer (Monsoon) ost Monsoon _ wis Decembarto March ‘orto dune uy to September (etobr to Mid December Say -enperture rom 37 CSF. | Man monomer xen 3 Fallot emperature Fon 1 C10 —— es ee Cin most of the areas. ‘below °C. fea TIES sey ral varies betes | et al a General ary, very ite rafal Wester ring some amount | 251m to 130 0m. theman sytem of monsoon winds tat as of rainfall to northern and western areas: ‘figinate in the Bay of Bengal and Indian | ‘No active wind system present, | of Pakistan. Thunderstorms | some rainfall to | Ocean. nerter Punab andthe Vl of Lass rainfall in southern Punjab and. acces ‘Sindh due to secondary system of S tronscon winds mst no ranallin west highlands Jd Balocnsian Paes. “ara of analis above noma. Tar pressure develops n Pula and Sin‘monsoons bring litte rainfall, Extreme heat, dryness: can be distinguished inter (mid-December to March); early summer (April to June); late summer (monsoon) (July to September); post monsoon (October to Mid December). The table Fig. 2.3 explains the temperature, rainfall and pressure conditions that normally prevail in Pakistan with reference to some particular areas, Climatic Elements There are four main climatic elements - temperature, pressure, rainfall and winds. These are responsible for the regional and seasonal variations in the climates of Pakistan. Temperature Diversity of temperature in various regions is due to the following factors: © Large spread of 40" C and above arc -30"C 2arrc-30°C 10°C = 20°C wro-9C C-2"C Below -5° C The upper and lower | Indus Plains heat up | during the summer making the daily maximum temperatures rise up to 40°~ 45°C which is very hot. Jacobabad, located in the lower Indus Plain, is known as the ‘thermal pole’ of the tude OM 24°N tg yp © Diversity of retef ranging from the va, mountains (up to 8610 mat low lying coastal areas in the south, t! ‘Temperature De aay 8) 19 the ory t Very hot Hot Warm Mug Coot Cola Very cola =a : i. maximum temperatur roach ean monthly maximum 43°C in May and June (Fig. ‘January Temperature t June Temperature " i Teoecengny aca] Provneir Boundary Rivermaximum temperature Feaches 53°C in June, and Coa stages Sena es mee Factors affecting temperature of Pakistan Latitudinal effect: The areas closer to the Equator receive relatively direct rays of the sun resulting in high temperature. Southern Pakistan is closer to the Equator than Northern Pakistan. : Continental effect: \t is a general term covering the climate of those areas protected from or unaffected by maritime influence. Maritime influence means the influence of the sea on temperatures. Along coastal areas, ocean currents and prevailing winds usually have @ moderating effect on temperature. This is why extreme winter and summer temperatures are recorded in the interior of large landmasses away from the moderating influence of sea . fi di Las) Altitude and temperature There is a relationship between altitude, ait density and temperature. The air is densest at sea level because that is where it absorbs most water vapour, dust particles and solar radiation. Airis least dense at high altitude because less solar radiation is absorbed at that level. With less air to absorb heat at higher altitude, there ig an average drop of 6.5° C in temperature for each 1000 metre increase in altitude. Cloud cover and temperature Cloud cover affects temperature to some extent. In the daytime it reduces the amount of incoming cusbee ale a Sone solar radiation by reflecting it back into outer ee tee | tere ea space, resulting in a drop in day temperatures eal on erties ‘At night the cloud cover traps the outgoing heat. come fee | Feeeeteee| | A828 result, temperature on a cloudy night does ‘ i = rot drop as low as temperature on 2 clear night. sumer |vemoct |wtinerslaau| | Latitude and the angle of the sun ffeeweeten | | T12 term ‘angle of the sun’ refers to the position of the Earth in relation to the sun. The diagram ‘Shows that the sun's rays do not fal at the same angle everywhere on the Earth's surface Latitudinal position determines the amount of heat received by the Earth. For example, compared with the sun's rays that fall nearer 0° gt the Equator (i.e. from C- D), the sun's rays falling near the North and South Poles have to heat a larger surface area (i.e. from A -B) and