INDEX

1. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

2. FOUNDATION

3. MATERIAL USED IN BUILDING CONSSTRUCTION

4. WALLS AND MASONRY

5. DOORS

6. WINDOWS AND VENTILATORS

7. FLOORS

8. ROOFS AND STAIRS

 INTRODUCTION

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure. Construction differs

from manufacturing in that manufacturing typically involves mass production of similar
items without a designated purchaser, while construction typically takes place on location for
a known client Construction as an industry comprises six to nine percent of the gross
domestic product of developed countriesConstruction starts with planning, design, and
financing; and continues until the project is built and ready for use.Large-scale construction
requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. An architect normally manages the job, and
a construction manager, design engineer, construction engineer or project manager supervises
it. Those involved with the design and execution must consider zoning requirements,
environmental impact of the job, scheduling, budgeting, construction-site safety, availability
and transportation of building materials, logistics, inconvenience to the public caused by
construction delays and bidding. Large construction projects are sometimes referred to as
megaprojects.Etymology

Construction is a general term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or
organizations,[4] and comes from Latin constructionem (from com- "together" and struere "to
pile up") and Old French construction.[5] Construction is used as a verb: the act of building,
and a noun: how a building was built, the nature of its structure.

Types of constructionIn general, there are three sectors of construction: buildings,

infrastructure and industrial.[6] Building construction is usually further divided into
residential and non-residential (commercial/institutional). Infrastructure is often called heavy
civil or heavy engineering that includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways,
railways, water or wastewater and utility distribution. Industrial construction includes
refineries, process chemical, power generation, mills and manufacturing plants. There are
also other ways to break the industry into sectors or markets.

Industry sectors

Engineering News-Record (ENR), a trade magazine for the construction industry, each year
compiles and reports data about the size of design and construction companies. In 2014, ENR
compiled the data in nine market segments divided as transportation, petroleum, buildings,
power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewer/waste, telecom, hazardous waste and a tenth
category for other projects.In their reporting, they used data on transportation, sewer,
hazardous waste and water to rank firms as heavy contractors

The Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification
System have a classification system for companies that perform or engage in construction. To
recognize the differences of companies in this sector, it is divided into three subsectors:
building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade
contractors. There are also categories for construction service firms (e.g., engineering,
architecture) and construction managers (firms engaged in managing construction projects
without assuming direct financial responsibility for completion of the construction project)
Building construction

Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of

buildings. The majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as addition
of a room, or renovation of a bathroom.[12] Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer,
paymaster, and design team for the entire project.[citation needed] Although building
construction projects consist of common elements such as design, financial, estimating and
legal considerations, projects of varying sizes may reach undesirable end results, such as
structural collapse, cost overruns, and/or litigation. For this reason, those with experience in
the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a
positive outcome.

The National Cement Share Company of Ethiopia's new plant in Dire Dawa.

Commercial building construction is procured privately or publicly utilizing various delivery

methodologies, including cost estimating, hard bid, negotiated price, traditional, management
contracting, construction management-at-risk, design & build and design-build
bridging.Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to
local building authority regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the
area generally dictate the construction materials used (e.g. brick versus stone, versus timber).
Cost of construction on a per square meter (or per square foot) basis for houses can vary
dramatically based on site conditions, local regulations, economies of scale (custom designed
homes are often more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled tradespeople.
Residential construction as well as other types of construction can generate waste such that
planning is required.

According to McKinsey research, productivity growth per worker in construction has lagged
behind many other industries across different countries including in the United States and in
European countries. In the United States, construction productivity per worker has declined
by half since the 1960s
Residential construction

The most popular method of residential construction in North America is wood-framed

construction. Typical construction steps for a single-family or small multi-family house are:

Obtain an engineered soil test of lot where construction is planned

Develop floor plans and obtain a materials list for estimations (more recently performed with
estimating software)

Obtain structural engineered plans for foundation (soil test report obtained earlier will be
used by engineer to design foundation), floor plan, floor (if two story).

Obtain lot survey

Obtain government building approval if necessary

If required obtain approval from HOA (homeowners association) or ARC (architectural
review committee)

Clear the building site (demolition of existing home if necessary)

Survey to stake out for the foundation

Excavate the foundation and dig footers (Scope of work is dependent of foundation designed
by engineer)

Install plumbing grounds

Pour a foundation and footers with concrete

Build the main load-bearing structure out of thick pieces of wood and possibly metal I-beams
for large spans with few supports. See framing (construction)

Add floor and ceiling joists and install subfloor panels

Cover outer walls and roof in OSB or plywood and a water-resistive barrier.

Install roof shingles or other covering for flat roof

Cover the walls with siding, typically vinyl, wood, or brick veneer but possibly stone or other
materials

Install windows

Frame interior walls with wooden 2x4s

Add internal plumbing, HVAC, electrical, and natural gas utilities

Building inspector visits if necessary to approve utilities and framing

Install insulation and interior drywall panels (cementboard for wet areas) and to complete
walls and ceilings

Install bathroom fixtures

Spackle, prime, and paint interior walls and ceilings

Additional tiling on top of cementboard for wet areas, such as the bathroom and kitchen
backsplash
Install final floor covering, such as floor tile, carpet, or wood flooring

Install major appliances

Unless the original owners are building the house, at this point it is typically sold or rented.

Construction processes

In the modern industrialized world, construction usually involves the translation of designs
into reality. A formal design team may be assembled to plan the physical proceedings, and to
integrate those proceedings with the other parts. The design usually consists of drawings and
specifications, usually prepared by a design team including Architect, civil engineers,
mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, structural engineers, fire protection engineers,
planning consultants, architectural consultants, and archaeological consultants. The design
team is most commonly employed by (i.e. in contract with) the property owner. Under this
system, once the design is completed by the design team, a number of construction
companies or construction management companies may then be asked to make a bid for the
work, either based directly on the design, or on the basis of drawings and a bill of quantities
provided by a quantity surveyor. Following evaluation of bids, the owner typically awards a
contract to the most cost efficient bidder.

The best modern trend in design is toward integration of previously separated specialties,
especially among large firms. In the past, architects, interior designers, engineers, developers,
construction managers, and general contractors were more likely to be entirely separate
companies, even in the larger firms. Presently, a firm that is nominally an "architecture" or
"construction management" firm may have experts from all related fields as employees, or to
have an associated company that provides each necessary skill. Thus, each such firm may
offer itself as "one-stop shopping" for a construction project, from beginning to end. This is
designated as a "design build" contract where the contractor is given a performance
specification and must undertake the project from design to construction, while adhering to
the performance specifications.

Several project structures can assist the owner in this integration, including design-build,
partnering and construction management. In general, each of these project structures allows
the owner to integrate the services of architects, interior designers, engineers and constructors
throughout design and construction. In response, many companies are growing beyond
traditional offerings of design or construction services alone and are placing more emphasis
on establishing relationships with other necessary participants through the design-build
process.

The increasing complexity of construction projects creates the need for design professionals
trained in all phases of the project's life-cycle and develop an appreciation of the building as
an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their
individual components, including sustainability. Building engineering is an emerging
discipline that attempts to meet this new challenge.
 FOUNDATION

Part of a building or a structure system that supports and anchors the superstructure of a
building and transmits its loads directly to the earth. To prevent damage from repeated
freeze-thaw cycles, the bottom of the foundation must be below the frost line.

TYPES-

• SHALLOW FOUNDATION

• DEEP FOUNDATION
BUILDING DRAWNG

MATERIAL USED IN SLAB

 SAND
 CONCRETE
 CEMENT
 WATER
 RATIO USED IN SLAB
 1:2:4
A concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings. Horizontal slabs of
steel reinforced concrete, typically between 4 and 20 inches (100 and 500 millimeters) thick,
are most often used to construct floors and ceilings, while thinner slabs are also used for
exterior paving. Sometimes these thinner slabs, ranging from 2 inches (51 mm) to 6 inches
(150 mm) thick, are called mud slabs, particularly when used under the main floor slabs[1] or
in crawl spaces.[2]

In many domestic and industrial buildings a thick concrete slab, supported on foundations or
directly on the subsoil, is used to construct the ground floor of a building. These can either be
"ground-bearing" or "suspended" slabs. For Double-storey or Multi-Storey buildings, the use
of a few common types of concrete suspended slabs are used. (For more types refer to the
section titled "Design" below. A. Beam and block or also referred to as Rib and Block slabs.
These are made up of prestressed lintels or beams and hollow blocks and are temporarily
propped until set after 21 days. Mostly used in residential and industrial applications B. A
Hollow core slab which are precast and installed on site with a crane. C. In high rise
buildings and skyscrapers, thinner, pre-cast concrete slabs are slung between the steel frames
to form the floors and ceilings on each level. Cast in-Situ slabs which used in high rise
buildings and huge shopping complexes as well as houses. These in-situ slabs are cast on site
using shutters and reinforced steel.

On the technical drawings, reinforced concrete slabs are often abbreviated to "r.c.c.slab" or
simply "r.c." Technical drawings are often created by structural Engineers who use software
such as AutoCad or Revit structure.

Walls and missionary

Types of retaining wall

1. Gravity retaining walls

2. Sheet pile retaining walls
3. Cantilevered retaining walls
4. Anchored retaining wall

1. Gravity retaining walls-: Gravity walls depend on their mass (stone, concrete or other
heavy material) to resist pressure from behind and may have a 'batter' setback to improve
stability by leaning back toward the retained soil. For short landscaping walls, they are
 Fig.1.1 Gravity retaining walls
often made from mortarless stone or segmental concrete units (masonry units).Dry-stacked
gravity walls are somewhat flexible and do not require a rigid footing in frost areas.Earlier in
the 20th century, taller retaining walls were often gravity walls made from large masses of
concrete or stone. Today, taller retaining walls are increasingly built as composite gravity
walls such as: geosynthetics such as geocell cellular confinement earth retention or with
precast facing; gabions (stacked steel wire baskets filled with rocks); crib walls (cells built up
log cabin style from precast concrete or timber and filled with granular material); or soil-
nailed walls (soil reinforced in place with steel and concrete rods).

2.Sheet pile retaining walls-:Sheet pile retaining walls Sheet pile retaining walls are usually
used in soft soils and tight spaces. Sheet pile walls are made out of steel, vinyl or wood
planks which are driven into the ground. For a quick estimate the material is usually driven
1/3 above ground, 2/3 below ground, but this may be altered depending on the environment.
Taller sheet pile walls will need a tie-back anchor, or "dead-man" placed in the soil a distance
behind the face of the wall, that is tied to the wall, usually by a cable or a rod. Anchors are
then placed behind the potential failure plane in the soil.
 Fig.2. Sheet pile retaining walls

3.Cantilevered retaining walls-: are made from an internal stem of steel-reinforced, cast-in-
place concrete or mortared masonry (often in the shape of an inverted T). These walls
cantilever loads (like a beam) to a large, structural footing, converting horizontal pressures
from behind the wall to vertical pressures on the ground below. Sometimes cantilevered walls
are buttressed on the front, or include a counterfort on the back, to improve their strength
resisting high loads.
 Fig.3. Cantilevered retaining walls

4.Anchored retaining wall-:An anchored retaining wall can be constructed in any of the
aforementioned styles but also includes additional strength using cables or other stays
anchored in the rock or soil behind it. Usually driven into the material with boring, anchors
are then expanded at the end of the cable, either by mechanical means or often by injecting
pressurized concrete, which expands to form a bulb in the soil. Technically complex, this
method is very useful where high loads are expected, or where the wall itself has to be
slender and would otherwise be too weak.
 Fig.4.Types of retaining wall

Foundation

A foundation (or, more commonly, foundations) the element of an architectural structure

which connects it to the ground, and transfers loads from the structure to the ground.
Foundations are generally considered either shallow or deep.Foundation engineering is the
application of soil mechanics and rock mechanics (Geotechnical engineering) in the design of
foundation elements

Historic foundation types

The simplest foundation, a padstone. Latvian Ethnographic Open Air Museum.Earthfast or

post in ground construction.Buildings and structures have a long history of being built with
wood in contact with the ground.Post in ground construction may technically have no
foundation. Timber pilings were used on soft or wet ground even below stone or masonry
walls.In marine construction and bridge building a crisscross of timbers or steel beams in
concrete is called grillage.
 Fig.5.Simplest foundation

Padstones-:Perhaps the simplest foundation is the padstone, a single stone which both
spreads the weight on the ground and raises the timber off the ground. Staddle stones are a
specific type of padstone.

Stone foundations-:Dry stone and stones laid in mortar to build foundations are common in
many parts of the world. Dry laid stone foundations may have been painted with mortar after
construction. Sometimes the top, visible course of stone is hewn, quarried stones.Besides
using mortar, stones can also be put in a gabion. One disadvantage though of using a gabion
is that if using regular steel rebars, the gabion would last much less long than when using
mortar (due to rusting). Using Weathering_steel rebars could reduce this disadvantage
somewhat.

Rubble trench foundations-:Rubble trench foundations are a shallow trench filled with
rubble or stones. These foundations extend below the frost line and may have a drain pipe
which helps groundwater drain away. They are suitable for soils with a capacity of more than
10 tonnes/m² (2,000 pounds per squ) structures.

Modern foundation types

1.Shallow foundations

2.Deep foundations

3.Monopile foundation

1.Shallow foundations-:Shallow foundations, often called footings, are usually embedded

about a metre or so into soil. One common type is the spread footing which consists of strips
or pads of concrete (or other materials) which extend below the frost line and transfer the
weight from walls and columns to the soil or bedrock.Another common type of shallow
foundation is the slab-on-grade foundation where the weight of the building is transferred to
the soil through a concrete slab placed at the surface. Slab-on-grade foundations can be
reinforced mat slabs, which range from 25 cm to several meters thick, depending on the size
of the building, or post-tensioned slabs, which are typically at least 20 cm for houses, and
thicker for heavier structures.

Fig.6. Shallow foundations

 Types of shallow foundation-:

There are 5 types of shallow foundations:

1. Strip footing

2. Spread/isolated footing

3. Combined footing

4. Strap or cantilever footing

5. Mat or raft foundations

1.Strip footing:-The strip footing is employed in case of a load-bearing wall. The strip
footing is also used for a row of columns that are very closely held and spaced such that their
spread footing overlap or tends to nearly touch each other. In such cases it is more
economical and effective to use a strip footing than to use a number of spread footings held in
a single line. Thus, a strip footing is also called as continuous footing.
2.Spread/isolated footing:-The spread/isolated/pad footing is generally constructed to
support an individual column. The spread footing may be circular, square or rectangular slab
of uniform thickness. Sometimes it may be designed as stepped or haunched to
spread/distribute the load over a larger area.
3.Combined footing:-The combined footing is designed to support two parallel columns. It
is principally used what the two columns are so close that to one another that their individual
footing would overlap. The combined footing may also be constructed when the property line
is so close to column that a spread footing gets eccentrically loaded if kept within the
property lines. Thus, by combining it with that of an interior column, the load gets
evenly/uniformly distributed. The combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal.
4.Strap or cantilever footing:- The strap (or cantilever) footing comprises of two
isolated/individual footing connected with a structural strap or a lever. The strap is featured to
connect the two footing in order that they works and becomes like a single unit. However, the
strap simply works as a connection beam and does not resist any soil reaction. Thus, the strap
is designed as a rigid beam. The individual footings are designed such that their combined
line of action passes through the resultant of the total load. The strap footing becomes more
economical than a combine footing when the permissible soil pressure is comparatively
greater and also the distance between the columns is greater.
5.Mat or raft foundations:-The mat/raft foundation is a big slab supporting a number of
columns and walls its entire structure or in a large part of the structure. The mat is efficient
when the permissible soil pressure smaller or where the columns and walls are very close
such that individual footing gets overlap or nearly touched each other.The mat foundations
are efficient in eliminating the differential settlement on the non-homogeneous soils or where
there is a large variation in loads on the individual columns.
2.Deep foundations-:A deep foundation is used to transfer the load of a structure down
through the upper weak layer of topsoil to the stronger layer of subsoil below. There are
different types of deep footings including impact driven piles, drilled shafts, caissons, helical
piles, geo-piers and earth stabilized columns. The naming conventions for different types of
footings vary between different engineers. Historically, piles were wood, later steel,
reinforced concrete, and pre-tensioned concrete.

Fig.7.Deep foundations
 Types Of Deep Foundation-:

Deep foundations are required to carry loads from a structure through weak compressible
soils or fills on to stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at depth, or for functional
reasons. These foundations are those founding too deeply below the finished ground surface
for their base bearing capacity to be affected by surface conditions, this is usually at depths
>3 m below finished ground level. Deep foundations can be used to transfer the loading to a
deeper, more competent strata at depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface.

The types of deep foundations in general use are as follows:

1) Basements

2) Buoyancy rafts (hollow box foundations)

3) Caissons

4) Cylinders

5) Shaft foundations

6) Pile
1.Basement foundations:-These are hollow substructures designed to provide working or
storage space below ground level. The structural design is governed by their functional
requirements rather than from considerations of the most efficient method of resisting
external earth and hydrostatic pressures. They are constructed in place in open excavations.

2.Buoyancy rafts (hollow box foundations):-Buoyancy rafts are hollow substructures

designed to provide a buoyant or semi-buoyant substructure beneath which the net loading on
the soil is reduced to the desired low intensity. Buoyancy rafts can be designed to be sunk as
caissons, they can also be constructed in place in open excavations.

3.Caissons foundations:-Caissons are hollow substructures designed to be constructed on or

near the surface and then sunk as a single unit to their required level.
4.Cylinders:-Cylinders are small single-cell caissons.

5.Shaft foundations:-Shaft foundations are constructed within deep excavations supported

by lining constructed in place and subsequently filled with concrete or other pre-fabricated
load-bearing units.

6.Pile foundations:-Pile foundations are relatively long and slender members constructed by
driving preformed units to the desired founding level, or by driving or drilling-in tubes to the
required depth – the tubes being filled with concrete before or during withdrawal or by
drilling unlined or wholly or partly lined boreholes which are then filled with concrete.
3.Monopile foundation-:A monopile foundation is a type of deep foundation which uses a
single, generally large-diameter, structural element embedded into the earth to support all the
loads (weight, wind, etc.) of a large above-surface structure.A large number of monopile
foundations have been utilized in recent years for economically constructing fixed-bottom
offshore wind farms in shallow-water subsea locations.For example, a single wind farm off
the coast of England went online in 2008 with over 100 turbines, each mounted on a 4.7-
meter-diameter monopile footing in ocean depths up to 18 metres of water.

Fig.8. Monopile foundation

 Stone Masonry

The craft of stonemasonry (or stonecraft) has existed since humanity could use and make
tools[citation needed] - creating buildings, structures, and sculpture using stone from the
earth. These materials have been used to construct many of the long-lasting, ancient
monuments, artifacts, cathedrals, and cities in a wide variety of cultures. Famous works of
stonemasonry include the Taj Mahal, Cusco's Incan Wall, Easter Island's statues, the
Egyptian Pyramids, Angkor Wat, Borobudur, Tihuanaco, Tenochtitlan, Persepolis, the
Parthenon, Stonehenge, and Chartres Cathedral.

Fig.9. Stone Masonry work

Masonry is the craft of shaping rough pieces of rock into accurate geometrical shapes, at
times simple, but some of considerable complexity, and then arranging the resulting stones,
often together with mortar, to form structures.A stonemason at Eglinton Tournament bridge
with a selection of tools of the trade Quarrymen split veins, or sheets of rock, and extract the
resulting blocks of stone from the ground. Sawyers cut these rough blocks into cuboids, to
required size with diamond-tipped saws. The resulting block if ordered for a specific
component is known as sawn six sides (SSS). Banker masons are workshop-based, and
specialize in working the stones into the shapes required by a building's design, this set out on
templets and a bed mould. They can produce anything from stones with simple chamfers to
tracery windows, detailed mouldings and the more classical architectural building masonry.
When working a stone from a sawn block, the mason ensures that the stone is bedded in the
right way, so the finished work sits in the building in the same orientation as it was formed on
the ground. Occasionally though some stones need to be orientated correctly for the
application; this includes voussoirs, jambs, coping sand cornice.The basic tools, methods and
skills of the banker mason have existed as a trade for thousands of years.Carvers cross the
line from craft to art, and use their artistic ability to carve stone into foliage, figures, animals
or abstract designs.Fixer masons specialize in the fixing of stones onto buildings, using lifting
tackle, and traditional lime mortars and grouts. Sometimes modern cements, mastics and
epoxy resins are used, usually on specialist applications such as stone cladding. Metal fixings,
from simple dowels and cramps to specialised single application fixings, are also used. The
precise tolerances necessary make this a highly skilled job.Memorial masons or monumental
masons carve gravestones and inscriptions.The modern stonemason undergoes
comprehensive training, both in the classroom and in the working environment. Hands-on
skill is complemented by intimate knowledge of each stone type, its application and best uses,
and how to work and fix each stone in place. The mason may be skilled and competent to
carry out one or all of the various branches of stonemasonry.In some areas the trend is
towards specialization, in other areas towards adaptability.

Types of stone-:

Typical Aberdeen city street showing the widespread use of local granite.Stonemasons use all
types of natural stone: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary; while some also use artificial
stone as well.

Igneous stones:- Granite is one of the hardest stones, and requires such different techniques
to sedimentary stones that it is virtually a separate trade. With great persistence, simple
mouldings can and have been carved into granite, for example in many Cornish churches and
the city of Aberdeen. Generally, however, it is used for purposes that require its strength and
durability, such as kerbstones, countertops, flooring, and breakwaters.Igneous stone ranges
from very soft rocks such as pumice and scoria to somewhat harder rocks such as tuff and
hard rocks such as granite and basalt.

Metamorphic:- Marble is a fine stone easily workable, that comes in various colours, mainly
white. It has traditionally been used for carving statues, and for facing many Byzantine and
Renaissance Italian buildings. The first and most admirable marble carvers and sculptors
were the Greeks, namely Antenor (6th century BC), Phidias and Critias (5th century BC),
Praxiteles (4th century BC) and others who used mainly the marble of Paros and Thassos
islands, the whitest and brightest of all, although not the finest, and also the Pentelikon
marble. Their work was preceded by older sculptors from Mesopotamia and Egypt, but the
Greeks were unmatched in plasticity and realistic (re)presentation, either of Gods (Apollo,
Aphrodite, Hermes, Zeus, etc.), or humans (Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Phryne, etc.). The
famous Acropolis of Athens is said to be constructed using the Pentelicon marble. The
traditional home of the marble industry is the area around Carrara in Italy, from where a
bright and fine, whitish marble is extracted in vast quantities.Slate is a popular choice of
stone for memorials and inscriptions, as its fine grain and hardness means it leaves details
very sharp. Meanwhile, its tendency to split into thin plates has made it a popular roofing
material.

Sedimentary:- Many of the world's most famous buildings have been built of sedimentary
stone, from Durham Cathedral to St Peter's in Rome. There are two main types of
sedimentary stone used in masonry work, limestones and sandstones. Examples of limestones
include Bath and Portland stone. Yorkstone and Sydney sandstone are well-known
sandstones.

Types of stonemasonry :-

1.Rubble Masonry-:When roughly dressed stones are laid in a mortar the result is a stone
rubble masonry.

2.Ashlar Masonry-: Stone masonry using dressed (cut) stones is known as ashlar masonry

3.Stone Veneer-:Stone veneer is used as a protective and decorative covering for interior or
exterior walls and surfaces. The veneer is typically 1 inch (2.54 cm) thick and must weigh
less than 15 lb per square foot (73 kg m−2) so that no additional structural supports are
required. The structural wall is put up first, and thin, flat stones are mortared onto the face of
the wall. Metal tabs in the structural wall are mortared between the stones to tie everything
together, to prevent the stonework from separating from the wall.

4.Slipform Stonemasonry-: Slipform stonemasonry is a method for making stone walls with
the aid of formwork to contain the rocks and mortar while keeping the walls straight. Short
forms, up to two feet tall, are placed on both sides of the wall to serve as a guide for the stone
work. Stones are placed inside the forms with the good faces against the form work. Concrete
is poured behind the rocks. Rebar is added for strength, to make a wall that is approximately
half reinforced concrete and half stonework. The wall can be faced with stone on one side or
both sides.

Fig.10.Masonary work

Tools

 The foreground tool with serrated blades is a cockscomb, cock's comb or stonemason's
drag, used on soft limestone.Stonemasons use a wide variety of tools to handle and shape
stone blocks (ashlar) and slabs into finished articles. The basic tools for shaping the stone
are a mallet, chisels, and a metal straight edge. With these one can make a flat surface -
the basis of all stonemasonry.
 Chisels come in a variety of sizes and shapes, dependent upon the function for which they
are being used and have many different names depending on locality. There are different
chisels for different materials and sizes of material being worked, for removing large
amounts of material and for putting a fine finish on the stone.Mixing mortar is normally
done today with mortar mixers which usually use a rotating drum or rotating paddles to
mix the mortar.
 The masonry trowel is used for the application of the mortar between and around the
stones as they are set into place. Filling in the gaps (joints) with mortar is referred to
as pointing. Pointing in smaller joints can be accomplished using tuck pointers,
pointing trowels, and margin trowels, among other tools.
 A masons hammer has a long thin head and is called a Punch Hammer. It would be
used with a chisel or splitter for a variety of purposes
 A walling hammer (catchy hammer) can be used in place of a hammer and chisel or
pincher to produce rubble or pinnings or snecks.Stonemasons use a lewis together
with a crane or Block and tackle to hoist building stones into place.
 Today power tools such as compressed-air chisels, abrasive spinners and angle
grinders are much used: these save time and money, but are hazardous and require
just as much skill as the hand tools that they augment. But many of the basic tools of
stonemasonry have remained virtually the same throughout vast amounts of time,
even thousands of years, for instance when comparing chisels that can be bought
today with chisels found at the pyramids of Giza the common sizes and shapes are
virtually unchanged.

Fig.11.Different Tool
Construction of Brick masonry walls

Masonry wall is built with individual bricks, usually placed in horizontal courses cemented
together with sorne kind of mortar (generally cernent sand mortar). Mud mortar is used for
temporary construction whereas cement mortar is suitable for all permanent structure in
which strength is required.
The bricks to be used in masonry work should be sound, hard, well burnt with uniform size,
shape and color.
Method of layin2 bricks While laying bricks in the construction of brick masonry wall, the
following points
should be kept in mind:
1. In brick work, the bricks should be laid on their beds with the frogs pointing upwards.
2. The brick courses should be laid truly horizontal and should have truly verticaljoints. . . .
3. Bonding of bricks is done with the help of mortar to tie thèm together in a hard mass of
brickwork. It should have minimum of vertical joints in any part of the work.
4 The mortar joints should be of uniform thickness not exceeding 13mm
5. Use of brick bats should be discouraged unless it is essential for obtaining the specified
bond.
6. The joints should be properly flushed and filled with mortar so that no cavity is left m
between
7. The face of the joint should be raked to a depth of 12 — 15mm in order to have proper key
for plastering or pointing.
8. The brick walls should be raised uniformly with proper bonds.
9. Wall masonry should not be allowed to be raised by more than 1m in one day on any
particular wall.

MORTARS:

A workable (plastic) paste obtained from the mixture of binding material (like cement, lime
etc.), fine aggregates (like sand, surkhi etc.), water and admixture in specified proportion is
termed as mortar. The mortar is used to bond masonry and other structural units. Mortars
help’ in resisting the entire load coming over the bonded mass without disintegration. Mortars
help in filling empty joints in masonry work.
A mortar i,s essentially required for masonry work, plastering, and pomtmg etc Mortar
is incombustible and as such, by suitable choice of the type of mortar, the walls or
ceiling of a building can be made more fire resistant.

Cement mortar

It is a mixture of cement, sand and water, where cement acts as a binding material.
Depending upon the strength required for a particular work, protection of cement to sand
varies from 1:2 to 1:8 (i.e. the proportion is 1 part of cement to 2 — 8 parts of clean sand).
Brick masonry table

The initial setting time for OPC is 30 minutes; therefore the cement-sand mortar must be used
within 30 minutes after the addiction of water. All the mortar work must be cured for
minimum 7 days for keeping the surface wet.

Steel scaffolding

Steel scaffolding is being extensively used now-a-days for major projects.

Constructional details
i. Steel scaffolding is similar in construction to the Mason’s scaffolding except that steel
tubes are used in place of wooden members (known as bullies) and rope lashings are
substituted by special coupling. Steel scaffolding is known as tabular scaffolding.
ii. The steel tubes are available in 40mm to 60mm in diameter of heavy class type. The
thickness of steel metal is 5mm.
iii. In this type of scaffolding the vertical tubes are called as uprights or standards,
which are spaced 2.5 — 3.Om apart. Each standard is welded to base plate (square or circular
in plan).
iv. The base plate has holes so that it can be spiked to a timber or concrete base, thus
providing rigidity to the scaffolding.
y. Longitudinal tubes connecting the standards are spaced l.8m vertically apart.
vi. Short tubes or putlogs are of 1.2 — 1.8m length. These have special ends to fit into the
joints in the wall and thus, no holes are required to be left in the wall for supports. The
projected parts of putlogs are generally supported on angle iron brackets.
Pillars

Isolated vertical colunrns of brick masonry which are constructed to support some load are
termed as pillars.

Piers

Brick masonry piers may be isolated or attached with the walls. They are constructed
to provide end bearing to trusses and transmitting heavy loads. Attached piers are
constructed to increase the stability of the walls and also in some cases to provide
architectural effect. Piers may be rectangular or square as they are easy to construct.

DOORS, WINDOWS and VENTILATORS

Introduction

All types of buildings are provided with numbers of openings to have access and free
circulation of air and natural light in every room. Such openings are provided with
frames along with shutter to provide safety, privacy and protection from weathering
agencies. Therefore, the arrangement in the form of doors, windows and ventilators is
provided in buildings to have safe access and natural ventilation.

Doors

It may be defined as moveable barrier of timber, steel, glass or aluminum to serve as a

connection link between various internal parts in a building It provides safety as well
as access to the users of the building.
They are generally made of timber and can be with a single leaf or double leaf. The
doors with one leaf are termed as single leafed doòrs and those with two leaves are
termed as double leafed doors. Double leafed doors are generally provided in large
openings. A door is held in position with the help of door frames, member of which
are provided at sides and top of the opening or door way.
Size of doors opening:
For residential buildings

a) External doors 1000mm X 2000mm

b) Internal doors 900mm X 2000mm
c) Doors for bath or water closet 750mm X 2000mm
ii. For public buildings like hospitals, 1200mm X 2000mm Schools, etc.
iii Doors of garage for cars 2250mm X 2250mm
Height of the door Height of the door is fixed on the basis of average height of the
user. Generally, the door height of 2m is considered most suitable. As a thumb rule,
the height of the door is fixed with the fommula,
Height of the door Width of the door + 1 .2m
Height of the window is fixed as1.lOm to 1.20m. Bottom (sill) of the window is kept
750mm to 900mm above the floor level. The top of the window is always kept at level
with the top of the doors fixed in that room.

Width of the door Width of the door is fixed on the basis of largest size of object likely to
use the door. Width of a door generally varies from 750mm to 1200mm. In case of door for a
garage or a shop should not exceed 3 000mm. As a thumb rule, width is selected as Width of
the door = 0 4 to 0 6 times the height rolled steel sections like z-section, angle section, etc.
Powder coated aluminum frames are also available in the market.

Collapsible doors

These types of doors are used from consideration of increased safety and protection of the
property. These doors are fabricated in the form of a single unit to two units (shutters).
Collapsible doors neither require hinges nor any frame for hanging them. The doors are
fabricated using mild steel using mild steel channels 16mm to 20mm wide. The channels are
joined together with their hollows on the inside, leaving a vertical gap of 12 — 20mm
between them. These channel units are spaced 100mm — 120mm c/c and are joined to one
another with the help of flats 16mm — 20mm wide and 5mm thick diagonally, which allow
opening or folding Horizontal rails of T-section are fixed along lintel level and floor level
The rollers are mounted on both the top and bottom of the vertical channel units moving over
the outstanding leg of the T-section. In this type of doors, the lateral movement is not
possible only sliding possible along the T-section.

Windows

A window may be defined as an arrangement of openings made for the purpose of providing
natural day light, vision and ventilation in the rooms. The fabrication of a window is identical
to that of door. Windows are generally made out of well-seasoned timber but other materials
like aluminum, plastic, mild steel can also be used for the same.
Metal (Aluminum) Windows: Use of metal windows is getting popular
these days. Windows made of metals like mild steel, aluminum; stainless steel, etc. are in
demand due to easy availability. The cost of an aluminum and stainless steel is quite high.
Therefore, they are used for important buildings.
Aluminum windows are light in weight and are easily workable. They are usually
recommended for public buildings like offices, schools, hospitals, etc. Aluminum windows
are equally good for exterior openings as they can resist the weathering action. Such types of
windows are suitable for places where dampness is expected.

They can be fabricated in desired sizes. ow-a-days powdered coated aluminum sections for
windows are available in the market which gives good aesthetic look to the material.

Ventilators
A ventilator may be defined as an opening or a narrow window of small height provided near
the roof of a room for providing ventilation. These ventilators may be either combined with
the frame of a window or provided separately above the window height. Separate ventilators
are provided when the height of the room is more. When provided attached with door or
window frames, they are usually fixed. But, when provided separately they can be open able.
To prevent the entry of mosquitoes, wire-gauges are provided.

FLOORS

Floors may be defined as the horizontal elements building structure which divides the
building into different levels for the purpose of creating more space within a restricted
accommodation. It provides horizontal circulation area one above the other and
provides support for the inhabitants, furniture and other articles at different levels. A
building may be single storeyed or multi-storeyed. Single-storeyed buildings have one
floor (also termed as ground floor) but multi-storeyed buildings may have other floors
in addition to ground floor. In some buildings, one or two floors are constructed under
the ground floors which are termed as basement floors.Ground floors, as their name suggests,
rest directly on the ground and as such do not require any frame work for its laying. The main
objective of the floors is to provide a sufficiently durable, smooth, clean, impervious and
leveled surface for the users.

Components of a floor

All floors essentially may be divided into two distinct components:

1. Floor base
2. Floor covering
Construction of ground floors
As ground floors directly rest over the ground, therefore they do not require the
construction of sub-floors. But to ensure proper strength and adequate drainage, a
floor may consist of adequate drainage system so that complete water is drained out of
the building and chances of settlement can be reduced.
However in normal construction work of ground floor, the space below the floor level
is filled with inert materials (like sand, gravel, cinder, etc.) up to a depth of 250 —
300mm. this helps in reducing the chances of dampness due to capillary action. Over
this uniform and even surface of layer, a floor• covering or wearing surface is provided.
Different types of flooring material are available which can be used for

finishing work.

Concrete flooring
This type of flooring is most commonly used now-a-days in residential, commercial,
institutional and public buildings. Thickness of this flooring is never more than 40mm. it is
constructed by adopting a concrete mix of 1:2:4 topping earth.
Types Of concrete floors
According to the method of finishing of the topping, cement concrete floors are classified
into the following two categories:
a) Monolithic (cast-in-situ)
b) Bonded concrete floor laid over 100mm base lean concrete of ratio 1:8:16. This base lean
concrete directly rests on rammed
a) I1ono1ithic (cast4n-situ): The cement concrete floor when laid monolithically (one piece)
with its topping 20mm thick cement concrete (1:2:4) on the base course (lean concrete) is
known as monolithic or cast-in-situ concrete floors.

b) Bonded concrete floors: These types of floor finishing are also termed as non-monolithic
floors, as the topping is not casted monolithically with the base course. In type of concrete
floor, topping is laid on the base concrete after two or three days. The base consists of lean
concrete (1:8:16) which is laid upon 100mm thick clean sand spread upon the consolidated
earth. The topping of concrete. can be done in single layer or in two layers.

ROOFS and STAIRS

Roofs

Roofs may be defined as a covering provided over the top of a buildings and supported on
structural members. Its objective is to protect the building from rain, wind, heat, snow, etc. It
also protects interior of the building from direct exposure to the weather. A roof basically
consists of roof covering materials supported on structural members like beams, columns, etc.
The structural elements may be trusses, portal frames, flat slabs, shells, domes or space
frames etc. whereas covering materials may be R.C.C., A.C. sheets, G.I. sheets, thatch, tiles,
etc. Roof is considered as the most important structural item and hence due importance
should be given to the method of construction and selection of material. Choice of material
should be made after paying due to consideration to the climatic conditions as well as
availability of materials. A well planned roof must satisfy the following

requirements:

1. It should be durable against adverse effects of the weathering agencies like wind, rain, sun,
snow, etc.
2. It should be properly designed to withstand anticipated dead and alive loads safely.
3. It Should provide sufficient heat and sound insulation.
4. It should have efficient water-proofing and drainage arrangements.
Classification of roofs

Roofs can be. broadly classified in the following main types:

1. Pitched roofs 2. Flat roofs

3. Shell roofs 4. Domed or arched roofs

Parts of pitched roofs

1. Span: The span of a roof truss is defined as the distance between centre to centre
of supports. The span of a roof truss is decided by the dimensions of area to be kept
free of columns.

2. Rise: The rise of a truss is defined as the distance from the highest point to the line
joining supports. It is the vertical distance between bottom chords to the peak of the
truss.

3. Pitch: The ratio of the rise to the full span is called the pitch. Where the roofs are to carry
snow load in addition to wind load, a pitch of ‘/4 is ,most common and economical. It
corresponds to a slope of 1 in 2 or an angle of 26.50. Mostly pitches corresponding to an
angle of inclination of 300 are used. When pitch of roof truss is less, then wind force is also
less.

4. Slope: The slope of a symmetrical trušs is defined as the ratio of rise to hàlf the span. It is
the tangent of the angle between top and bottom chord of the roof truss (only if the bottom
chord is horizontal). The slope provided must be sufficient to drain off the rain water without
leakage at the ¡oints of covering material.Pitch and slope for various inclinations of roof are
given table. This slope of the truss is equal to twice the numericul value of pitch whether the
truss is symmetrical or unsymmetrical.

5. Purlins: The purlins are the structural members subjected to transverse loads and rest on
the top chord of roof trusses. The purlins support the sheathing (covering or roofmg material).
The length of the purlins is generally equal to the width of bay or the spacing between the
trusses. The purlins are the horizontal beams spanning between two adjacent trusses.
6. Rafter: The rafters are beams and rest on purlins. Rafters support the Galvanized Iron and
Asbestos cement sheets. These are called common rafters so as to distinguish them from
principal rafter.
7. Spacing of purlins: The spacing of purlins is defmed as the distance between two adjacent
panel points, (if purlins are placed at panel points only). Type of roofing material and the
slope of the truss decide the spacing of purlins.
Spacing of purlins should be less than or equal to the safe span of roof covering material if
these are placed directly on purlins. If the roof covering material is supported on the rafters,
then purlins must be placed at any desired spacing.
Generally, spacing of purlins varies from 2m to 3m.
8 Spacing of trusses The spacing of trusses is dependent upon the requirement
and local available conditions. Factors like position of columns, doors and windows also
control the spacing of trusses. It is desirable to have a uniform spacing of trusses in one
portion of the structure so that the trusses may be made identical.

Stairs

A stairs may define as a series of steps suitably arranged for the purpose of connecting
different floors of a building. Stairs are designed to provide easy and quick access for
the users to different floors and roof’, thus rendering comfort and safety.
The enclosure or room in which connecting all floors are placed is termed as staircase.
The opening or space occupied by the stairs is known as stairway. Stairs may be made from
various materials like timbers, stone, bricks, reinforced cement concrete.

The common technical terms related to construction of stairs are discussed below:

1. Stairs: A series of suitably arranged steps which provides access from one floor to
another are known as stairs. . . . ..

2. Staircase: An enclosure or room provided, in a building where all stairs, connecting

different floors are located.
3. Steps: This is a portion of stair which comprises of tread and riser. Steps help in ascending
or descending from one floor to another.
4. Rise: This is the vertical distance between the upper faces of any two consecutive step s.
5. Riser: The vertical member between two treads is known as riser. It provides support to the
tread.
6. Flight: A continuous series of steps without any bretk between landing or flooring is
known as flight.
7. Hand rail: It is an inclined rail provided to render assistance to the user. The hand rail
should be provided at convenient height over balustrades The inclination of hand rail is
parallel to the slope of the stair. . Hand rails can be made up of various materials like bricks,
steel, wood, wrought iron, stainless steel etc. These can be moulded into many architecturai
forms.
8. Baluster: It is an individual vertical member placed on every step. It is made up of timber,
metal or masonry and is fixed string and hand rail to provide support to the hand rail.
9. Width of staircase: The width of the enclosure accommodating the stair in a building is
known as width of staircase. Width of staircase depends upon the type of stair and the width
of stair to be provided
10. Width of stair: The length of a step is termed as width of the stair. The width of a stair is
dependent upon tne expected number of users The width of a public or commercial building
is larger than the width of the stair provided in houses Similarly, width of a multistoreyed
building depends upon the number of users.