Electrification of Turbocharger and Supercharger for Downsized

Internal Combustion Engines and Hybrid Electric Vehicles–

Benefits and Challenges
Woongkul Lee, Student Member, IEEE, Erik Schubert, Yingjie Li, Student Member, IEEE,
Silong Li, Student Member, IEEE, Dheeraj Bobba, Student Member, IEEE, and
Bulent Sarlioglu1, Senior Member, IEEE
Electrical and Computer Engineering
Wisconsin Electric Machines and Power Electronics Consortium (WEMPEC)
University of Wisconsin – Madison
Madison, WI, USA
1
sarlioglu@wisc.edu

Abstract—Forced induction technology (turbocharging
and supercharging) can enhance the performance of an
internal combustion engine by compressing inlet air charge,
allowing full engine power to be produced efficiently. As the
fuel economy and greenhouse gas emission standards are
projected to be much more stringent globally, the use of a
forced induction engine in passenger cars and light duty
trucks has become a new inevitable trend in the automotive
industry. However, the conventional forced induction system
suffers from the slow transient response, especially when the
engine speed is low, a phenomenon typically known as turbo
lag. The electrification of forced induction system, called
electric forced induction system (EFIS), has emerged as a
feasible solution and it also possesses numerous benefits
depending on its topologies. This paper provides a
comprehensive study on EFIS by investigating system level
topologies, performance, various types of high-speed
machines, power electronics, and control techniques. The
advantages and disadvantages of existing electric forced
induction system are summarized and the new challenges and
opportunities are also introduced.
Index Terms— electrically assisted turbocharger; electric
supercharger; electric turbocharger; forced induction system;
high-speed machine; hybrid electric vehicles; supercharger;
turbocharger;
I. INTRODUCTION
The use of an internal combustion engine (ICE) using
liquid-transportation fuel will presumably continue to hold
a major role over the next few decades [1]. However, there
are still significant challenges for improving fuel
efficiency and reducing emissions considering the rapid
growth of environmental concerns. According to the most
recent research report from the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), transportation is the second
largest source (34%) of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission in
the U.S. trailing only electricity generation (40%). Out of
the transportation sector, light-duty vehicles (passenger
cars and light-duty trucks) are responsible for almost 60%
and medium and heavy-duty vehicles consume 23% [2].
This clearly indicates that the improvement of fuel
economy and the reduction of CO2 emission in road
vehicles can have a significant impact on the conservation
of the global environment.
Recently, the regulatory authorities around the world
have established unprecedentedly high fuel economy and
CO2 emission standards. For instance, the U.S. and Canada
are targeting 56.2 miles per gallon (mpg) by 2025, which
is 50% higher than that of 2015. The EU, as well as South
Korea, introduced the 56.9 mpg target by 2020. Japan has
already exceeded its 2020 statutory target as of 2013 and
achieved 45.9 mpg, which is the highest among other
countries [3]. China, India, Mexico, and Brazil also
proposed or established new fuel economy and greenhouse
gas (GHG) emission standards.
Over the past few years, the automotive industry has
introduced a number of new technologies to meet these
new regulations such as integration of light weight
material, idle stop-and-go, energy regenerative braking
systems, engine downsizing with a turbocharger or
electrified turbocharger and hybrid or battery electric
vehicles [4]. Among these recent technologies, the engine
downsizing with forced induction system (FIS) such as a
turbocharger or an electrified turbocharger is gaining
popularity as a viable solution, which has not yet been
practically implemented in passenger or light-duty
vehicles. Compared to a conventional non-electric forced
induction system (NFIS), the newly introduced electric
forced induction system (EFIS) has several benefits
including:
• improved transient response (reduced turbo lag)
• engine downsizing
• high fuel economy
• improved engine output power
• low carbon emission
• energy regenerative capability
This paper reviews NFIS and EFIS in terms of power
level, operating speed range, types of high-speed machines,
topologies, and control techniques. It begins with the
overview of the fundamental NFIS and EFIS technologies
followed by the investigation and comparison of various
high-speed machines, and control techniques. As high-
speed electric machines, power electronics, and control
techniques are becoming more mature than ever, there are
new machine designs, power devices, circuit topologies,
and control techniques applicable to EFIS that have not yet
 (a)
(d)
Fig. 1. Schematic layout of the non-electric forced induction system (NFIS) topologies (black line – air flow path with valve, blue line – engine inlet
air flow, red line – exhaust gas flow). (a) Single-stage turbocharger. (b) Supercharger. (c) Regulated two-stage turbocharger (d) Turbocharger with a
supercharger (twincharger). (e) Sequential turbocharging.
been discussed in the previous EFIS research papers. This
paper also introduces challenges and opportunities in EFIS
technology from both electrical and mechanical
engineering perspectives.
II. OVERVIEW OF NON-ELECTRIC AND ELECTRIC FORCED
INDUCTION SYSTEM
A. The Advantages of Air Pressure Boosting
In the past, FIS was mainly utilized in high-
performance gasoline engine or diesel engine vehicles for
the purpose of boosting the engine power by compressing
inlet air to increase air pressure. More recently, automotive
manufacturers are paying more attention to the use of FIS
with a downsized engine or a hybrid electric vehicle for
improving the fuel economy while reducing the GHG
emission. A turbocharger enables to compress the inlet air
charge for ICE by deriving energy from the exhaust gas,
which is otherwise wasted. It helps to downsize ICE by
reducing the cylinder area and stroke length or the number
of cylinders while producing engine output power similar
to that of a higher displacement naturally aspired engine.
Therefore, the turbocharged ICE performs more efficiently
with less fuel consumption and emission [6], [7], [8].
For instance, Ford Motor Company has been investing
in the development of Gasoline Turbocharged Direct
Injection (GTDI) engine technology with Department of
Energy (DOE) since 2010 [9]. The new type of engine
marketed as EcoBoost achieves 25% total fuel economy
improvement while satisfying the GHG emission standard.
General Motors has also been developing a downsized
engine with turbocharger called ECOTEC since 2000 [10].
Nissan Motor also unveiled a 3-cylinder 1.2-liter engine
with a supercharger, which can deliver the output power
equivalent to that of a 1.5-liter engine [11].
(b) (c)
(e)
B. Non-Electric Forced Induction System (NFIS)
In general, an NFIS can be classified into two types
depending on the energy source for driving a turbine:
turbocharger and supercharger. A conventional single
stage turbocharger consists of a turbine and a compressor
directly coupled together through a shaft as shown in Fig.
1 (a). Since exhaust gas from an ICE is the only energy
source to drive the turbine and the coupled compressor,
this topology suffers from the slow mechanical response
and low efficiency especially when the engine speed is low
[4]. Also, a wastegate valve must be employed to prevent
turbine over-speed, which results in a potential waste of
energy. To solve these issues, several different approaches
have been introduced such as multiple staged
turbochargers (regulated two-stage turbocharger in Fig. 1
(c)), twin charger (combination of a turbocharger and a
supercharger in Fig. 1 (d)), sequential turbocharger (in Fig.
1 (e)), low inertia rotating components, variable geometry
turbine (VGT), active control turbocharger (ACT), control
of valve timings and fuel injection and adopting external
energy sources to enhance air supply [5]. A combination
of these techniques is often applied but the utilization of an
external energy source, specifically electric energy, is
recently gaining more popularity in the automotive
industry.
A supercharger is directly connected to a crankshaft of
an ICE with a belt or chain so that the engine becomes the
energy source for driving the turbine as shown in Fig. 1
(b). Typically, the supercharger can be classified into three
different types depending on the methods of gas transfer or
compression: roots, twin screw, and centrifugal. The main
advantage of the root and twin screw superchargers is
almost no lagging even at low engine speed. However, the
efficiency is relatively low compared to that of the
turbocharger since it consumes the engine power for
boosting. The other disadvantage is low boosting power at since the electric motor is directly coupled to the turbine
high engine speed compared to a centrifugal supercharger. and the compressor. The increased output torque from the
The advantages and disadvantages of NFIS are electric motor, TT_EAT should exceed the additional inertia
summarized and compared in Table I. of the electric motor, JEM to the system [5] as below
C. Electric Forced Induction System (EFIS) TT_EAT + TEM_EAT – TC_EAT – TMech_load_EAT
The electrification of NFIS can be realized in 5 different >
JTC+EM
topologies as shown in Fig. 2 (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e). Since
the main advantages of EFIS are to improve transient TT_conv – TC_conv – TMech_load_conv
performance and minimize the lagging effect, roots and (5)
twin screw superchargers, which have relatively high JTC_conv
boost performance in low engine RPM are not feasible for where
the electrification as shown in Table I. Nevertheless, the TT_EAT EAT turbine output torque,
centrifugal supercharger can be electrified and the TEM_EAT EAT electric machine output torque,
topology is equivalent to the electric turbocharger as TC_EAT EAT compressor load torque,
illustrated in Fig. 2 (b). The characteristics, advantages,
and disadvantages are summarized in Table II. TMech_load_EAT EAT mechanical load torque,
In order to improve the transient response of the JTC+EM turbine, compressor and electric
conventional turbocharger using an electric machine, the machine inertia,
torque/inertia ratio (or angular acceleration, α) of EFIS TT_conv conventional turbocharger turbine
must be higher than that of the conventional NFIS as output torque,
shown in (4) TC_ conv conventional turbocharger
compressor load torque,
TEFIS_net TNFIS_net TMech_load_onv conventional turbocharger mechanical
JEFIS > JNFIS . (4) load torque,
Minimizing the inertia of the overall system and JTC_conv conventional turbocharger inertia.
maximizing output torque are the challenges in EFIS and Typically, the additional rotor inertia of the electric
5 different topologies are characterized based on this machine should be limited from 1/3 to a maximum 1/2 of
equation. the mass moment inertia of the turbocharger to efficiently
assist the turbocharger [13]. The angular acceleration of
1. Electrically assisted turbocharger (EAT) the free electric machine should be an order of magnitude
The electrically assisted turbocharger (EAT) is shown larger than that of the baseline turbocharger to
in Fig. 2 (a). A high-speed electric machine is significantly improve the transient response [13]. The
interconnected between the turbine and the compressor. advantages of this topology are improved low RPM
When the engine speed is low, the electric machine boosting, electric machine rotor position self-sensing
functions as a motor providing additional torque to the capability [14], motoring and generating capabilities, and
compressor generating higher boost pressure with a faster the necessity of electric components with relatively low
transient response. When the engine speed is high, the power output which, in turn, means low cost.
electric machine generates power, which can be The main challenge of this topology is to minimize the
transmitted to energy storage. It can also prevent the high-temperature effect on the electric machine, especially
turbine to exceed its speed limitation. However, this might when the machine is placed inside the turbocharger.
also cause high backpressure effect to the ICE, which can Induction machine, switched reluctance machine, and
compensate the energy recovered from exhaust gas [12]. flux-switching permanent magnet machine can be used for
In this topology, the characteristics of the electric this topology since they are more advantageous than
machine are important especially inertia and output torque surface permanent magnet machine in terms of high-
TABLE I
THE C OMPARISON OF N ON -ELECTRIC F ORCED I NDUCTION S YSTEM T OPOLOGIES
Single-stage Two-stage Sequential
Supercharger Twincharger
Turbocharger Turbocharger Turbocharger
Type Centrifugal Roots Twin screw Centrifugal Centrifugal Centrifugal Centrifugal
Exhaust gas /
Energy source Exhaust gas Engine Exhaust gas Exhaust gas
Engine
Power boost with RPM Non-linear Linear Linear Non-linear Linear Linear Linear
Response time Slow (turbo lag) Fast Fast Slow Fast Fast Fast
Low RPM Boost Low High High Low High High High
High RPM Boost High Low Low High High High High
Air compressing Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Temperature High High Low Low High High High
Efficiency High Low Low Low High Medium High
Cost Medium Low High Medium High High High
Electrification Fig. 2 (a), (b), (c) N/A N/A Fig. 2 (b) Fig. 2 (d), (e) Fig. 2 (d), (e) Fig. 2 (d), (e)
 (a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)
Fig. 2. Schematic layout of electric forced induction system (EFIS) topologies (black line (thin) – power flow, black line (thick) – air flow path with
valve, blue line – engine inlet air flow, red line – exhaust gas flow). (a) Electrically assisted turbocharger (EAT). (b) Electric turbocharger (ET). (c)
Electrically split turbocharger (EST). (d) Turbocharger with an additional electrically driven compressor - upstream (TEDC). (e) Turbocharger with
an additional electrically driven compressor - downstream (TEDC).

temperature operation and thermal management. There are from electric energy storage so that it has more flexibility
some other topological approaches to mitigate this issue as in terms of control. In addition, the compressor can be
well. For instance, BMW utilized clutches to connect and operated in its optimal operating point ensuring high
disconnect the electric machine to the shaft of the efficiency. The electric components are required having
turbocharger so that the machine can be placed outside of high power output compared to other topologies. This
the turbocharger [15]. G+L innotec introduced large airgap topology does not have the capability of energy generation
permanent magnet machine, which can also be placed itself but the regenerative braking system or integrated
outside of the turbocharger [16]. The inner diameter of the starter generator (ISG) can be combined to provide
stator is equivalent to the outer diameter of the compressor electrical energy to the energy storage [5]. The
and the outer diameter of the rotor is equivalent to the torque/inertia ratio can be fulfilled if an electric machine
output diameter of the shaft. The airgap can be used as inlet with high power density with low inertia is utilized as
air path so that it has multiple benefits in terms of cooling, below
low inertia, and less temperature effect. TEM_ET – TC_ET – TMech_load_ET
2. Electric turbocharger / supercharger (ET) JC+EM >
The electric turbocharger (ET) is illustrated in Fig. 2 (b).
The energy for driving the compressor is solely provided
TABLE II
THE C OMPARISON OF E LECTRIC F ORCED INDUCTION S YSTEM TOPOLOGIES
Type EAT ET EST TEDC (up and downstream)
Exhaust gas / Exhaust gas / Exhaust gas /
Energy source Energy storage
Energy storage Energy storage Energy storage
Temperature effect High Low Low Low
Electric turbo
Yes No Yes No
compounding
- Compact size - Compact size - No additional Upstream Downstream
- Low rating motor - No additional inertia - No additional - Fastest transient
and inverter inertia - Control flexibility inertia response
- No wastegate valve - Control flexibility - Installation - Low power motor - Low power motor
Advantages
- Installation flexibility and inverter and inverter
flexibility - No wastegate valve - Steady-state - Steady-state
- No backpressure performance performance
improvement improvement
- Additional cooling - High rating motor - High rating motor - Not the fastest - Extra space
- Additional shaft and inverter and inverter transient response required
inertia - Low system - Extra space - Extra space - Low system
Disadvantages
efficiency required required efficiency
- Extra energy - Low system
conversion loss efficiency
 TT_conv – TC_conv – TMech_load_conv 4. Turbocharger with an additional electrically driven
compressor – up and downstream (TEDC)
JTC_conv (6)
The last topology is the turbocharger with an additional
where electrically driven compressor (TEDC) as shown in Fig. 2
TEM_ET ET electric machine output torque, (d) and (e). Depending on the location of the electrically
TC_ET ET compressor load torque, driven compressor, TEDC can be classified into upstream
TMech_load_ET ET mechanical load torque, and downstream TEDCs. In this topology, the electric
machine operates independently from the engine exhaust
JC+EM Compressor and electric machine
gas driven turbine and the electrically driven compressor
inertia.
is designed to increase air pressure at low engine speed.
3. Electrically split turbocharger (EST) Therefore, this topology significantly improves the
The third topology is called electrically split transient response when the engine speed is low since the
turbocharger (EST) as shown in Fig. 2 (c). In this topology, electric motor operation is not affected by the inertia of the
the mechanical energy from exhaust gas is not directly turbine nor the shaft. However, the electric energy needs
delivered to the compressor, but converted to electrical to be produced from ISG powered by the engine shaft or
energy initially using a generator. The stored energy is regenerative braking system [5]. The main advantage of
utilized to drive the compressor for boosting. The this topology is the fastest transient response when the ICE
advantages of this topology are almost equal to the electric speed is low [5]. In general, downstream TEDC has a
turbocharger, but it has a capability of energy generation faster transient response than upstream TEDC since the
from the exhaust gas. The other advantages of this latter has a larger volume to pressurize. The other
topology are less temperature effect due to the separation advantage is that it can be adopted with the minimal
of the turbine and the compressor and no additional inertia modification to the conventional automotive system with
from turbine and turbine shaft as shown below the turbocharger.
TEM_EST – TC_EST – TMech_load_EST III. HIGH-SPEED ELECTRIC MACHINES
JC+EM >
A high-speed electric machine technology simplifies a
machine drive system by eliminating essential mechanical
TT_conv – TC_conv – TMech_load_conv
components required in a conventional electro-mechanical
JTC_conv (7) drive system [17] and also reduces the dimension of the
where machines [18]. Fewer mechanical components improve
TEM_EST EST electric machine output torque, the system reliability and size and weight reductions are
valued in numerous applications such as aerospace,
TC_EST EST compressor load torque,
aircraft, and hybrid or purely electric vehicles. In these
TMech_load_EST EST mechanical load torque, applications, space is limited and weight is highly related
JC+EM compressor and electric machine to the performance and efficiency.
inertia. Nevertheless, designing and manufacturing of high-
Splitting the turbine and the compressor is also beneficial speed machines are challenging and there are several
in terms of installation so that the airflow path can be constraints that need to be carefully considered. The
optimized. However, this topology requires high power advantages and disadvantages of each machine design are
rating electric motor and generator as well as inverters to summarized in Table IV. The machine types, ratings,
satisfy torque/inertia ratio in (7), which will increase the topologies and manufacturers of EFIS, which have been
overall system cost. reported in previous literature, are summarized in Table V.
TABLE IV
THE C OMPARISON OF E LECTRIC M ACHINES FOR ELECTRIC F ORCED I NDUCTION S YSTEM
IM SPM / BLDC SRM FSPM

Machine design

- Copper or aluminum loss - Hot shutdown issue - High copper loss - Hot shutdown issue
Temperature effect in rotor - Demagnetization - High core losses - Demagnetization
- Torque reduction - Torque reduction
- No permanent magnet - High power density - No permanent magnet - Robust and simple rotor
- Robust - High efficiency - Robust and simple rotor structure
Advantages - Inexpensive structure - Easier magnet cooling
- Low rotor inertia - Low rotor inertia
- Fault tolerance
- High rotor loss - Magnet retention - High inverter rating - May require high
- Rotor cooling required - High rotor inertia - Control complexity fundamental frequency
- Lower power factor - High magnet eddy - High torque ripple - Medium torque ripple
Disadvantages
- Lower efficiency current loss - High acoustic noise - Medium acoustic noise
(if concentrated winding
is used)
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