Masculinity Issues

Dr George Sandamas
 Where have all good men gone
And where are all the gods?
Where’s the street-wise Hercules
To fight the rising odds?

Isn’t there a white knight upon a fiery steed?

Late at night I toss and turn and dream of what I need

I need a hero
I’m holding out for a hero ‘til the end of the night
He’s gotta be strong
And he’s gotta be fast
And he’s gotta be fresh from the fight
I need a hero
I’m holding out for a hero ‘til the morning light
He’s gotta be sure
And it’s gotta be soon
And he’s gotta be larger than life
What does it mean to be
“man”?
What is your definition of masculinity?
 In this lecture we will
consider….
• Definitions of masculinity
• Masculine stereotypes
• Masculinity and the Media
• Social Learning Theory, the Media and Masculinity
• Research into the effects of media portrayals of
masculinity
• Masculinity in Crisis
• The trouble with Boys
 Defining Masculinity
History, Politics and Society

“Unlike the biological state of maleness, masculinity

is a gender identity constructed socially,
historically and politically. It is the cultural
interpretation of maleness, learnt through
participation in society and its institutions”
(Leach, 1994, pg 36)
 Defining Masculinity
History, Politics and Society

Patriarchy and Hegemonic masculinity

• Masculinity is institutionalised in social structures such

as the family, schooling, mass media and religion, where
boys are socialised to become masculine
Gendered Socialisation
 A working definition of
Masculinity

• A set of stereotypical behaviours and

attitudes reinforced by society, culture
and individual expectations, associated
predominantly with males
Note: A single definition of masculinity is probably not
possible and much of the contemporary literature refers to
masculinities. Indeed MacInnnes (2001) proposes that
there are as many masculinities as there are males.
 Defining Masculinity
stereotypes (Archer and Lloyd, 1985)

Feminine Masculine
Affectionate Ambitious
Child like Analytical
Compassionate Assertive
Gentle Athletic
Loves children Aggressive
Sympathetic Forceful
Understanding Dominant
Yielding Independent
Gullible Strong personality
 Masculinity
and the Media

‘What it is to be ‘A Real Man!?’

• Self control

• Control of others

• Aggression and Violence

• Wealth and possessions

• Physical desirability
Masculinity and the Media
• The portrayal and acceptance of men by the media
as socially powerful and physically violent serve to
reinforce assumptions about how men and boys
should act in society, how they should treat each
other, as well as they they should treat women and
children (Children Now, 1999)

• While the media are not the cause of violent

behaviour in men and boys, they do portray male
violence as a normal expression of masculinity
(Children Now, 1999)
 Common Media Stereotypes
• The Joker (boys and men should not be serious or emotional)

• The Jock (willing to compromise his health for the team, must
avoid being soft)

• The Strong silent type (in charge, acting decisively, containing

emotion)

• The Big shot (epitome of success with wealth and possessions)

• The Action hero (strong, angry, aggressive)

• The Buffoon (hopeless with children and domestic chores)

Children’s perceptions of male
stereotypes (children Now, 1999)

• Most men and boys are focussed on women and girls

• Many males are violent

• Men are generally leaders and problem solvers

• Males are funny confident successful and athletic

• It is rare to see boys crying or being vulnerable

• Males are not often shown as sensitive

• Mainly in the workplace, rarely at home

• Rarely seen doing domestic chores

 SLT and TV

• Social Learning Theory suggests that children learn

through imitation and assimilation (remember the Bobo
doll!?) and the ‘large quantity’ of television watched by
children is instrumental in shaping children's attitudes
and behaviours (Earles et al 2002)

• In a review of the literature Villani (2001) concluded that

the primary effects of media exposure were increased
aggressive and violent behaviour, drug and alcohol abuse
and accelerated onset of sexual activity
Tough
Guise
 Masculinity and Advertising

• Men are usually portrayed as virile, muscular and

powerful, their bodies dominate the space in ads
whilst women are portrayed not just as slim but also
weak and vulnerable (Bordo, 2001)

• Portrayals of the ideal male body have become

increasingly exaggerated (Spitzer, Henderson and Zivian, 1999)

• The ideal male body marketed to men is more

muscular than that marketed to woman (Frederick, Fessler
and Haselton, 2005)
18
 Masculinity and Advertising

• Men have reported wanting to build bigger chests

and leaner abs in order to impress women (Ridgeway and
Tylka, 2005)

• Women reportedly find men with muscular upper

bodies (Singh, 1999) and lean stomachs (Bjorntorp,1993) more
attractive

• Male participants have reported feeling pressured by

the media to look muscular and ‘built’ (Ridgeway and
Tylka, 2005)
 Masculinity and Advertising
• Rash (2004) 25% of surveyed men exercised excessively
• 9% of adolescent boys “often” or always used food
supplements to build muscle they were also more
likely to report being influenced by media images
(Smolak et al 2005)

• Indications of increased trends of body dysmorphia,

a pathological preoccupation with one’s body
• Even action figures have become more muscular
(Baghurst et al 2006) resulting in decreased body esteem in
boys (Bartlett et al, 2005)
Batman 60’s – 70’s
Action Man 70’s-80’s
21st Century Action Figures
 Masculinity and Advertising

• Research into the impact of media male images on

men has indicated that those who viewed male
images on TV advertisements reported higher levels
of muscle dissatisfaction and depression (Agliata and
Tantleff-Dunn, 2004) and had measurable body
dissatisfaction (Leit, Gray and Pope, 2002)

• O’dea et al (2002) found

that 20% of male students
surveyed displayed eating attitudes and behaviours
characteristic of eating disorders and disordered
eating
 Why does the media portray
men thus?
• Sex role theory suggests that society needs people to
defend against aggressors, look after dependants and
generate wealth and males learn to be manly (Edley and
Weatherall, 1995)

• Therefore it could be argued that the media reinforce

and even exaggerate what a ‘fit for purpose’ man
should be: strong, provider, able to cope, chivalrous,
not passive or frightened, ready to go to war and be
killed or to kill others
 What happens when men fall
short!?
• Horrocks (1995) notes that it is assumed that men’s
position is alright and the privileges they enjoy
makes their life a bed of roses, but it isn't!
• They experience great anxiety and depression
because they do not live up to expectations
• Men die earlier than women!
• They die from heart attacks because of stress
• They get ulcers because they cannot express their
anxieties
 Masculinity in Crisis?
• Horrocks (1995) goes no to ask why is it that young
men vandalize, steal cars, carry knives and get into
fights? It is because…

• They are not wanted except for factory fodder

• Are unable to express their frustration

• Are forbidden to show any feelings other than

aggression
 Masculinity in Crisis?
• “ Men that I see in psychotherapy feel desperately
inadequate, lonely, out of touch with people, out of touch
with their own feelings and bodies, sexually unsure of
themselves, bored with the job prospects that are available
to them”…… “Men are brainwashed to think they are
never unhappy”…. ‘They bottle up their feelings and
develop physical symptoms instead, or they become violent
or criminal or antisocial in some other way”…. “Thus
suicide, drug addiction, alcoholism are all higher among
men than women.” (Horrocks, 1994, pg 144)
 Fight Club: A Metaphor for
Masculinity in Crisis
• In Chuck Palahniuk’s Fight Club, we see how the
narrator (Edward Norton) struggles with his
masculinity in a twisted but interesting way.
• Edward Norton develops an alternate personality in
the form of an imaginary friend. To compensate for
his masculine insecurities, he sees Tyler (Brad Pitt)
as the masculine traits he desires in himself.
Specifically, Tyler is a confident, tough, good
looking street fighter who has the freedom and
power to do whatever he wants.
 Fight Club:
Tyler Durden welcome to Fight Club Speach
 Fight Club: A male response
to a feminised world?
• It is only towards the end of the film that we find out
Tyler is not real and we see again the scenes of the
narrator fighting Tyler only Tyler is not there the
narrator is fighting himself

• This struggle can be seen as metaphorical of the

struggles men have today.

• Tyler represents an idealised example of

contemporary masculinity not bound by the reality
of living in an increasingly emasculated world
Masculinity and the Media

• Many boys and young men are influenced a great

deal by the media and this media influence is mainly
occurring during two vital and formative Ericsonian
life stage’s:

• stage 4 – Industry Vs Inferiority

• stage 5 – Identity Vs Role Confusion

 Adolescent: 12 to 18 Years,
Identity vs. Role Confusion


At this point, an adolescent must struggle to

discover and find his own identity, while
negotiating and struggling with social interactions
and “fitting in”, and developing a sense of morality
and right from wrong. Those unsuccessful with
this stage tend to experience role confusion and
upheaval. Adolescents begin to develop a strong
affiliation and devotion to ideals, causes, and friends
 Erikson's Stage 4 - Industry versus Inferiority.
School-goers from 6 - 11 years
I am what I can achieve
The child's world extends beyond the home to the school.

The emphasis is on academic performance.

There is a movement from play to work.

Earlier the child could play at activities with little or no attention given to the quality of results.

Now, he needs to perform and produce good results!

The child soon learns that he can win recognition from parents, teachers and peers by being proficient in his
school work.

The attitudes and opinions of others become important.

The school plays a major role in the resolution of the developmental crisis of initiative versus inferiority

If children are praised for doing their best and encouraged to finish tasks then work enjoyment and industry may result.

Children's efforts to master school work help them to grow and form a positive self-concept ... a sense of who
they are.

Children who cannot master their school work may consider themselves a failure and feelings of inferiority may
arise.
What impact male images and
stereotypes on education?
Did you know?

• Boys get he majority of D’s and F’s

• Boys make up 80% of dicipline problems

• 70% of children diagnosed with learning difficulties

are Boys as are 80% with behavioural disorders and
many of these are on Ritalin

• Boys are on average a year and a half behind girls

• 80% of high school dropouts are young men