Name: ________________________________________ Date: ____________

Laboratory Exercise 12
Development of the Integumentary System and its Derivatives

Learning Objective:
At the end of this activity the student should be able to:

 Outline the developmental process of the integumentary system

Introduction
The integumentary system is the largest organ system in the human body, responsible for
protection from physical and environmental factors. The integumentary system is both a barrier
and a sensory organ, and includes the skin (the largest bodily organ), as well as appendages,
sweat and sebaceous glands, hair, nails and arrectores pillorum (tiny muscles at the root of
each hair that cause goose bumps).
The integumentary system develops from all embryonic layers (lateral ectoderm, somatic and
lateral plate mesoderm, and neural crest cells).

Development of the Integumentary System: Ectodermal Derivatives

Integumentary system develops from surface ectoderm and the underlying mesenchyme

The skin has a twofold origin: a superficial layer, the epidermis, derived from surface ectoderm,
and a deep, thick layer, the dermis, derived from mesenchyme

Embryonic Development of the Epidermis:

Epidermis: initially the embryo's surface is covered by a single layer of ectodermal cells which,
in month 2, divides to form a superficial protective layer of simple, flattened squamous epithelial
cells, the periderm or epitrichium.

The cells of the periderm layer continually undergo keratinization and desquamation to be
replaced by cells arising from the basal layer

The basal layer of epidermis later becomes the stratum germinativum which produces new cells
that are displaced into layers above

The exfoliated cells form part of the vernix caseosa, a white, cheesy, protective substance that
covers the fetal skin
The vernix caseosa also includes sebaceous gland sebum, fetal hair, and desquamated
amniotic cells

By week 11, the basal layer (stratum germinativum) forms an intermediate skin layer, and by the
end of month 4, all the epithelial layers of the adult epidermis of skin have acquired their
definitive arrangement. Four successive layers are seen (bottom to top)

Basal (stratum germinativum) layer: responsible for continuous development of new cells. It
later forms genetically determined ridges and hollows which are filled by the underlying
mesoderm. The patterns so formed are reflected on the surface of the skin (palms, fingers, and
soles, including toes) in the form of fingerprints (dermatoglyphics)

Thick spinous (stratum spinosum) layer: large polyhedral cells, on top of the basal layer,
connected by fine tonofibrils

Granular (stratum granulosum) layer: cells contain small keratohyaline granules, the first signs
of keratinization

Horny (stratum corneum) layer: outermost layer which forms the scale like hard surface of the
epidermis and is loaded with keratin

Fig. 1. Layers of the epidermis

Replacement of the peridermal cells continues until about week 21 (the cells are lost into the
amniotic fluid), thereafter the periderm normally disappears

During the first 3 months of development, neural crest migrates and invades the epidermis, to
form melanoblasts and then melanocytes, which synthesize melanin pigment. After birth, these
cells cause skin pigmentation and are found in the epidermal-dermal junction

In dark-skinned races, melanin granules are produced by fetal melanocytes; in white-skinned

races, the fetal melanocytes contain very little to no melanin pigment
Embryonic Development of the Dermis:

The dermis is derived from mesenchyme of the somatic lateral mesodermal layer which
underlies the surface ectoderm

During months 3 and 4, the dermis forms many collagenous and elastic fibers; simultaneously,
the superficial dermal layer or corium forms irregular papillary structures, the dermal papillae,
which project into the epidermis

Some papillae contain small capillary loops, and others have sensory nerve endings

The deep dermal layer or subcorium is characterized by fatty tissue

At birth, the skin is covered by the vernix caseosa, a whitish paste formed by sebaceous gland
secretion, degenerated epidermal cells, and hairs. It protects the skin against the maceration
action of the amniotic fluid

If the superficial layers of the skin show excessive cornification, the skin has a scaly
appearance, a condition spoken of as icthyosis

At 4 weeks gestation, simple ectoderm epithelium forms. Between 4 and 12 weeks, the basal
cells divide repeatedly to form the stratified epithelium while the mesoderm forms the blood
vessels and connective tissues. Epidermal ridges (e.g. fingerprints) begin to develop around 10
weeks gestation and are completed by 17 weeks gestation. Sensory nerves also develop.

At 16 weeks gestation, the basement membrane folds. Melanoblasts that form melanocytes
migrate with neural crests cells to the epithelium and begin producing melanin prior to birth. The
connective tissue differentiates into the various layers of the dermis. Ectoderm thickens into
fingernails and toenails. Other regions of the ectoderm form into epithelial columns called cords
which become hair follicles and sebaceous and sweat glands.

At 20 weeks gestation, hair begins to grow from sebaceous glands, while sweat glands are
formed from coiled cords. Other cords begin to form mammary glands.

About 26 weeks, pigmentation occurs.

At 28 weeks, melanocytes mature into melanocytes and nervous tissue structures develop.

Development of the Hair and Associated Structures

The hair appears as a solid epidermal downgrowth of the stratum germinativum into the
underlying dermis and is called the hair bud

The deepest portion of the hair bud becomes club-shaped and forms the hair bulb

The epithelial cells of the hair bulb constitute the germinal matrix, which later will give rise to the
hair

The hair bulb is then invaginated by a small mesenchymal hair papillae

As the cells of the germinal matrix, in the center of the hair follicles, proliferate, they are pushed
upward and become keratinized forming the hair shaft. The peripheral cells of the developing
hair follicle form the epithelial root (hair) sheath

The surrounding mesenchymal cells differentiate into the dermal (connective tissue) root sheath

The hair grows, penetrates the epidermis, and appears above the skin surface

Melanoblasts invade the hair bulb and form melanocytes. They produce melanin which is
transferred to the hair-forming cells in the germinal matrix before birth

Hairs begin to develop during early fetal life, but become visible at about week 20 on the
eyebrows, upper chin, and lips and are called the lanugo hairs

The lanugo are shed at about the time of birth and are later replaced by coarser hairs called
vellus hairs which arise from new hair follicles

The vellus persists over most of the body except in the axillary and pubic regions where, at
puberty, they are replaced by coarse terminal hairs (seen also on the chest and face in males)

The arrector pili muscles are smooth muscle fibers which form from the surrounding
mesenchyme and become attached to the connective tissue sheath of the hair follicle and
dermal papillary layer

The sebaceous glands develop as buds from the side of the developing epithelial root sheath of
the hair follicle

The buds grow into the surrounding connective tissue and branch to form the primordia of the
glandular alveoli and ducts

The central cells of the alveoli break down and form an oily secretion, the sebum, which is
extruded into the hair follicle and onto the skin surface to mix with the desquamated peridermal
cells to help form the vernix caseosa

Independent glands (not with hair follicles) also develop from the epidermis in the areas of the
glans penis and the labia minora

Sweat (eccrine or merocrine) glands develop as a solid epidermal bud which grows down into
the underlying dermis

As the bud elongates, its end coils to form the primordium of the glands secretory portion, while
the epithelial attachment to the epidermis forms the duct primordium

The central cells of the primordia degenerate to form a lumen

The peripheral cells of the secretory portion of the gland differentiate into secretory and
myoepithelial cells, the latter being specialized ectodermal smooth muscle cells which aid in
expelling the glandular secretion
Sweat (apocrine) glands in humans, are confined to the axilla, pubic areas, and areola of the
mammary glands

They develop as downgrowths of the stratum germinativum of the epidermis

Their ducts open into the hair follicles and not on the skin surfac They open just above the
sebaceous glands

Their chief function seems to be the production of small amounts of secretions which, on the
surface, give rise to distinctive odors that enable animals to recognize each other. Human
apocrine sweat glands have no odor in their secretion but contain substances readily degraded
by bacteria into odiferous breakdown products

Development of the Nails

Nails are modifications of the epidermis and correspond to the claws and hoofs of lower animals

The first indication of a nail is foreshadowed at week 10 by a thickened area of epidermis, the
nail field, seen on the dorsum of each digit

The adjoining area, on each side and at the base of the field, tends to overgrow the field, giving
rise to shallow lateral nailfolds which continue into a much deeper proximal nailfold that extends
nearly to the proximal end of the terminal phalanx

Development at the tips of the fingers precedes the development of the toenails

The material of the true nail is developed within the underlayer of the proximal nailfold (although
the primitive nail field undergoes some local cornification and forms a so-called false nail). This
layer is named the matrix

During month 5, specialized keratin fibrils differentiate in the matrix layer, without having passed
through a keratohyalin or eleidin stage (ordinary method of cornification)

The keratinized cells flatten and consolidate into the compact tissue of which the nail plate is
composed

Thus, the nail substance differentiates in the proximal nailfold as far distal as the outer edge of
the lunula (the whitish crescent at the base of the exposed nail)

Beyond the lunula, the nail plate merely shifts progressively over the nail bed and reaches the
tip of the finger about 1 month before birth

The dermis, beneath the nail, is thrown into parallel longitudinal folds to produce the
characteristic ridges and grooves

The stratum corneum and periderm of the epidermis, for a time, cover completely the free nail
and are jointly referred to as the eponychium
This layer, in late fetuses, is lost except for horny portions that continue to adhere to the nail
plate along the curved rim of the nailfold (the cuticle)

Underneath the free end of the nail, the epidermal cells also accumulate to form a piled-up
epidermal mass, the hyponychium, or substance beneath the nail

Nail anatomy

The horny zone of the nail is composed of hard keratin and has a distal, exposed part or body,
and a proximal, hidden portion, the root

The root is covered by a prolongation of the stratum corneum of the skin which is composed of
soft keratin and is called the eponychium

The lunula or "half-moon" lies distal to the eponychium and is a part of the horny zone which is
opaque to the underlying capillaries

The horny zone of the nail is attached to the underlying nail bed

The matrix, or proximal part of the nail bed, produces hard keratin

The fingernails reach the fingertips by week 32, and the toenails reach the toe tops by week 36

On the average, after birth, the nail grows about 0.5 mm a week. They grow faster in the
summer than in the winter; growth is also age dependent

Development of the Mammary Glands

The mammary glands (breasts) are derived from 2 thickened strips of epidermal ectoderm, the
primitive mammary ridges or milk lines, which appear during week 6. The ridges extend from the
axillae to the inguinal regions, but rapidly regress except in the thorax

The mammary buds that persist in the thoracic region penetrate the underlying mesenchyme
and give rise to several secondary buds which develop into lactiferous ducts and their branches.
These are canalized by the end of the prenatal life

The fibrous connective tissue and fat of the mammary gland develop from the surrounding
mesenchym The lactiferous ducts form the small ducts and alveoli

Only the main ducts are found at birth, and the gland remains undeveloped until puberty

During the late fetal period, the epidermis, where the gland originated, becomes depressed to
form a shallow mammary pit (epithelial pit) on which the ducts open

The lactiferous ducts at first open onto this epithelial pit which is formed by the original
mammary line
The nipple itself forms during the perinatal period due to proliferation of the mesenchyme under
the areola (circular area of skin around the nipple) in the area of the mammary pit. The nipple is
often depressed and poorly formed during infancy

The mammary glands of both newborn males and females are often enlarged and may secrete
"witches' milk" or colostrum, as a result of maternal hormones passing into the fetal circulation
by way of the placenta

At puberty, the female mammary glands enlarge rapidly as a result of the development of fat
and connective tissue. The duct system also grows, stimulated by the estrogen and
progesterone of the ovary

The glandular tissue remains completely undeveloped until pregnancy when the intralobular
ducts rapidly develop, form buds, and become alveoli

The male glands undergo little postnatal development.

Development of the Teeth

Introduction:

The teeth develop from ectoderm and mesoderm: the enamel develops from ectoderm of the
oral cavity, and all other tissues come from the associated mesenchyme. Not all teeth develop
at the same time. The first tooth buds are seen in the anterior mandibular region, later in the
anterior maxillary region, then posteriorly in both jaws. Development is in continuous stages

The dental lamina and bud stage: the dental laminae are seen early in week 6 as U-shaped
thickenings or buds of the oral epithelium (surface ectoderm)

Localized proliferation of cells in the dental laminae forms round or oval swellings, the tooth
buds, which grow into the mesenchyme

The tooth buds develop into the deciduous or milk teeth (shed during childhood). There are 10
tooth buds in each jaw, one for each tooth

The tooth buds for the permanent teeth, with deciduous predecessors, are seen in the 10-week
fetus, developing from deeper continuations of the dental lamin They lie on the tongue or lingual
side of the deciduous buds

Tooth buds for the permanent teeth appear at different ages during the fetal period except for
the second and third permanent molars, which appear after birth, at about 4 months and 5
years, respectively

The permanent molars with no deciduous predecessors develop as buds from backward
extensions of the dental laminae

Cap stage of development: the deep surface of each ectodermal tooth bud becomes
invaginated by mesenchyme called the dental papilla, which gives rise to the dentin and dental
pulp. The ectodermal, cap-shaped covering over the papilla is called an enamel organ since it
will produce the future enamel of the tooth

The outer cellular layer of the ectodermal enamel organ is called the outer enamel epithelium;
the inner layer lining the "cap" is the inner enamel epithelium

The cell region between the above layers forms the core or bulk of the cap and is called the
stellate or enamel reticulum

As the enamel organ and dental papilla form, the surrounding mesenchyme condenses as the
dental sac, which later forms the cementum and periodontal ligament

The bell stage: with invagination of the enamel organ, the tooth assumes a bell shape

The mesenchymal cells in the dental papilla, adjacent to the inner enamel epithelium,
differentiate into odontoblasts, which produce predentin, and deposit it adjacent to the inner
enamel epithelium. The predentin later calcifies to form dentin

As the dentin thickens, the odontoblasts regress toward the center of the dental papilla but
odontoblastic processes remain embedded in the dentin and are called Tomes' dentinal fibers
or processes

Cells of the inner enamel epithelium near the dentin form ameloblasts, which produce enamel in
the form of prisms or rods over the dentin layer, thus help form the outer layer of the tooth or the
crown. As enamel increases, the ameloblasts regress

Thus, both enamel and dentin help create the crown, which begins formation at the cusp or tip
of the tooth and progresses, in development, to the future root

The root begins after the enamel and dentin are well along in development

The inner and outer enamel epithelia come together in the neck region and form an epithelial
fold, the epithelial root sheath, which grows into the mesenchyme and begins the formation of
the root

The odontoblasts near the sheath form the dentin (continuous with that of the crown). As the
dentin increases, the pulp cavity gets smaller and becomes a narrow canal for the vessels and
nerves to enter the root

The inner cells of the dental sac form cementoblasts which produce cementum, which is
deposited over the root dentin and meets the enamel at the neck of the tooth

As the teeth develop, the jaws ossify and the outer cells of the dental sac also become active in
bone formation. Each tooth is soon surrounded by bone, except at its crown, and is held in its
bony socket or alveolus by the periodontal ligament.
Questions:

1. Make a timeline on the events in the development of the integumentary system.

2. What are the components of the integumentary system?

3. What determines the color of skin?

4. Describe the structure and composition of cells.

5. Describe how the cells change as they develop into the different layers of the epidermis.

6.Why is the skin considered the largest organ of the body?