NATURE OF LITERATURE (Words bridge the author and its readers)
writers used language connotatively.
 Literature is the expression of human’s
feelings, ideas, imaginations, thoughts,
experiences, and emotions.
 Literature can be expressed by
language, both oral and written. In
other word, the medium of literature is
language.
 Literature is the product of language.
 Literature is different from scientific
work.
 Literature can be defined as an
expression of human feelings, thoughts,
and ideas whose medium is language,
oral and written.
 Literature is not only about human
ideas, thoughts, andfeelingsbut also
about experiences of the authors.
 Literature can be mediumfor human to
communicate what they
feel,think,experience to the readers.   Literature is Expressive. It expresses
FUNCTIONS OF LITERATURE
To Delight
1. It gives pleasure, enjoyment
and emotion through the
author’s use of language and
his craftsmanship.
To Instruct
2. Describes, interprets and expresses the
life of society.
SALIENT FEATURES OR ELEMENTS OF
LITERATURE
 Literature is Language
Literature is Aesthetic
Literature is Fictional
- This is lack of factuality and is strengthened
further by the writer’s artistic control in the
literary work or creation.
 Literature is TRUE.
 Literature is true to us if:
 Interprets the real world, even
when it distorts, ignore or alter
fact .e.g. fables and fairytales
are fantastic yet, the lesson
learned from these are of true
or humane condition.
 It helps us become aware of the
author’s interpretation, a
theory or world-view of how
the real world works.
the writer’s personality, emotions, and
beliefs, no matter how they try to
reduce their presence.
 Literature is affective. Because of its
ability to create an emotional response
to the readers.
DIVISIONS OF LITERATURE
PROSE POETRY
FORM Written in Written in stanza or
paragraph verse form
form
LANGUAGE Expressed Expressed in
in ordinary figurative language 
Form

APPEAL To the To the emotion
intellect
AIM To Stir the imagination
convince  and set an idea how
life should be.
                                 
TYPES OF PROSE:
 Prose Drama – a drama in prose form. It
consists entirely dialogues in prose, and
is meant to be act on stage.
 Essay – a short literary composition
which is expository in nature. The
author shares his thoughts feelings,
experiences, or observations on some
aspects of life that has interested him.
 Prose Fiction – something invented,
imagined, or feigned to be true)
 Novel – a long fiction narrative with a
complicated plot. It may have one main
plot and one or more sub plots that
develop with the main plot. It is made
up of chapters.
 Short Story – a fictitious narrative
compressed into one unit of time, place
and action. It deals with single
character interest, a single emotion or
series of emotions called forth by a
single. It is distinguished from the novel
by its compression.
 Biography and Autobiography
Biography – a story of a certain person’s
life written by another who knows the subject
well.
Autobiography – a written account of
man’s life written by himself.
 Letter – a written message which
displays aspects of an author’s
physiological make-up not immediately
apparent in his more public writings. It
is a prose form which by the force of its
style and the importance of its
statements becomes an object of
interest in its own right.
 Diary – a daily written record of account
of the writer’s own experiences,
thoughts, activities or observations.
 Journal – a magazine or periodical
especially of serious or learned nature.
It is the reflection, opinion of a reading
material.
TYPES OF POETRY:
 Narrative Poetry – a poem that tells a
story.
 Epic – a long narrative poem of the
largest proportions. Epic is a tale mainly
about a hero concerning the beginning,
continuance, and the end of events of
great significance on tribal or national
significance.
 Metrical Poem – a narrative poem that
tells a story of adventure, love and
chivalry. The Typical hero is a knight on
a quest.
 Metrical Tale – a narrative poem
consisting usually a single series
connective events that are simple, and
generally do not form a plot. Examples
of these are simple idylls or home tales,
love tales, tales of the supernatural or
tales written for a strong moral purpose
in verse form.
 Ballad – the simplest type of narrative
poetry. It is s short narrative poem
telling a single incident in simple meter
and stanzas. It is meant to be sung.
 Popular ballad – a ballad of wide
workman ship telling some simple
incidents of adventure, cruelty, passion,
or superstition, an incident that shows
the primary instincts of man influenced
by the restraint of modern civilization.
 Modern or artistic – created by poet in
imitation of the folk ballad, makes use
of many of its devices and conventions.
 Metrical Allegory – an extended
narrative that carries a second meaning
along worth the surface story.
 Lyric Poetry – a poem that is very
personal in nature. It expresses the
author’s own thoughts, feelings, moods
and reflections in musical language. It
derived its name from the musical
instrument, the lyre.
 Ode – a lyric poem of some length,
serious in subject and dignified in style.
It is most majestic of the lyric poems. It
is written in a spirit of praise of some
persons or things.
 Elegy – a poem written on the death of
a friend of the poet. The ostensible
purpose is to praise the friend. But in
the end of the poem, however, we can
expect that poet will have come to
terms with his grief.
 Song – a lyric poem in a regular metrical
pattern set to music. These have twelve
syllables and slowly sung to the
accompaniment of a guitar or banduria.
 Sonnet – a lyric poem containing four
iambic pentameter lines, and a
complicated rhyme.
INTRODUCTION TO WORLD LITERATURE
MESOPOTAMIAN LITERATURE:
• Mesopotamia means = “land between
the rivers”
– Tigris River and Euphrates River
• Both rivers flooded once a year and left
thick bed of silt.
– Silt: rich, new soil farmers could
plant and harvest enormous
quantities of wheat and barley
THE SUMERIANS WERE THE
FIRST TO SETTLE IN THE
MESOPOTAMIA
SUMERIANS LIVED IN CITY-
STATES BUILT AROUND
ZIGGURATS
CULTURE:
SUMERIAN created beautiful stone and metal
work sculpture, the twelve month calendar, and
the first writing system called CUNIFORM.
POLITICS:
Power of the Priests
• Sumer’s earliest governments were
controlled by temple priests
– Farmers believed they needed
blessings for success of their
crops
– Priests were the middle man for
the Gods
 – Priests demanded portion of
farmer crops as tax
ECONOMY:
• Metal tools and weapons (bronze, iron)
• Increasing agricultural surplus (better tools,
plows, irrigation)
• Increasing trade along rivers – traded with
Egypt
• Development of the world’s first cities
• Specialization of labor (perform specific task
or roles)
RELIGION:
• Polytheistic: Belief in Many Gods
(3,000!!!)
• Gods could be angered at any moment
and to keep them happy Sumerians:
– Built impressive ziggurats or
temples to sacrifice food, wine
and animals
– Souls of the dead wandered in
the land of no return
SOCIETY:
Kings and Priest, Wealthy Merchants, Ordinary
Sumerian people, and Slaves
WOMEN: could hold property and join lower
ranks of priesthood.
LITERATURE:
Epic of Gilgamesh
• Myths and legends recorded in this long
poem
• One of the earliest works of literature in
the world
ACHIEVEMENTS:
Science and Technology
• Invented the wheel, the sail, the plow
• First to use bronze.
• Developed system of writing
• Built irrigation systems, buildings,
surveyed flooded fields.
THE RISE, REBIRTH AND FALL OF BABYLON
 IN 200O BC BABYLONIANS CAME AND
OVERPOWERED THE SUMERIANS
 THEIR RULER WAS HAMMURABI AND
HE IS FAMOUS FOR THE CODE OF
HAMMURABI
 THE MOST COMMON MESSAGE WAS
“AN EYE FOR EYE AND A TOOTH FOR A
TOOTH”
 BABYLOIANS OVERTHREW THE
ASSYRIANS AND HAD A NEW RULER
NAME NEBUCHADNEZZER WHO IS
FAMOUS FOR THE HANGING GARDENS
 BABYLON FELL TO CYRUS THE GREAT
OF PERSIA IN 539 BUT BABYLON STILL
REMAIN THE CENTER OF TRADE AND
CULTURE
EGYPTIAN LITERATURE
Ancient Egypt is one of the most powerful
civilizations the world has ever known.
 Egypt was called the “gift of the Nile”
 The Nile provided water and fertile soil
for growing crops
  Papyrus is what made Egypt a stable • Egyptians even wrote a book that was
civilization. Papyrus is an early form of called the “Book of the Dead”. It was a
paper.. Also created by the Nile River guide to the afterlife.

 Egyptian was prosperous for more than • Egyptians also began a love for poetry.
twenty-seven centuries. The greatest Especially pastoral poetry-displays
years were divided into three eras or everyday life in pleasant terms
Kingdoms:
HIEROGLYPHIC CATEGORIES
• Old • Famous
Kingdom Pyramids 1. Alphabetic signs represent a single
(2700- • Highest Level of sound. Unfortunately the Egyptians
2200 Sophistication took most vowels for granted and did
not represent such as 'e' or 'v'. So we
• Middle • Expanding may never know how the words were
Kingdom Economy
formed. 
(2000- • PoliticalPower
1800 2. Syllabic signs represent a combination
of two or three consonants.
• New • The pinnacle of
Kingdom political power 3. Word-signs are pictures of objects used
(1600- • Known for lyric
as the words for those objects.  
1100 love poems
4. A determinative is a picture of an object
which helps the reader.
“Pyramid Power”
Religion was a part of daily life… HEBREW LITERATURE
Pharaoh was both a political and spiritual
leader The Hebrew people were wanderers who
created a rich culture based on their religious
Pharaoh; a single powerful ruler, Priests and beliefs
Scribes, Merchants and Professionals, and
Workers, Peasants, and Slaves which is the  The Hebrew were monotheists-
largest class worshipping one God (Yahweh)

EGYPTIAN LITERATURE:  Their beliefs were recorded in a the

• Egyptians also had a form of writing
called hieroglyphs.Hieroglyphs is a
script in which pictures represent ideas
• Because everything that Egyptians did
was based on religious belief they
constantly thought of the afterlife
Hebrew Bible (Old Testament)
 The Hebrew Bible is considered the
GREAT monument left by the ancient
Hebrews
THE EARLY HEBREW PATRIARCHS
 Abraham was the founding father and
his wife’s name was Sarah
 Hebrews lived in Canaan for, four
generations… SON Isaac and his
GRANDSON Jacob
 Jacob’s name was changed to Israel and
his people became the Israelites
Hebrew Literature
“Hebrew Family Drama”
 Jacob’s (Abraham’s grandson) son
Joseph was sold into slavery by his
brothers
 Joseph won favor with the Pharaoh and
saved his family from starvation
 The Israelites were enslaved by
Pharaoh and then later set free by
Moses. The Israelites were so large they
created tribes
 Moses heard from Yahweh and created
the Ten Commandments which is the
code of moral conduct
 Moses died in the desert and his
follower Joshua led Israelites to Canaan
Hebrew Literature
The Promised Land, Peace and Stability
 The first King was Saul; under his rule
the Israelites became a powerful group
in Canaan
 After Saul was David and the Israelites
were very successful and peaceful
 David captured the Jebusites and made
Jerusalem the capital city
 David’s son Solomon built the Temple
of Jerusalem an important symbol of
spiritual unity
Hebrew Literature
Conflict… Division… Exile
 Once Solomon died there was
confusion in the twelve tribes. The
tribes divided into two kingdoms but
still thought of themselves as one
spiritual body
 The Assyrians came and conquered
Israel; the tribes dispersed and are now
referred to as the “Ten Lost Tribes”
 King Nebuchadnezzar conquered Judah,
destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem and
took the Hebrews into slavery. Creating
the most bitter periods in Hebrew
history; “Babylonian Exile”
 Cyrus the Great came and freed the
slaves, they returned to Jerusalem and
rebuilt everything that was destroyed.
Their belief stayed strong
Hebrew Literature
The Hebrew Identity
• The Jews always saw God as their
source of unity. They believed that God
provided a special agreement
(covenant) with them
• The terms of the covenant were God
would always protect them. Even when
they lost their homeland; they found a
sense of belonging in their relationship
with Yahweh
ELEMENTS OF POETRY
 1. Rhythm - the music made by the x x / x x /
statements of the poem, which includes
the syllables in the lines. Did you faint in the spurt

-Robins, “The Best”

2. Meter - basic structural make-up of the
poem. Meter is the measured pattern
or grouping of syllables, called metric
foot, according to accent and length.
According to the placement of accent, there is
a variety of a pattern or feet of which the four
basics are.
c. Trochus
 The Trochaic foot consists of an
accented syllable followed by an
unaccented syllable. ( / x )
Ex.

 The Iamb ( Iambic foot ) / x /x / x

 The Anapest ( Anapestic foot ) Up the airy mountain

 The Trochus ( Trochaic foot ) / x / x /

 The Dactyl ( Dactylic foot ) Down the rushy glen

IAMB -Allingham, “The Fairies”

 The Iambic foot consists of an d. Dactyl

unaccented syllable followed by an
 The Dactylic foot consists of an
accented syllable ( X / )
accented syllable followed by two
Ex. unaccented syllables. ( / x x )

x / x / x / x / x / Ex.

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. / x x / x x /x x / x x / x x /

-Gray,
“Elegy in a Country Churchyard”
b. Anapest
 The Anapestic foot consists of two
unaccented syllables followed by an
accented syllable. ( X X / )
Ex.
x
This is the forest primeval, the murmuring pines
and the hemlocks.
-Longfellow, “Evangeline”
3. Stanza - defined as a smaller unit or group of
lines or a paragraph in a poem. A particular
stanza has a specific meter, rhyme scheme, etc.

x x / x x / Based on the number of lines, stanzas

are named as couplet (2 lines), Tercet (3 lines),
Did you fall in the race?
Quatrain (4 lines), Cinquain (5 lines), Sestet (6
lines), Septet (7 lines), Octave (8 lines).
4. Rhyme – it means that the last words or
sounds of the lines match with each other in
some form.
5. Rhyme Scheme - defined as the pattern of
rhyme.
Either the last words of the first and
second lines rhyme with each other, or the first
and the third, second and the fourth and so on.
It is denoted by alphabets like aabb (1st line
rhyming with 2nd, 3rd with 4th); abab (1st with
3rd, 2nd with 4th); abba (1st with 4th, 2nd with
3rd), etc. 
6. Figurative Language – these are the words
added to the poem to make it more meaningful.
BASIC FIGURE OF SPEECH:
 Simile
 ---A figure of speech in which two
fundamentally unlike things are
explicitly compared, usually in a phrase
introduced by like or as.
 Examples:
 Life is like roller coaster.
 Your love is like sun.
 Metaphor
 -- A figure of speech in which an implied
comparison is made between two
unlike things that actually have
something in common. 
 Examples:
 Love is a rose.
 The Lord is my Shepherd.
 Personification
 --A figure of speech in which an
inanimate object or abstraction is given
human qualities or traits.
 Examples:
 The bamboo tree is dancing gracefully.
 The wind stood up and gave a shout.
 Hyperbole
 --A figure of speech in which
exaggeration is used for emphasis or
effect.
 Examples:
 It’s raining cats and dogs.
 A man can run faster than jet plane.
 Irony
 --The use of words to convey the
opposite of their literal meaning; a
statement or situation where the
meaning is contradicted by the
appearance or presentation of the idea.
 Example:
 Gentlemen, you can't fight in here! This
is the War Room.
 7. Theme - is the central idea that the
poet wants to convey.
 8. Symbolism - poems will convey ideas
and thoughts using symbols.
 9. Imagery - is used by the poet for
readers to create an image in their
 imagination. Imagery appeals to all the • Weather conditions – is it rainy, sunny,
five senses. stormy, etc.?

Elements of Short Story • Social conditions – what is the daily life

of the characters like? Does the story
Five Elements of Short Story contain colour?
• Character • Mood or atmosphere – what feeling is
• Setting created at the beginning of the story? Is
it bright and cheerful or dark and
• Plot frightening?

• Conflict Plot

• Theme – A plot is a series of events and

character actions that relate to
Character
the central conflict.
– A character is a person, or
– Literary term used to describe
sometimes even an animal,
the events that make up a story
who takes part in the action of
or the main part of the story
a short story or other literary
work. • Exposition or Introduction

– protagonist - known as the beginning of the story

where characters and setting are established;
– antagonist
conflict or main problem is introduced as well
Setting
• Rising Action
– The setting of a short story is
- where the events in the story become
the time and place in which it
complicated and the conflict in the story is
happens. Authors often use
revealed
descriptions of landscape,
scenery, buildings, seasons or • Climax
weather to provide a strong
sense of setting - the main point or the turning point of
the story and is meant to be the moment of
Several aspects of a story’s setting to consider highest interest and emotion
when examining how setting contributes to a
story: • Falling Action

• Place – geographical location. Where - events and complications begin to

the action of the story isis taking place? resolve and result of actions of the main
characters are put forward
• Time – when is the story is taking place?
• Resolution or Denouement
 - the end of the story and ends with
either a happy of tragic ending

Conflict

• The conflict is a struggle between two

people or things in a short story. The
main character is usually on one side of
the central conflict.

• On the other side, the main character

may struggle against another important
character, against the forces of nature,
against society, or even against
something inside himself or herself
(feelings, emotions, illness).

There are four kinds of Conflict:

1. Man vs. Man – the leading character

struggles with his physical strength
against other men, forces of nature or
animals.

2. Man vs. Circumstances – the leading

struggles against fate, or circumstances
of life facing him/her

3. 3. Man vs. Society – the leading

character struggles against ideas,
practices, or customs of other
people

4. 4. Man vs. Himself – struggles with

himself/herself; with his/her
own soul, ideas of right or wrong,
physical limitations, choices

Theme

– The theme is the central idea or

belief in a short story; it is the
author’s underlying meaning or
main idea that he is trying to
convey