ERIKSON’S  FREUD’S  KOHLBERG’S 
AGE GROUP  PIAGET’S COGNITIVE  HAVIGHURST’S TASKS 
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL  PSYCHOSEXUAL  MORAL 

 
Sensorimotor 
 
- primary circular reaction, 
  Trust vs. Mistrust  Oral  Preconvention
object permanence, 
Infant  al 
intentional behaviour,  learning  to  walk,  learning  to  take  solid 
 
representation, solitary play  foods,  learning  to  talk,  learning  to 
- obedience 
control  the elimination of body wastes, 
  Autonomy vs.  and 
Toddler  Anal  learning  sex  differences  and  sexual 
Preoperational  Shame/Doubt  punishment 
modesty,  forming  concepts  and 
- symbolic play, mental  orientation 
learning  language  to  describe  social 
imaging, language   
and  physical  reality,  and  getting  ready 
- self-interest 
acquisition, imitation,  Phallic  to read 
centration, egocentrism,  orientation 
- Oedipus, Electra & 
Preschooler  Initiative vs. Guilt   
irreversibility, parallel &  castration complex, 
associative play  penis envy 
 
 
 
learning  physical  skills  necessary  for 
ordinary  games,  building  wholesome 
attitudes  toward  oneself  as  a  growing 
Conventional  organism,  learning  to  get  along  with 
  age-mates,  learning  an  appropriate 
Concrete Operational 
- social  masculine  or  feminine  social  role, 
- decentration, conservation, 
Elementary  conformity  developing  fundamental  skills  in 
hierarchical classification,  Industry vs. Inferiority  Latency 
Child    reading,  writing,  and  calculating, 
reversibility, competitive 
- authority  developing  concepts  necessary  for 
play 
orientation  everyday  living,  developing 
  conscience,  morality,  and  a  scale  of 
values,  achieving  personal 
independence,  developing  attitudes 
toward social groups and institutions 
 
  
 
 
 
achieving  new  and  more  mature 
Post 
relations  with  age-mates  of both sexes, 
Conventional 
achieving  a  masculine  or  feminine 
 
social  role,  accepting  one's  physique 
- social 
and  using  the  body  effectively, 
contract 
Formal Operational  achieving  emotional  independence  of 
Identity vs. Role  orientation 
Adolescent  -abstract, reflective& logical  Genital  parents  and  other adults, preparing for 
Confusion   
thinking  marriage  and  family  life,  preparing  for 
- universal 
an  economic  career,  acquiring  a  set  of 
ethical 
values  and  an  ethical  system as a guide 
principles 
to  behavior;  developing  an  ideology, 
 
desiring  and  achieving  socially 
 
responsible behaviour 
 

  selecting a mate, achieving a masculine 
  or  feminine  social  role,  learning  to  live 
  with  a  marriage  partner,  starting  a 
  family,  rearing  children,  managing  a 
Early Adult  Intimacy vs. Isolation   
  home,  getting  started  in  an 
  occupation,  taking  on  civic 
  responsibility,  finding  a  congenial 
  social group 

 
 assisting  teen-age  children  to  become 
responsible  and  happy  adults, 
achieving  adult  social  and  civic 
responsibility,  reaching  and 
maintaining  satisfactory  performance 
Productivity vs  in  one's  occupational  career  , 
Middle Adult     
Stagnation  developing  adult  leisure-time 
activities,  relating  oneself  to  one's 
spouse  as  a  person,  to  accept  and 
adjust  to  the  physiological  changes  of 
middle age, adjusting to aging parents 
 

 
adjusting  to  decreasing  physical 
strength  and  health,  adjustment  to 
retirement  and  reduced  income, 
adjusting  to  death  of  a  spouse, 
Late Adult  Integrity vs. Despair      establishing  an  explicit  affiliation  with 
one's  age  group,  adopting  and 
adapting  social  roles  in  a  flexible  way, 
establishing  satisfactory  physical living 
arrangements 
 
 
Other Concepts: 
● Metacognition 
● Transfer of Learning (positive, negative, near, far) 
Conditions/Factors affecting Transfer of Learning  Principle of Transfer  Implication 
Similarity between two learning  The more similar the two situations are, the  Involve students in learning situations and tasks 
greater the chances that learning from one  that are similar as possible to the situations where 
situation will be transferred to the other situation.  they would apply the tasks. 
Degree of Meaningfulness/ Relevance of Learning  Meaningful learning leads to greater transfer than  Remember to provide opportunities for learners 
rote learning.  to link new material to what they learned in the 
past. 
Length of Instructional Time  The longer the time spent in instruction, the  To ensure transfer, teach a few topics in depth 
greater the probability of transfer.  rather than many topics tackled in shallow 
manner. 
Variety of Learning Experiences  Exposure to many and varied examples and  Illustrate new concepts and principles with a 
opportunities for practice to encourage transfer.  variety of examples. Plan activities that allow your 
learners to practice their newly learned skills. 
Context for Learner’s Experiences  Transfer of learning is most likely to happen when  Relate topic in one subject to topics in other 
learners discover that what they learned is  subjects or disciplines. Relate it also to real life 
applicable to various contexts.  situations.  
Focus on principles rather than facts  Principles transfer easier than facts  Zero in on principles related to each topic 
together with strategies based on those principles. 
Emphasis on metacognition  Student reflection improves transfer of learning  Encourage students to take responsibility for their 
own learning, and to reflect on what they learned. 
 

● Motivation (extrinsic vs. intrinsic) 

Theories: Attribution, Self-Efficacy, Choice, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, Goal