Process Engineering
Hydraulic Pressing
of Advanced Ceramics
Abstract
Uniaxial hydraulic pressing is the
most common shaping technology
for ceramic products. However,
when production technologies for
new advanced ceramic products
with high quality requirements are
discussed, in most cases this tech-
nology is considered to be only sec-
ond choice. Other technologies like
isostatic pressing, injection mould-
ing, pressure casting, tape casting
etc. seem to provide better quality
products, even if they are more
expensive, have much lower pro-
duction capacities or are limited in
other factors.
The paper describes new possibilities
for shaping of advanced ceramic
products with a wide variety of
dimensions and aspect ratios and
high quality requirements. Recent
developments in pressing technolo-
gies are shown and results of press-
ing tests for advanced ceramics are
presented which demonstrate that
highest quality can be achieved
using uniaxial hydraulic presses.
Finally, a selection of application
examples is given, indicating
advanced ceramic products already
hydraulically pressed in industrial
scale.
Introduction
Hydraulic pressing is a well known
and widespread technology for
shaping of ceramics [1 - 4]. Especial-
ly for the production of "classic"
ceramics like silicate ceramics (floor
and wall tiles, facing elements etc.),
for all types of refractories (even if
many of them nowadays have to be
regarded as "advanced ceramics")
and for many types of kiln furniture
the uniaxial hydraulic pressing ist the
mostly used shaping technology.
Also technical ceramic products (in
this paper "technical ceramic" will be
referred to as ceramic produced
mainly from synthetic powders,
either oxide or non-oxide) are made
already using hydraulic pressing. But
up to now this has been limited to
smaller sizes with additional restric-
tions regarding the complexity of
the specimen and their aspect ratio.
Main advantages of uniaxial
hydraulic pressing technology are:
cfi/Ber. DKG 84 (2007) No. 6
• possibility of „dry“ pressing
• low binder content
• high throughput capacities
• moderate investment costs.
On the other hand, there have been
also some limitation factors for uni-
axial hydraulic pressing of advanced
ceramics reported in the past,
namely:
• only simple geometries possible
• limited dimensions of the speci-
mens to be pressed
• comparably high variations in the
green density; especially from top
to bottom (3...10 % variation are
reported)
• limited dimensional accuracy, e.g.
thickness variations in the range of
± 10 %.
When it comes to set up a produc-
tion technology for high quality
technical ceramic products, thus
very often uniaxial hydraulic press-
ing is not at all discussed as a real
alternative for shaping in competi-
tion to isostatic pressing (cold and
hot), injection moulding, slip cast-
ing, pressure casting, extrusion,
injection moulding, tape casting etc.
[5 - 10].
However, in the last decade many
advances have been made in
hydraulic pressing technology which
allow to overcome the above men-
tioned limitations and open up com-
pletely new fields for advanced
ceramics production [11 - 14]. In the
following some aspects of improve-
ments made in hydraulic pressing
technology are reported, some char-
acteristic data of samples obtained
using this advanced technology are
given and examples of new applica-
tions resulting thereof are shown.
Recent Improvements in
Hydraulic Pressing
Technology
Quality requirements are increasing
constantly for practically all types of
shaped ceramic products. Thus it
has become necessary to improve
also the performance of presses per-
manently. Laeis GmbH, being one of
the leading supplier of high duty
hydraulic presses especially for
refractories, but also for many other
industries, made numerous contri-
butions to define a new level of
state-of-the-art pressing technology.
Alfred Kaiser
LAEIS GmbH
kaiser@laeis-
gmbh.com
Advanced Hydraulics and
Electric Control Systems
Naturally one of the most important
elements of hydraulic presses is the
hydraulic system. High pressing
forces have to be combined with fast
action, but also with high precision.
Energy consumption has to be kept
at a minimum, service and mainte-
nance intervals extended to a maxi-
mum. Increasing importance is also
given to reduction of environmental
or working place impact, especially
the reduction of the noise level.
The new generation of hydraulic sys-
tems for the HPF presses offers the
following features (among others):
• scalable hydraulic units having the
same design pattern
• regulated axial piston pumps for
an effective energy utilization
• proportional valves for an opti-
mum regulation of all cylinders
• separate filtering and cooling cir-
cuit for a constant good oil quality
and cleanliness
• valve blocks in special design,
arranged close to the energy con-
sumers; resulting in short reaction
times
• auxiliary cylinders, moving the
press plunger quickly and precise-
ly thus reducing dead times
• sealed and pressurized hydraulic
system for utmost oil cleanliness
and improved service life
• encapsulated power unit with
noise insulation, reducing the
noise level to < 80 dBA (Fig. 1)
• flexible positioning of the power
unit, possible on both sides of the
press and at different height levels. Fig. 1
Hydraulic power
Besides the performance of the unit in modular
hydraulic system and the precision design
E 27
Process Engineering
Fig.2 Graphic display; control panel
Fig. 3 Pressing regime of the mechanical parts also the con-
trol system to a great extend con-
tributes to the overall quality of a
hydraulic press. Laeis press control
systems are based on Simatic S7 PLC
and an industrial panel PC with stan-
dard basic software (e.g. WIN 2000).
Siemens EB32 Motion controllers are
used for closed loop control of all
axes. Main advantages of closed
loop control are:
• very precise approach of the point
of destination, independent of
load, oil viscosity and press mater-
ial compactibility
Fig. 4
Density distribution
(vacuum)
E 28
• simple operation, no need for
manual setting of slow speed and
deceleration distance
• very accurate repetitive move-
ment, maintaining an optimum
product quality over the complete
production time
• reduction of cycle time.
Internal connections are realized
with Profibus as a worldwide stan-
dardized system. The bus system
allows to replace extensive parallel
cabling by one single bus cable and
reduces the switch cabinet size by
about 30 %. Comprehensive diag-
nosis options of the bus system allow
for short commissioning times and
improved plant availability. In case of
service needs, complete bus mod-
ules can be replaced without discon-
necting a single line or screw.
Hardware and software, both in
modular design, provide for a totally
integrated automation with intrinsic
communication features. Connec-
tions to process host control systems
can be provided easily as well as pro-
duction data storage for quality con-
trol and documentation.
Even very special features like an
e-mail function from the press to a
preselected address or to a mobile
phone are possible. The control sys-
tem can be scaled depending on the
requirements of the individual
process, according to customers
request.
A specially developed, window
based application software ("ProVi-
Control") allows a product oriented
entry of data. Thus, setting of pro-
duction parameters is possible with-
out knowledge of the internal
machine functions, just by entry of
product specific parameters. An
intelligent control minimizes the
number of input parameters. Thanks
to windows technology (Fig. 2) the
operator interface has a clear process
oriented structure, easy to under-
stand. The design of the windows is
highly graphic oriented with very lit-
tle wording and standardized sym-
bols. New pressing programs are
established quickly using the inte-
grated copy function, the storage
capacity is limited only by the capac-
ity of the hard drive.
The pressing regime controls the
end of the pressing stroke either by
reaching a predefined "nominal"
product thickness or by reaching a
nominal final pressure or by a com-
bination of both (whatever comes
first). Always superimposed is a "tol-
erance window" for accepted upper
and lower limits for pressure and
thickness (Fig. 3). Depending on the
defined pressing regime the press
control tries to compensate for
changes in the material bulk density
or compactibility, e.g by modifying
the pressure or adjusting the filling
height, as long as this is possible
within the given tolerances.
In order to achieve an optimum
product quality, the setup allows to
adjust many parameters in a wide
range, e.g.:
• mould filling box movement
• punch entry speed
• speed ratio upper punch / mould
frame
• pressure increase curve
• pressure holding time
• de-aeration strokes
• ejection speed
• and many others.
Vacuum Technology
Pressing of powders or granulated
material in dry, semi-wet or wet con-
dition often results in microstructure
inhomogeneities, uneven density
distribution and/or formation of lay-
ers, even when de-aeration strokes
are applied. These effects are mainly
caused by entrapped air, due to
insufficient release of the air before
and during compaction.
A well proven solution for this prob-
lem is the vacuum pressing technol-
ogy, where the air inside the materi-
al is removed to a certain (selectable)
level before the compaction starts.
With this technology, additional de-
airing cycles and slow pressing
speeds can be reduced. A recently
designed, new economic vacuum
pressing system reduces the volume
to be evacuated to a minimum, thus
enabling a very short evacuation
time of about 2...4 s and reducing
the energy consumption of the vac-
uum pump. A pre-evacuation con-
tainer additionally shortens the
pressing cycle. The evacuation can
take place via upper and lower die or
cfi/Ber. DKG 84 (2007) No. 6

via upper die only, depending on
material characteristics and product
dimensions.
Resulting advantages of vacuum
pressing technology are the avoid-
ance of lamination, a higher green
density and an even density distribu-
tion of the product (Fig. 4) as well as
an improved productivity thanks to
the reduced cycle time. Several
materials and product dimensions
can be realized only with vacuum
technology, whereas conventional
pressing technology, even with mul-
tiple de-aeration strokes, leads to the
destruction of the pressed body after
release of the pressure (Fig. 5). In
special cases it can be advantageous
to combine vacuum technology
with backstrokes of the die (which in
this case are no longer de-aeration
strokes).
Vacuum pressing technology is espe-
cially recommended for:
• granulates with a high densifica-
tion factor (i.e. mixtures having a
low bulk density before pressing
and/or reaching a high green den-
sity (low residual porosity) after
pressing
• extremly fine granulates, e.g. very
fine spray dried material for tech-
nical ceramics
• not granulated highly dispersed
powders which for conventional
pressing technology would have to
be granulated
• product geometries with large vol-
ume or with high aspect ratios
(thin plates, rods etc.), where the
air needs to move a long distance
to the gap between die and mold
frame
• mixtures with higher plasticity,
which are pressed with higher con-
tent of water or other liquid
binders.
It has to be mentioned, that the
application of vacuum technology
requires special care in design and
fabrication of the moulds to be used.
Moulds and
Mould Filling Systems
When the quality of pressed ceramic
products is discussed, especially with
respect to thickness variation or den-
sity distribution, it is essential to con-
sider also the mould filling process.
The best pressing technology can
not overcome major inhomo-
geneities in the material distribution
after mould filling (except when the
press body has a sufficient plastic
behavior, which is not the case for
most technical ceramic products). In
order to achieve a good homogene-
cfi/Ber. DKG 84 (2007) No. 6
Process Engineering
ity of the material distribution in the
mould, an adequate material prepa-
ration process must be ensured. This
process has to provide for minimal
variations of the bulk density of the
body (both within one mould filling
or from filling to filling) and for a
good (and constant) flowing behav-
ior.
equipped with vacuum technology Fig. 5 Al2O3 sample
This pre-requirement being fulfilled, pressed without
(Fig. 6). As material for these tests a
the mould filling step itself has to be and with vacuum
reactive alumina powder CT3000
adapted according to the individual
with 99,7 % Al2O3 (Almatis,D) was
requirements of each process.
used, which was spray dried at the
Therefore, various modifications of
LAEIS test center Alpha Ceramics in
mould filling systems have been
Aachen. The binder system with the
developed. Basically, it can be distin-
main components acrylate and wax
guished between volumetric and
had been developed for other appli-
gravimetric filling systems. Gravi-
cations and was not optimized for
metric systems normally have a high
this special task. The binder content
weighing accuracy and result in
was in the range of 2 mass %. The
small variations of the weight of the
powder was dry pressed to round
pressed specimen, but are difficult
discs in a single cavity steel mould,
for automation. Volumetric filling
diameter 193 mm. No specific mea-
systems on the other hand can easi-
sures were taken with respect to sur-
ly be automated, but the weight
face treatment (polishing etc.) of the
accuracy depends on material char-
dies. Discs with various thicknesses
acteristics. For most of the applica-
were pressed under various pres-
tions the accuracy of volumetric fill-
sures, using the same mould with
ing systems is sufficient, but some-
various filling heights (Fig. 7).
times gravimetric systems or even
The mould was filled volumetrically.
special filling systems have to be
Densification took place after evacu-
used. Such special systems can be
ation of the mould to a residual
external filling templates, which are
atmospheric pressure of < 50 mbar.
filled gravimetrically or volumetrical-
After pressing, the disc was ejected
ly and are then transferred to the
mould (e.g. vacuum assisted). Other
possibilities are filling systems with Fig. 6
double layer options. It has to be ALPHA 800 press
mentioned, that the higher the
required accuracy and complexity of
the filling system, the more the nec-
essary cycle time will be extended.
The further downstream production
steps, especially the drying and fir-
ing process, will of course also con-
tribute to the quality of the final
product. However, this is valid for all
different types of shaping and there-
fore these process steps are not
looked at here. The following Fig. 7
Pressed alumina
description of sample properties will plates of various
concentrate on properties of green thicknesses
samples.
Properties of Technical
Ceramic Samples
Obtained by Uniaxial
Hydraulic Pressing
Technology
Experimental Procedure
In order to demonstrate the possibil-
ities of state-of-the-art hydraulic
pressing technology, a series of
specimen have been pressed on a
LAEIS press type ALPHA 800
E 29
Process Engineering
automatically and removed from the
mould manually.
Green Strength
The plates could be removed from
the mould after pressing without any
problems. Even thin plates with 1
mm thickness could be handled
without destruction (Fig. 8), even
though the binder system was not
optimized. If no vacuum was
Tab. 1 Linear
springback effect
depending on fill- Tab. 2 Thickness and density variation of green alumina plates
ing height and
applied pressure applied, however, the plates were
destroyed immediately after releas-
ing the pressure (Fig. 9).
Dimensional Accuracy, Densi-
ty and Density Distribution
After pressing and ejection from the
mould cavity, the plates underwent a
springback in diameter (re-expan-
sion of the material), depending on
the plate thickness and on the
applied pressure (Tab. 1). A spring-
back in vertical direction was pre-
vented by ejection under load. The
green plates showed a very high
dimensional accuracy. Variations in
green plate thicknesses are shown in
Tab. 2.
The average values and standard
deviations given for each set of filling
height and densification pressure
represent a collective of 4-10 plates
pressed under the same conditions
and 4 thickness measurements of
each plate at different spots. Though
the thickness variations are already
quite low, they can be reduced fur-
ther in an optimized automatic
Fig. 8 process, because the data given in
Manual handling of thin plates immediately after pressing Tab. 2 are obtained with manual fill-
ing of the mould with small quanti-
ties of powder and without a special
adjustment of the pressing die paral-
lelism. Both factors contribute to
deviations in thickness, the first one
mainly between the plates, the sec-
ond one within a single plate. Natu-
rally, the percentage of deviation is
increasing with decreasing thickness.
The densification factors, also given
in Tab. 2, can not be discussed in
detail, because the different test
pressings were performed with dif-
ferent pressing parameter combina-
tions. However, the data of the 3
series with 16 mm filling height (with
specific pressures of 5, 10 and 15
kN/cm2) were obtained under con-
Fig. 9 stant conditions. They show a good
Destroyed plate (pressed without vacuum) consistency of densification factor
E 30
and accordant average thickness,
but also the standard deviation
decreases with increasing pressure.
The green density values are also
shown in Tab. 2, calculated from the
weight and dimensions of each indi-
viual plate and given as average val-
ue with the corresponding standard
deviation for each test pressing
series. The absolute density values
should not be discussed here,
because the aim of these tests was
not to obtain maximum density, but
to demonstrate reliability and repro-
ducibility of the hydraulic pressing
process. Again, the 3 test series with
16 mm filling height can be com-
pared to each other, showing a
steady increase in density with
increasing pressure. More important,
however, is the reproducibility of the
green density within each test series,
having standard deviations of typi-
cally < 0,4 %.
In an earlier test series, also thickness
and density variations were investi-
gated on similar samples after firing.
The results are shown in Tab 3. In this
table, only one plate of each type
was investigated. Each line of the
table represents values of one plate,
where the thickness and density
were measured at up to 30 spots
each, distributed over the whole area
of the plate. Again the results are
very good, with fluctuations only in
the range of typically < 2 % (it has to
be noted that the values in Tab. 3 are
absolute values, not standard devia-
tion values!). Naturally, the thinnest
plate with a fired thickness of < 1 mm
again has a bigger percentage of
thickness fluctuation, but the
absolute value is in the same range as
the other plates.
Surface Quality
The plates show a very smooth sur-
face already in the green state. After
firing a similar surface quality is
obtained as with tape casted sheets,
cfi/Ber. DKG 84 (2007) No. 6
 Process Engineering
without any machining of the Fig. 10
pressed products. A surface rough- Surface rough-
ness measure-
ness Ra of < 0,6 µm was measured at ment
one plate (Fig. 10).

Application Examples
A big variety of applications was
investigated in detail during the last
years and many of them have been
brought to industrial application.
The following section describes some
of these applications.

Sputtering Targets for

PVD Technology
For functional coating of TV screens,
displays, touchscreens etc. several
target materials are used which have
to be applied using the sputtering
technology (PVD = physical vapour
deposition process). Since the sub-
strates are constantly increasing in
size, also the sources of the sputter-
ing material (so called "sputtering
targets") have to become bigger and
bigger. In addition to the large
dimensions, high dimensional accu-
racy and near net shaping are
required to reduce necessary
machining and to avoid excessive
loss of the sometimes very expensive
material (e.g. ITO = indium tin
oxide). Therefore, the moulds must
be manufactured with very high pre-
cision. Vacuum pressing technology
is favorable for this process in order
to avoid lamination and to achieve
high green strength with low binder
content. The uniaxial hydraulic
pressing can be used as a precom-
paction process for subsequent hot
isostatic pressing, offering the advan-
tage of getting much closer to the
required dimensions and to make
better use of the capacity of the hot
isostaic press. In case an optimized
separate firing process is used, this
process can completely dispense
with the cost-intensive hot isostatic
pressing. Several presses are used in
industrial production, producing ITO
sputtering targets up to a size of
1100 mm x 420 mm with a thickness
of only 8 to 10 mm. Other target
materials like Al2O3, Al2O3-ZrO2 and
ZnO-Al2O3 are under investigation.
mina, alumina-zirconia, silicon car-
bide, boron carbide and others are
used or are under investigation.
While vehicular protection armor
mainly show simple geometries (tiles
of different size and thickness, rec-
tangular or hexagonal), the body
protection armor generally are large
specimen with very complex shapes
(irregular curvatures in all dimen-
sions). Despite these complex
shapes, industrial production must
guarantee minimum thickness varia-
tions over the whole area and even
density distribution at a high pro-
duction capacity. A special mould fill-
ing system has been developed to
fulfil these requirements. Up to now,
three LAEIS vacuum presses are pro-
ducing body protection plates and
several more have been supplied for
the production of vehicle armor tiles.
Substrates for Electronic
and other Applications
Most recent developments in dry
powder pressing technology with
uniaxial hydraulic presses as well as
development of improved binder
systems allow for pressing ceramic
plates with extremely high aspect
ratios, especially very thin plates of
large sizes. It is possible e.g. to press
thin sheets of 250 x 250 mm2 with a
green thickness of < 1 mm (thickness
after firing down to the range of 0,5
mm). As ceramic materials various
alumina qualities, zirconia (Y-stabi-
lized) and silicon carbide have been
investigated, but others are also pos-
sible. With a suitable binding system
the green strength of such plates is
high enough to remove them from
the mould by means of a vacuum
gripper or even manually. This devel-
opment opens up a possibility of
competing with tape casting tech-
nology, but working at a much low-
er binder and solvent content and
with a higher throughput capacity.
This technology could be used also
for production of fuel cell compo-
nents, e.g. for Ni based anodes of
anode-supported SOFC (solid oxide
fuel cells) or for zirconia based mem-
branes of electrolyte-supported
SOFC. Uniaxial hydraulic pressing
technology has also been successful-
ly introduced for the production of
bipolar plates for PEM (proton
exchange membrane) fuel cells,
based on resin bonded carbon mate-
rial, which is pressed at elevated
temperatures where the resin shows
plastic deformation. Such bipolar
plates have a highly structured sur-
face (ducts for gas transport), e.g.
with a depth of the structure patterns
of about 0,6 mm on both sides and
an overall thickness of the plate of
about 1,8 mm (Fig. 11). For plates
with dimensions of up to
300 x 400 mm2 and a thickness of
about 2 mm extremely low dimen-
sional toler ances (thickness varia-
tions ± 20 µm) could be achieved.
Other Carbon Products
Another interesting example show-
ing the ability to realize very complex
shapes by uniaxial hydraulic pressing
with sophisticated moulds are car-
bon filter elements for molten metal

Ballistic Protection Devices specific

fired plate thickness fired density
Tab. 3
Thickness and den-
pressure
Ballistic protection is a relatively new average max. min. range average max. min. range sity variation of fired
alumina plates
application for structural ceramics. kN/cm² mm mm mm mm % g/cm³ g/cm³ g/cm³ g/cm³ %

Monolithic armor plates and tiles are

10 0.90 1.02 0.86 0.16 17.7 3.85 3.907 3.804 0.103 2.7
used for personnel and vehicular pro- 10 3.06 3.09 3.02 0.07 2.3 3.85 3.873 3.806 0.067 1.7
10 4.12 4.15 4.09 0.06 1.5 3.83 3.853 3.779 0.074 1.9
tection. Their big advantage over 10 4.05 4.09 4.01 0.08 2.0 3.84 3.852 3.801 0.051 1.3
metal armor is their significantly low- 10 7.95 8.00 7.88 0.12 1.5 3.83 3.850 3.799 0.051 1.3
10 16.12 16.19 15.97 0.22 1.4 3.82 3.830 3.787 0.043 1.1
er weight. As ceramic materials alu-

cfi/Ber. DKG 84 (2007) No. 6 E 31

Process Engineering
Fig. 11 PEM fuel cell bipolar plate
Fig. 13
Kiln furniture
system elements
filtering (Fig. 12). These elements
were made from carbon (graphite +
carbon black) with binder by press-
ing under vacuum, without subse-
quent machining. Also big carbon
blocks as intermediates for machin-
ing of small parts are pressed, where
it is mandatory to achieve a very
homogeneous density distribution in
all parts of the volume.
Special Kiln Furniture and
Refractories
Also kiln furniture, e.g. for firing of
electronic components like varistors
etc. has to be considered as technical
ceramics with appropriate require-
ments. Special systems based on
high purity ZnO and corundum have
been developed and are produced
on hydraulic presses, where also
aspect ratios of cassettes are realized
which could not be pressed uniaxial-
ly in the past (Fig. 13). Most recent-
ly, also a technology has been devel-
oped for the pressing of 2-compo-
nent sliding gates for the steel indus-
try (Fig. 14).
Summary
Uniaxial hydraulic pressing is a well
known and proven technology in the
ceramic industry. It was used for "tra-
ditional" ceramic products for many
years. New developments make this
technology available also for the pro-
duction of a wide variety of advanced
ceramics, offering many advantages
to the producer like high production
capacity and flexibility, near net
E 32
Fig. 12 Carbon filter elements
shape forming with high dimension-
al accuracy, good densification with
even density distribution, shaping of
dry powders with low binder con-
tent, production of large dimension
specimens with high aspect ratios
and others. Though uniaxial
hydraulic pressing is not an universal
solution for each shaping task, it is a
very flexible and versatile technology
which can be considered in many
cases as a reliable and economic
alternative to isostatic pressing,
injection moulding, pressure casting,
tape casting and other shaping
processes. Precondition for premium
quality products is an optimal knowl-
edge of the requirements in the indi-
vidual processes and an appropriate
adaptation of the pressing system
and the pressing parameters using
the best available state-of-the-art
technology.
Fig. 14 2-component sliding gate
Acknowledgements
The author wants to thank R. Kremer
(Alpha Ceramics GmbH, D) and K.
Müller (LAEIS GmbH, L), who did
most of the experimental and analyt-
ical work and made many valuable
contributions to the experimental
setup.
References
[1] Heinrich, J. G.: Einführung in die
Grundlagen der keramischen Formge-
bung; cfi (2005) (CD)
[2] Reckziegel, A.; Willmann, G.: Konstru-
ieren mit Keramik; Herstellung und
Maßhaltigkeit ohne Nachbearbeitung;
Sprechsaal 118 (1985) 332-338
[3] Schulle, W.: Die Preßformgebung in
der Keramik; Keram. Z. 44 (1992) [11],
754-759
[4] Venturi, V.: Trockenpressen in der
betrieblichen Praxis; Handbuch der
Keramik; Gruppe I D 3.2; Beilage zu:
Keram. Z. 41 (1989) [2]
[5] NN.: Keramische Werkstoffe für die
Elektronik; Ed. Technische Kommission
des Verbandes der keramischen Indus-
trie e.V., FG Technische Keramik; Selb
(1989)
[6] Cremer, I.: Metal injection moulding is
mature; cfi/Ber.DKG 83 (2006), E22ff
[7] Hofer, B.: Heißisostatisches Pressen
(HIP); Handbuch der Keramik; Gruppe
I D 3.4; Beilage zu: Keram. Z. 38
(1986) [3]
[8] Jahn, P.; Mussler, B.; Rabenstein, M.;
Rieß, W.; Eckardt, C.; Lehmann, J.;
Krenkel, W.: Druckschlickerguss tech-
nischer Keramik; cfi/Ber.DKG 82
(2005), 307-311
[9] Yasuda, K.; Kitamura, T.; Matsuo, Y.;
Shiota, T.: Densification process of
powder compaction by cyclic CIP; Pro-
ceedings MS&T Innovative Processing
and Synthesis of Ceramics, Glass and
Composites (2006), 495-506
[10]Gauckler, L.J.; Kocher, P.; Filser, F.T.:
Rapid manufacturing of high-tech
ceramics. A case study for dental appli-
cation; Proceedings of the Second
International Conference on Shaping
of Ceramics, Shaping II, Gent,
Belgium, 2002, Eds. Jan Luyten and
Jean-Pierre Erauw, Flemish Institute for
Technological Research (VITO),
Borentan 200, B-2400 Mol, Belgium,
ISBN 90-5857-005-5, (2002), 259 ff
[11] Kaiser, A.; Kremer, R.: Fast Acting Vac-
uum Device – Guaranteed Quality for
Pressed Refractories; Interceram
Refractories Manual (2003) 28–33
[12] Herweg, M.; Schmedders, T.; Kremer,
R.: Innovative Brennhilfsmittel und
Fertigungstechnologien; cfi/Ber.DKG
82 (2005), D21-2
[13] Lutz, R.: Double-layered refractory
products automatically pressed from
two different materials in one single
working cycle; Interceram Refractories
Manual (2006) 62–64
[14] Kremer, R.; Lutz, R.: Quality improve-
ment of shaped refractories by mod-
ern pressing technology; Preprints 49.
Internat. Colloquium on Refractories
2006, pp. 223–226
cfi/Ber. DKG 84 (2007) No. 6