Shaivism - Wikipedia

19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia
Shaivism
Shaivism (/ˈʃaɪvɪzəm/) is one of the major Hindu traditions
that worships Shiva, also called Rudra,[1][2][3] as the Supreme Shaivism
Being.[4][5][6] It is considered to be the oldest living religion in
the world.[7][8] One of the largest Hindu denominations,[9][10] It
incorporates many sub-traditions ranging from devotional
dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga-oriented
monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism.[11][12][13] It
considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important
sources of theology.[14][15][16]
Shaivism developed as an amalgam of pre-Vedic religions and

traditions derived from the southern Tamil Dravidian Shaiva
Siddhanta traditions and philosophies, which were assimilated
in the non-Vedic Shiva-tradition.[17] In the process of
Sanskritization and formation of Hinduism, starting in the last
centuries BCE these pre-Vedic traditions became aligned with
the Vedic deity Rudra and other Vedic deities, incorporating the
non-Vedic Shiva-traditions into the Vedic-Brahmanical
fold.[2][18]
Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the Shiva (above) is the primary deity of
1st millennium CE, rapidly becoming the dominant religious Shaivism. Ritual at Muni ki Reti,
tradition of many Hindu kingdoms.[2] It arrived in Southeast Rishikesh
Asia shortly thereafter, leading to the construction of thousands
of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as
Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in these regions.[19][20]
Shaivite theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, and destroyer to being the same as the
Atman (self, soul) within oneself and every living being. It is closely related to Shaktism, and some
Shaivas worship in both Shiva and Shakti temples.[13] It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic
life and emphasizes yoga, and like other Hindu traditions encourages an individual to discover and be
one with Shiva within.[11][12][21] The followers of Shaivism are called "Shaivites" or "Saivas".
Contents
Etymology and nomenclature
Overview
Origins and history
Indus Valley Civilisation
Vedic elements
Emergence of Shaivism
Puranik Shaivism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism 1/45
Post-Gupta development
South India
Southeast Asia
Indonesia
Beliefs and practices
Vedic, Puranik, and esoteric Shaivism
Shaivism versus other Hindu traditions
Texts
Vedas and Principal Upanishads
Shaiva minor Upanishads
Shaiva Agamas
Traditions
Sannyasi Shaiva: Atimarga
Pashupata Atimargi
Lakula Atimargi
Grihastha and Sannyasi Shaiva: Mantramarga
Shaiva Siddhanta
Nayanars
Tantra Diksha traditions
Kashmir Shaivism
Nath
Lingayatism
Demography
Influence
Shaktism
Smarta Tradition
Vaishnavism
Sauraism (Sun deity)
Yoga movements
Hindu performance arts
Buddhism
Jainism
Temples and pilgrimage
See also
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Etymology and nomenclature
Shiva (IAST: śiva, Sanskrit: शिव) literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious.[22][23] As a
proper name, it means "The Auspicious One".[23]
The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities,
including Rudra.[24] The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious
one", this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature.[25][26] The
term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an
auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver".[25][27]
The Sanskrit word śaiva or shaiva means "relating to the god Shiva",[28] while the related beliefs,
practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism.[29]
Overview
The reverence for Shiva is one of the pan-Hindu traditions found widely across India predominantly in
Southern India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal.[30][31] While Shiva is revered broadly, Hinduism itself is a
complex religion and a way of life, with a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions. It has no
ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any
binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic,
atheistic, or humanist.[32][33][34]
Shaivism is a major tradition within Hinduism with a theology that is predominantly related to the
Hindu god Shiva. Shaivism has many different sub-traditions with regional variations and differences in
philosophy.[35] Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical schools ranging from
nondualism, dualism, and mixed schools.[36]
Origins and history

The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among
scholars, as it is an amalgam of pre-Vedic cults and traditions and
Vedic culture.[38]
Indus Valley Civilisation
Some trace the origins to the Indus Valley Civilization, which

reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE.[39][40] Archeological
discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that somewhat appears
The development of various schools
like Shiva. Of these is the Pashupati seal, which early scholars of Shaivism from early worship of
interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose surrounded Rudra.[37]
by animals, and with horns.[41] This "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals,
Sanskrit paśupati)[42] seal has been interpreted by these scholars as
a prototype of Shiva. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that it is not clear
from the seal if the figure has three faces, or is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is
intended to represent a human figure.[43][40]
Other scholars state that the Indus Valley script remains undeciphered, and the interpretation of the
Pashupati seal is uncertain. According to Srinivasan, the proposal that it is proto-Shiva may be a case of
projecting "later practices into archeological findings".[44][45] Similarly, Asko Parpola states that other
archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000–2750 BCE show similar figures and
these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the
bull interpretation is likely more accurate.[40][46]
Vedic elements
The Rigveda (~1500–1200 BCE) has the earliest clear mention of

Rudra in its hymns 2.33, 1.43 and 1.114. The text also includes a
Satarudriya, an influential hymn with embedded hundred epithets
for Rudra, that is cited in many medieval era Shaiva texts as well as
recited in major Shiva temples of Hindus in contemporary times.
Yet, the Vedic literature only present scriptural theology, but does
not attest to the existence of Shaivism.[40]
The "Pashupati" seal from the Indus
Valley Civilisation.
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, likely composed before the
Bhagavad Gita about 4th century BCE contains the theistic
foundations of Shaivism wrapped in a monistic structure. It contains
the key terms and ideas of Shaivism, such as Shiva, Rudra, Maheswara, Guru, Bhakti, Yoga, Atman,
Brahman and self-knowledge.[40][47]
Emergence of Shaivism
According to Gavin Flood, "the formation of Śaiva traditions as we

understand them begins to occur during the period from 200 BC to
100 AD."[51] Shiva was originally probably not a Brahmanical
god,[52][53] but eventually came to be incorporated into the
Brahmanical fold.[53][54] The pre-Vedic Shiva acquired a growing
prominence as its cult assimilated numerous "ruder faiths" and their
Kushan coin of Vima Kadphises
mythologies,[55] and the Epics and Puranas preserve pre-Vedic (2nd century CE), with a possible
myths and legends of these traditions assimilated by the Shiva- Shiva, holding a trident, in ithyphallic
cult.[54] Shiva's growing prominence was facilitated by identification state and next to a bull, his mount,
with a number of Vedic deities, such as Purusha, Rudra, Agni, Indra, as in Shaivism.[48][49][50] The deity
Prajāpati, Vāyu, among others.[56] The followers of Shiva were was described by the later Kushans
gradually accepted into the Brahmanical fold, becoming allowed to in their coinage as "Oesho", a
recite some of the Vedic hymns.[57] possible Zoroastrian deity.[49]
Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya, dated to the 2nd century BCE, mentions

the term Shiva-bhagavata in section 5.2.76. Patanjali, while explaining Panini's rules of grammar, states
that this term refers to a devotee clad in animal skins and carrying an ayah sulikah (iron spear, trident
lance)[58] as an icon representing his god.[59][51][60] The Shvetashvatara Upanishad (late 1st mill. BCE)
mentions terms such as Rudra, Shiva, and Maheshwaram,[61][62] but its interpretation as a theistic or
monistic text of Shaivism is disputed.[63][64] In the early centuries of the common era is the first clear
evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism.[2]
The Mahabharata mentions Shaiva ascetics, such as in chapters 4.13 and 13.140.[66] Other evidence that
is possibly linked to the importance of Shaivism in ancient times are in epigraphy and numismatics, such
as in the form of prominent Shiva-like reliefs on Kushan Empire era gold coins. However, this is
controversial, as an alternate hypothesis for these reliefs is based on Zoroastrian Oesho. According to
Flood, coins dated to the ancient Greek, Saka and Parthian kings who ruled parts of the Indian
subcontinent after the arrival of Alexander the Great also show Shiva iconography, but this evidence is
weak and subject to competing inferences.[51][67]
The inscriptions found in the Himalayan region, such as those in the

Kathmandu valley of Nepal suggest that Shaivism (particularly Pashupata
monism) was established in this region during the Mauryas and the Guptas
reign of the Indian subcontinent, by the 5th century. These inscriptions
have been dated by modern techniques to between 466 and 645 CE.[68]
Puranik Shaivism
During the Gupta Dynasty (c. 320–500 CE) the genre of Purana literature
developed in India, and many of these Puranas contain extensive chapters
on Shaivism – along with Vaishnavism, Shaktism, Smarta Traditions of
Shiva in the 3rd century CE. Brahmins and other topics – suggesting the importance of Shaivism by
Art of Mathura or then.[40][59] The most important Shaiva Puranas of this period include the
Ahichchhatra.[65] Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana.[40][67]
Post-Gupta development
Most of the Gupta kings, beginning with Chandragupta II

(Vikramaditya) (375-413 CE) were known as Parama Bhagavatas or
Bhagavata Vaishnavas and had been ardent promoters of
Vaishnavism.[69][70] But following the Huna invasions, especially
those of the Alchon Huns circa 500 CE, the Gupta Empire declined
and fragmented, ultimately collapsing completely, with the effect of
discrediting Vaishnavism, the religion it had been so ardently
promoting.[71] The newly arising regional powers in central and
northern India, such as the Aulikaras, the Maukharis, the Maitrakas,
the Kalacuris or the Vardhanas preferred adopting Shaivism instead,
giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship of Shiva,
and its ideology of power.[71] Vaisnavism remained strong mainly in Shiva with Trisula, worshipped in
the territories which had not been affected by these events: South Central Asia. Penjikent, Uzbekistan,
India and Kashmir.[71] 7th–8th century CE. Hermitage
Museum.
In the early 7th century the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang
(Huen Tsang) visited India and wrote a memoir in Chinese that
mentions the prevalence of Shiva temples all over North Indian
subcontinent, including in the Hindu Kush region such as
Nuristan.[72][73] Between the 5th and 11th century CE, major Shaiva
temples had been built in central, southern and eastern regions of
the subcontinent, including those at Badami cave temples, Aihole,
Elephanta Caves, Ellora Caves (Kailasha, cave 16), Khajuraho,
Bhuvaneshwara, Chidambaram, Madurai, and Conjeevaram.[72]
Major scholars of competing Hindu traditions from the second half

of the 1st millennium CE, such as Adi Shankara of Advaita Vedanta
Nandi - Shiva's bull in front of Hindu
and Ramanuja of Vaishnavism, mention several Shaiva sects,
temple, Rewalsar, HP, India
particularly the four groups: Pashupata, Lakulisha, tantric Shaiva
and Kapalika. The description is conflicting, with some texts stating
the tantric, puranik and Vedic traditions of Shaivism to be hostile to each other while others suggest
them to be amicable sub-traditions. Some texts state that Kapalikas reject the Vedas and are involved in
extreme experimentation,[note 1] while others state the Shaiva sub-traditions revere the Vedas but are
non-Puranik.[76]
South India
Shaivism was likely the predominant tradition in South India, co-existing

with Buddhism and Jainism, before the Vaishnava Alvars launched the
Bhakti movement in the 7th-century, and influential Vedanta scholars such
as Ramanuja developed a philosophical and organizational framework that
helped Vaishnava expand. Though both traditions of Hinduism have
ancient roots, given their mention in the epics such as the Mahabharata,
Shaivism flourished in South India much earlier.[77]
The Mantramarga of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, provided a

template for the later though independent and highly influential
Pancaratrika treatises of Vaishnava. This is evidenced in Hindu texts such
as the Isvarasamhita, Padmasamhita and Paramesvarasamhita.[77]
Along with the Himalayan region

stretching from Kashmir through
Nepal, the Shaiva tradition in South
India has been one of the largest
sources of preserved Shaivism-
Gudimallam Lingam with
related manuscripts from ancient
Shiva standing on
and medieval India.[79] The region
Apasmara, variously dated
was also the source of Hindu arts, from the 2nd century BCE
temple architecture, and merchants to the 7th century CE.
who helped spread Shaivism into
The 7th to 8th-century Shore Temple at
Mahabalipuram is a UNESCO World
southeast Asia in early 1st
Heritage site. It features thousands of millennium CE.[80][81][82]
Shaivism-related sculptures.[78]
There are tens of thousands of Hindu temples where Shiva is
either the primary deity or reverentially included in
anthropomorphic or aniconic form (lingam, or
svayambhu). [83][84] Numerous historic Shaiva temples have survived in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, parts of
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.[85] Certain regions have a greater density of Shiva temples, such as in
the Thanjavur region of Tamil Nadu, where numerous Shaiva temples were built during the Chola
empire era, between 800 and 1200 CE. Gudimallam is the oldest known lingam and has been dated to
between 3rd to 1st-century BCE. It is a carved five feet high stone lingam with an anthropomorphic
image of Shiva on one side. This ancient lingam is in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh.[84][86][87]
Southeast Asia
Shaivism arrived in a major way in southeast Asia from south India, and to much lesser extent into
China and Tibet from the Himalayan region. It co-developed with Buddhism in this region, in many
cases.[80] For example, in the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas, a few caves include Shaivism
ideas.[88][note 2] The epigraphical and cave arts evidence suggest that Shaiva Mahesvara and Mahayana
Buddhism had arrived in Indo-China region in the Funan period,

that is in the first half of the 1st millennium CE.[81][82] In Indonesia,
temples at archaeological sites and numerous inscription evidence
dated to the early period (400 to 700 CE), suggest that Shiva was the
highest god. This co-existence of Shaivism and Buddhism in Java
continued through about 1500 CE when both Hinduism and
Buddhism were replaced with Islam,[90] and persists today in the
province of Bali.[91]
The Shaivist and Buddhist traditions overlapped significantly in An image collage of 1st millennium
southeast Asia, particularly in Indonesia, Cambodia, and Vietnam CE Shaivism icons and temples
between the 5th and the 15th-century. Shaivism and Shiva held the from Southeast Asia (top left): Shiva
paramount position in ancient Java, Sumatra, Bali, and neighboring in yoga pose, Nandi, Prambanan
islands, though the sub-tradition that developed creatively temple, Yoni-Linga and Hindu
integrated more ancient beliefs that pre-existed.[92] In the centuries temple layout.
that followed, the merchants and monks who arrived in Southeast
Asia, brought Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Buddhism, and these
developed into a syncretic, mutually supporting form of traditions.[92][93]
Indonesia
In Balinese Hinduism, Dutch ethnographers further subdivided Siwa (shaivaites) Sampradaya" into
five – Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification was to accommodate the
observed marriage between higher caste Brahmana men with lower caste women.[94]
Beliefs and practices

Shaivism centers around Shiva, but it has many sub-traditions whose theological beliefs and practices
vary significantly. They range from dualistic devotional theism to monistic meditative discovery of Shiva
within oneself. Within each of these theologies, there are two sub-groups. One sub-group is called Vedic-
Puranic, who use the terms such as "Shiva, Mahadeva, Maheshvara and others" synonymously, and they
use iconography such as the Linga, Nandi, Trishula (trident), as well as anthropomorphic statues of
Shiva in temples to help focus their practices.[95] Another sub-group is called esoteric, which fuses it
with abstract Sivata (feminine energy) or Sivatva (neuter abstraction), wherein the theology integrates
the goddess (Shakti) and the god (Shiva) with Tantra practices and Agama teachings. There is a
considerable overlap between these Shaivas and the Shakta Hindus.[95]
Vedic, Puranik, and esoteric Shaivism
Scholars such as Alexis Sanderson discuss Shaivism in three categories: Vedic, Puranik and non-Puranik
(esoteric, tantric).[96][97] They place Vedic and Puranik together given the significant overlap, while
placing Non-Puranik esoteric sub-traditions as a separate category.[97]
Vedic-Puranik. The majority within Shaivism follow the Vedic-

Puranik traditions. They revere the Vedas, the Puranas and have
beliefs that span dualistic theism style Shiva Bhakti
(devotionalism) to monistic non-theism dedicated to yoga and
meditative lifestyle sometimes with renouncing householder life
for monastic pursuits of spirituality.[98] The Yoga practice is
particularly pronounced in nondualistic Shaivism, with the
practice refined into a methodology such as four-fold upaya:
being pathless (anupaya, iccha-less, desire-less), being divine
(sambhavopaya, jnana, knowledge-full), being energy
(saktopaya, kriya, action-full) and being individual
(anavopaya).[99][note 3]
Non-Puranik. These are esoteric, minority sub-traditions wherein
devotees are initiated (dīkṣa) into a specific cult they prefer.
Their goals vary, ranging from liberation in current life (mukti) to
seeking pleasures in higher worlds (bhukti). Their means also
vary, ranging from meditative atimarga or "outer higher path"
versus those whose means are recitation-driven mantras. The Two female Shaiva ascetics (18th
atimarga sub-traditions include Pashupatas and Lakula. century painting)
According to Sanderson, the Pashupatas[note 4] have the oldest
heritage, likely from the 2nd century CE, as evidenced by
ancient Hindu texts such as the Shanti Parva book of the Mahabharata epic.[100][97] The tantric sub-
tradition in this category is traceable to post-8th to post-11th century depending on the region of
Indian subcontinent, paralleling the development of Buddhist and Jain tantra traditions in this
period.[101] Among these are the dualistic Shaiva Siddhanta and Bhairava Shaivas (non-
Saiddhantika), based on whether they recognize any value in Vedic orthopraxy.[102] These sub-
traditions cherish secrecy, special symbolic formulae, initiation by a teacher and the pursuit of siddhi
(special powers). Some of these traditions also incorporate theistic ideas, elaborate geometric yantra
with embedded spiritual meaning, mantras and rituals.[101][103][104]
Shaivism versus other Hindu traditions
Shaivism sub-traditions subscribe to various philosophies, are similar in some aspects and differ in
others. These traditions compare with Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism as follows:
Comparison of Shaivism with other traditions

Vaishnava Shakta Smarta
Shaiva Traditions References
Traditions Traditions Traditions
Vedas,
Scriptural Vedas, Upanishads and Vedas and Vedas and [105][106]
Upanishads and
authority Agamas Upanishads Upanishads
Agamas
None (Considers
Supreme goddess [107][108]
god Shiva god Vishnu Parabrahman to
deity Devi
be so)
Creator Shiva Vishnu Devi Brahman principle [107][109]
Avatar Minor Key concept Significant Minor [105][110][111]
Monastic life Recommends Accepts Accepts Recommends [105][112][113]
Rituals,
Affirms[114][115][116] Affirms Affirms Optional[117] [118]
Bhakti
Ahimsa and Recommends,
Recommends,[114] Optional Affirms Optional [119][120]
Vegetarianism Optional
Free will, [107]
Affirms Affirms Affirms Affirms
Maya, Karma
Brahman
Brahman (Shiva), Atman Brahman [107]
Metaphysics (Devi), Brahman, Atman
(Soul, Self) (Vishnu), Atman
Atman
1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Comparison
1. Perception
1. and analogy
1. Perception
2. Inference
Perception
4. Postulation,
Epistemology
2. Inference
[122][123][124]
3. Reliable testimony
2. Inference
derivation
(Pramana) 3. Reliable
3. Reliable 5.
4. Self-evident[121] testimony
testimony Negative/cognitive
proof
6. Reliable
testimony
Vishishtadvaita,
Dvaita, qualified advaita, Shakti- Advaita, qualified [125][126]
Philosophy Dvaita, qualified
advaita advaita advaita
advaita, advaita
Videhamukti, Jivanmukta,
Salvation
Jivanmukta,
Yoga,
Bhakti, Advaita, Yoga,
[128][129]
(Soteriology) Charya-Kriyā-Yoga-Jnana[127] champions Tantra, Yoga champions
householder life monastic life
Texts
Over its history, Shaivism has been nurtured by Shaiva manuscripts that have survived
numerous texts ranging from scriptures to (post-8th century)

theological treatises. These include the Vedas
and Upanishads, the Agamas, and the Bhasya. Nepal and Himalayan region = 140,000
According to Gavin Flood – a professor at South India = 8,600
Oxford University specializing in Shaivism and Others (Devanagiri) = 2,000
phenomenology, Shaiva scholars developed a Bali and SE Asia = Many

sophisticated theology, in its diverse
traditions.[131] Among the notable and —Alexis Sanderson, The Saiva Literature[79][130]
influential commentaries by dvaita (dualistic)
theistic Shaivism scholars were the 8th century
Sadyajoti, the 10th century Ramakantha, 11th
century Bhojadeva.[131] The dualistic theology was challenged by the numerous scholars of advaita
(nondualistic, monistic) Shaivism persuasion such as the 8th/9th century Vasugupta,[note 5] the 10th
century Abhinavagupta and 11th century Kshemaraja, particularly the scholars of the Pratyabhijna,
Spanda and Kashmiri Shaivism schools of theologians.[133][134][135]
Vedas and Principal Upanishads
The Vedas and Upanishads are shared scriptures of Hinduism, while the Agamas are sacred texts of
specific sub-traditions.[15] The surviving Vedic literature can be traced to the 1st millennium BCE and
earlier, while the surviving Agamas can be traced to 1st millennium of the common era.[15] The Vedic
literature, in Shaivism, is primary and general, while Agamas are special treatise. In terms of philosophy
and spiritual precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Mariasusai Dhavamony,
will be acceptable to the Shaivas.[15] According to David Smith, "a key feature of the Tamil Saiva
Siddhanta, one might almost say its defining feature, is the claim that its source lies in the Vedas as well
as the Agamas, in what it calls the Vedagamas".[14] This school's view can be summed as,
The Veda is the cow, the true Agama its milk.
— Umapati, Translated by David Smith[14]
The Śvetāśvatara Upanishad (400 – 200 BCE)[136] is the earliest textual exposition of a systematic
philosophy of Shaivism.[note 6]
Shaiva minor Upanishads
Shaivism-inspired scholars authored 14 Shiva-focussed Upanishads that are called the Shaiva
Upanishads.[137] These are considered part of 95 minor Upanishads in the Muktikā Upanishadic corpus
of Hindu literature.[137][138] The earliest among these were likely composed in 1st millennium BCE, while
the last ones in the late medieval era.[139]
The Shaiva Upanishads present diverse ideas, ranging from bhakti-style theistic dualism themes to a
synthesis of Shaiva ideas with Advaitic (nondualism), Yoga, Vaishnava and Shakti themes.[140]
Shaivism Upanishads
Composition
Shaiva Upanishad Topics Reference
date
1st millennium Shiva, Atman, Brahman, Sannyasa, Self- [141][142][143]
Kaivalya Upanishad
BCE knowledge
1st millennium [144][145][146]
Atharvashiras Upanishad Rudra, Atman, Brahman, Om, monism
BCE
1st millennium [147]
Atharvashikha Upanishad Shiva, Om, Brahman, chanting, meditation
BCE
Late medieval,
Shiva, sacred ash, prayer beads, Tripundra [148]
Brihajjabala Upanishad post-12th
tilaka
century
Meaning of Tripundra (three lines tilaka), Ritual [149][150]
Kalagni Rudra Upanishad Unknown
Shaivism
Dakshinamurti as an aspect of Shiva, Atman, [151]
Dakshinamurti Upanishad Unknown
monism
Sharabha Upanishad Unknown Shiva as Sharabha [152]
Late medieval,
Rosary, japa, mantras, Om, Shiva, symbolism [153]
Akshamalika Upanishad post-12th
in Shaivism iconography
century CE
Rudra-Uma, Male-Female are inseparable, [154]
Rudrahridaya Upanishad Unknown
nondualism
Late medieval,
Shiva, sacred ash, body art, iconography, why [155][156]
Bhasmajabala Upanishad post-12th
rituals and Varanasi are important
century
After the 10th Shiva, Bhairava, Rudraksha beads and mantra [137]
Rudrakshajabala Upanishad
century recitation
16th or 17th Ganesha, Shiva, Brahman, Atman, Om, [157]
Ganapati Upanishad
century Satcitananda
About 7th Shiva, Sadashiva, nondualism, So'ham, [158][159]
Pancabrahma Upanishad
century CE Atman, Brahman, self-knowledge
Shiva, Pashupata theology, significance of ash [160]
Jabali Upanishad unknown
and body art
Shaiva Agamas
The Agama texts of Shaivism are another important foundation of Shaivism theology.[161] These texts
include Shaiva cosmology, epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts on meditation and practices,
four kinds of yoga, mantras, meanings and manuals for Shaiva temples, and other elements of
practice.[162][163] These canonical texts exist in Sanskrit[162] and in south Indian languages such as
Tamil.[164]
The Agamas present a diverse range of philosophies, ranging from theistic dualism to absolute
monism.[165][166] In Shaivism, there are ten dualistic (dvaita) Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-
cum-dualism (bhedabheda) Agama texts and sixty four monism (advaita) Agama texts.[16] The Bhairava
Shastras are monistic, while Shiva Shastras are dualistic.[114][167]
The Agama texts of Shaiva and Vaishnava schools are premised on existence of Atman (soul, self) and
the existence of an Ultimate Reality (Brahman which is considered identical to Shiva in Shaivism.[12] The
texts differ in the relation between the two. Some assert the dualistic philosophy of the individual soul
and Ultimate Reality being different, while others state a Oneness between the two.[12] Kashmir Shaiva
Agamas posit absolute oneness, that is God (Shiva) is within man, God is within every being, God is
present everywhere in the world including all non-living beings, and there is no spiritual difference
between life, matter, man and God.[12] While Agamas present diverse theology, in terms of philosophy
and spiritual precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Dhavamony, has been
acceptable to the Shaivas.[15]
Traditions
Shaivism is ancient, and over time it developed many sub-traditions.
These broadly existed and are studied in three groups: theistic
dualism, nontheistic monism, and those that combine features or
practices of the two.[168][169] Sanderson presents the historic
classification found in Indian texts,[170] namely Atimarga of the
Shaiva monks and Mantramarga that was followed by both the
renunciates (sannyasi) and householders (grihastha) in
Shaivism.[171] Sub-traditions of Shaivas did not exclusively focus on
Shiva, but others such as the Devi (goddess) Shaktism.[172]
Kauai Hindu monastery in Kauai
Island in Hawaii is the only Hindu
Sannyasi Shaiva: Atimarga Monastery(shaivaite) in the United
States.
The Atimarga branch of Shaivism emphasizes liberation (salvation)
– or the end of all Dukkha – as the primary goal of spiritual
pursuits.[173] It was the path for Shaiva ascetics, in contrast to Shaiva householders whose path was
described as Mantramarga and who sought both salvation as well as the yogi-siddhi powers and
pleasures in life.[174] The Atimarga revered the Vedic sources of Shaivism, and sometimes referred to in
ancient Indian texts as Raudra (from Vedic Rudra).[175]
Pashupata Atimargi
Pashupata: (IAST: Pāśupatas) are the Shaivite sub-tradition with the oldest heritage, as evidenced by
Indian texts dated to around the start of the common era.[100][97] It is a monist tradition, that considers
Shiva to be within oneself, in every being and everything observed. The Pashupata path to liberation is
one of asceticism that is traditionally restricted to Brahmin males.[177] Pashupata theology, according to
Shiva Sutras, aims for a spiritual state of consciousness where the Pashupata yogi "abides in one's own
unfettered nature", where the external rituals feel unnecessary, where every moment and every action
becomes an internal vow, a spiritual ritual unto itself.[178]
The Pashupatas derive their Sanskrit name from two words: Pashu (beast) and Pati (lord), where the
chaotic and ignorant state, one imprisoned by bondage and assumptions, is conceptualized as the
beast,[179] and the Atman (self, soul, Shiva) that is present eternally everywhere as the Pati.[180] The
tradition aims at realizing the state of being one with Shiva within and everywhere. It has extensive
literature,[180][181] and a fivefold path of spiritual practice that starts with external practices, evolving
into internal practices and ultimately meditative yoga, with the aim of overcoming all suffering (Dukkha)
and reaching the state of bliss (Ananda).[182][183]
The tradition is attributed to a sage from Gujarat named Lakulisha (~2nd

century CE).[184] He is the purported author of the Pashupata sutras, a
foundational text of this tradition. Other texts include the bhasya
(commentary) on Pashupata sutras by Kaudinya, the Gaṇakārikā,
Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikā and Rāśikara-bhāshya.[173] The Pashupatha
monastic path was available to anyone of any age, but it required
renunciation from four Ashrama (stage) into the fifth stage of Siddha-
Ashrama. The path started as a life near a Shiva temple and silent
meditation, then a stage when the ascetic left the temple and did karma
exchange (be cursed by others, but never curse back). He then moved to
the third stage of life where he lived like a loner in a cave or abandoned
places or Himalayan mountains, and towards the end of his life he moved
to a cremation ground, surviving on little, peacefully awaiting his
death.[173]
The Pashupatas have been particularly prominent in Gujarat, Rajasthan,

Kashmir and Nepal. The community is found in many parts of the Indian
subcontinent.[185] In the late medieval era, Pashupatas Shaiva ascetics
became extinct.[179][186]
Lakula Atimargi Lakulisha at Sangameshvara

Temple at Mahakuta,
This second division of the Atimarga developed from the Pashupatas. Karnataka (Chalukya, 7th
Their fundamental text too was the Pashupata Sutras. They differed from century CE). His 5th–10th
Pashupata Atimargi in that they departed radically from the Vedic century ithyphallic statues are
teachings, respected no Vedic or social customs. He would walk around, also found in seated yogi
for example, almost naked, drank liquor in public, and used a human skull position in Rajasthan, Uttar
as his begging bowl for food.[187] The Lakula Shaiva ascetic recognized no Pradesh and elsewhere.[176]
act nor words as forbidden, he freely did whatever he felt like, much like
the classical depiction of his deity Rudra in ancient Hindu texts. However,
according to Alexis Sanderson, the Lakula ascetic was strictly celibate and did not engage in sex.[187]
Secondary literature, such as those written by Kashmiri Ksemaraja, suggest that the Lakula had their
canons on theology, rituals and literature on pramanas (epistemology). However, their primary texts are
believed to be lost, and have not survived into the modern era.[187]
Grihastha and Sannyasi Shaiva: Mantramarga
The horizontal three ash lines (Tripundra) with a red mark on forehead is a revered mark across Shaiva traditions
symbolizing Om.[188][189]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism र्ग 13/45

"Mantramārga" (Sanskrit: मन्त्रमार्ग, "the path of mantras") has been the Shaiva tradition for both
householders and monks.[171] It grew from the Atimarga tradition.[190] This tradition sought not just
liberation from Dukkha (suffering, unsatisfactoriness), but special powers (siddhi) and pleasures
(bhoga), both in this life and next.[191] The siddhi were particularly the pursuit of Mantramarga monks,
and it is this sub-tradition that experimented with a great diversity of rites, deities, rituals, yogic
techniques and mantras.[190] Both the Mantramarga and Atimarga are ancient traditions, more ancient
than the date of their texts that have survived, according to Sanderson.[190] Mantramārga grew to
become a dominant form of Shaivism in this period. It also spread outside of India into Southeast Asia's
Khmer Empire, Java, Bali and Cham.[192][193]
The Mantramarga tradition created the Shaiva Agamas and Shaiva tantra (technique) texts. This
literature presented new forms of ritual, yoga and mantra.[194] This literature was highly influential not
just to Shaivism, but to all traditions of Hinduism, as well as to Buddhism and Jainism.[195]
Mantramarga had both theistic and monistic themes, which co-evolved and influenced each other. The
tantra texts reflect this, where the collection contains both dualistic and non-dualistic theologies. The
theism in the tantra texts parallel those found in Vaishnavism and Shaktism.[196][197] Shaiva Siddhanta
is a major subtradition that emphasized dualism during much of its history.[197]
Shaivism has had strong nondualistic (advaita) sub-traditions.[198][199] Its central premise has been that
the Atman (soul, self) of every being is identical to Shiva, its various practices and pursuits directed at
understanding and being one with the Shiva within. This monism is close but differs somewhat from the
monism found in Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara. Unlike Shankara's Advaita, Shaivism monist schools
consider Maya as Shakti, or energy and creative primordial power that explains and propels the
existential diversity.[198]
Srikantha, influenced by Ramanuja, formulated Shaiva Vishishtadvaita.[200] In this theology, Atman

(soul) is not identical with Brahman, but shares with the Supreme all its qualities. Appayya Dikshita
(1520–1592), an Advaita scholar, proposed pure monism, and his ideas influenced Shaiva in the
Karnataka region. His Shaiva Advaita doctrine is inscribed on the walls of Kalakanthesvara temple in
Adaiyappalam (Tiruvannamalai district).[201][202]
Shaiva Siddhanta
The Śaivasiddhānta ("the established doctrine of Shiva") is the earliest

sampradaya (tradition, lineage) of Tantric Shaivism, dating from the 5th
century.[197][203] The tradition emphasizes loving devotion to Shiva,[204]
uses 5th to 9th-century Tamil hymns called Tirumurai. A key philosophical
text of this sub-tradition was composed by 13th-century Meykandar.[205]
This theology presents three universal realities: the pashu (individual soul),
the pati (lord, Shiva), and the pasha (soul's bondage) through ignorance,
karma and maya. The tradition teaches ethical living, service to the
community and through one's work, loving worship, yoga practice and
discipline, continuous learning and self-knowledge as means for liberating
the individual soul from bondage.[205][206]
The tradition may have originated in Kashmir where it developed a Tirumular, the great Tamil
sophisticated theology propagated by theologians Sadyojoti, Bhatta Śaivasiddhānta poet and
Nārāyanakantha and his son Bhatta Rāmakantha (c. 950–1000).[207] mystic saint (siddha).
However, after the arrival of Islamic rulers in north India, it thrived in the south.[208] The philosophy of
Shaiva Siddhanta, is particularly popular in south India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore.[209]
The historic Shaiva Siddhanta literature is an enormous body of texts.[210] The tradition includes both
Shiva and Shakti (goddess), but with a growing emphasis on metaphysical abstraction.[210] Unlike the
experimenters of Atimarga tradition and other sub-traditions of Mantramarga, states Sanderson, the
Shaiva Siddhanta tradition had no ritual offering or consumption of "alcoholic drinks, blood or meat".
Their practices focussed on abstract ideas of spirituality,[210] worship and loving devotion to Shiva as
SadaShiva, and taught the authority of the Vedas and Shaiva Agamas.[211][212] This tradition diversified
in its ideas over time, with some of its scholars integrating a non-dualistic theology.[213]
Nayanars
By the 7th century, the Nayanars, a tradition of poet-saints in the

bhakti tradition developed in ancient Tamil Nadu with a focus on
Shiva, comparable to that of the Vaisnava Alvars.[215] The devotional
Tamil poems of the Nayanars are divided into eleven collections
together known as Tirumurai, along with a Tamil Purana called the
Periya Puranam. The first seven collections are known as the
Tevaram and are regarded by Tamils as equivalent to the Vedas.[216]
They were composed in the 7th century by Sambandar, Appar, and
Sundarar.[217] Nayanars Shaiva poet-saints are
credited with Bhakti movement in
Tirumular (also spelled Tirumūlār or Tirumūlar), the author of the
Shaivism. It included three women
Tirumantiram (also spelled Tirumandiram) is considered by saints, such as the 6th-century
Tattwananda to be the earliest exponent of Shaivism in Tamil Karaikkal Ammaiyar.[214]
areas.[218] Tirumular is dated as 7th or 8th century by Maurice
Winternitz.[219] The Tirumantiram is a primary source for the
system of Shaiva Siddhanta, being the tenth book of its canon.[220] The Tiruvacakam by
Manikkavacagar is an important collection of hymns.[221]
Tantra Diksha traditions
The main element of all Shaiva Tantra is the practice of diksha, a ceremonial initiation in which divinely
revealed mantras are given to the initiate by a Guru.[222]
A notable feature of some "left tantra" ascetics was their pursuit of siddhis (supernatural abilities) and
bala (powers), such as averting danger (santih) and the ability to harm enemies
(abhicarah).[223][224][225] Ganachakras, ritual feasts, would sometimes be held in cemeteries and
cremation grounds and featured possession by powerful female deities called Yoginis.[222][226] The cult
of Yoginis aimed to gain special powers through esoteric worship of the Shakti or the feminine aspects of
the divine. The groups included sisterhoods that participated in the rites.[226]
Some traditions defined special powers differently. For example, the Kashmiri tantrics explain the
powers as anima (awareness than one is present in everything), laghima (lightness, be free from
presumed diversity or differences), mahima (heaviness, realize one's limit is beyond one's own
consciousness), prapti (attain, be restful and at peace with one's own nature), prakamya (forebearance,
grasp and accept cosmic diversity), vasita (control, realize that one always has power to do whatever one
wants), isitva (self lordship, a yogi is always free).[227] More broadly, the tantric sub-traditions sought
nondual knowledge and enlightening liberation by abandoning all rituals, and with the help of reasoning
(yuktih), scriptures (sastras) and the initiating Guru.[228][225]
Kashmir Shaivism
Kashmir Shaivism is an influential tradition within Shaivism that

emerged in Kashmir in the 1st millennium CE and thrived in early
centuries of the 2nd millennium before the region was overwhelmed
by the Islamic invasions from the Hindu Kush region.[229] The
Kashmir Shaivism traditions became nearly extinct due to Islam
except for their preservation by Kashmiri Pandits.[230][231]
Kashmir Shaivism has been a nondualistic school,[232][233] and is

distinct from the dualistic Shaiva Siddhānta tradition that also
A 3rd century Nandi statue from
existed in medieval Kashmir.[234][235][236] A notable philosophy of
Kashmir. monistic Kashmiri Shaivism has been the Pratyabhijna ideas,
particularly those by the 10th century scholar Utpaladeva and 11th
century Abhinavagupta and Kshemaraja.[237][238] Their extensive
texts established the Shaiva theology and philosophy in an advaita (monism) framework.[230][235] The
Siva Sutras of 9th century Vasugupta and his ideas about Spanda have also been influential to this and
other Shaiva sub-traditions, but it is probable that much older Shaiva texts once existed.[235][239]
A notable feature of Kashmir Shaivism was its openness and integration of ideas from Shaktism,
Vaishnavism and Vajrayana Buddhism.[230] For example, one sub-tradition of Kashmir Shaivism adopts
Goddess worship (Shaktism) by stating that the approach to god Shiva is through goddess Shakti. This
tradition combined monistic ideas with tantric practices. Another idea of this school was Trika, or modal
triads of Shakti and cosmology as developed by Somananda in the early 10th century.[230][236][240]
Nath
Nath: a Shaiva subtradition that emerged from a much older Siddha tradition
based on Yoga.[241] The Nath consider Shiva as "Adinatha" or the first guru,
and it has been a small but notable and influential movement in India whose
devotees were called "Yogi or Jogi", given their monastic unconventional
ways and emphasis on Yoga.[242][243][244]
Nath theology integrated philosophy from Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism

traditions. Their unconventional ways challenged all orthodox premises,
exploring dark and shunned practices of society as a means to understanding
theology and gaining inner powers. The tradition traces itself to 9th or 10th
century Matsyendranath and to ideas and organization developed by
Gorakshanath.[241] They combined both theistic practices such as Goraknath founded the
worshipping goddesses and their historic Gurus in temples, as well monistic Nath Shaiva monastic
goals of achieving liberation or jivan-mukti while alive, by reaching the movement.
perfect (siddha) state of realizing oneness of self and everything with
Shiva.[245][241]
They formed monastic organisations,[241] and some of them metamorphosed into warrior ascetics to
resist persecution during the Islamic rule of the Indian subcontinent.[246][247][248]
Lingayatism
Lingayatism, also known as Veera Shaivism: is a distinct Shaivite religious

tradition in India.[250][251][252] It was founded by the 12th-century
philosopher and statesman Basava and spread by his followers, called
Sharanas.[253]
Lingayatism emphasizes qualified monism and bhakti (loving devotion) to

Shiva, with philosophical foundations similar to those of the 11th–12th-
century South Indian philosopher Ramanuja.[250] Its worship is notable for
the iconographic form of Ishtalinga, which the adherents wear.[254][255]
Large communities of Lingayats are found in the south Indian state of
Karnataka and nearby regions.[250][256][257] Lingayatism has its own
theological literature with sophisticated theoretical sub-traditions.[258]
They were influential in the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire that reversed the
A necklace with pendant
territorial gains of Muslim rulers, after the invasions of the Deccan region
containing linga symbol of
first by Delhi Sultanate and later other Sultanates. Lingayats consider their
Shiva are worn by
scripture to be Basava Purana, which was completed in 1369 during the
Lingayats.[249]
reign of Vijayanagara ruler Bukka Raya I.[259][260] Lingayat (Veerashaiva)
thinkers rejected the custodial hold of Brahmins over the Vedas and the
shastras, but they did not outright reject the Vedic knowledge.[261][262] The
13th-century Telugu Virashaiva poet Palkuriki Somanatha, the author of the scripture of Lingayatism, for
example asserted, "Virashaivism fully conformed to the Vedas and the shastras."[261][262]
Demography
Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in Shaivism compared to other traditions of
Hinduism. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Shaivism tradition is the second
largest group with 252 million or 26.6% of Hindus.[9] In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan,
Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism.[10] Large Shaivite communities exist in the Southern
Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Telangana, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh as well as in Jammu &
Kashmir, Uttarkhand and Madhya Pradesh. Substantial communities are also found in Haryana,
Maharashtra and central Uttar Pradesh.[263][264]
According to Galvin Flood, that Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many
Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly.[265] The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius
Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy
with individuals revering gods and goddesses polycentrically, with many Shaiva and Vaishnava
adherents recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly,
Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati, Durga, Radha, Sita and Saraswati important
in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.[266]
Influence
Shiva is a pan-Hindu god and Shaivism ideas on Yoga and as the god of performance arts (Nataraja)
have been influential on all traditions of Hinduism.
Shaivism was highly influential in southeast Asia from the late 6th
century onwards, particularly the Khmer and Cham kingdoms of
Indo-China, and across the major islands of Indonesia such as
Sumatra, Java and Bali.[267] This influence on classical Cambodia,
Vietnam and Thailand continued when Mahayana Buddhism arrived
with the same Indians.[268][269]
In Shaivism of Indonesia, the popular name for Shiva has been

Bhattara Guru, which is derived from Sanskrit Bhattaraka which
means "noble lord".[270] He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual
teacher, the first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring
the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent.[271]
However, the Bhattara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva,
as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him.
Bhattara Guru's wife in southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity
Durga, who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a
complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each
visualized with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and
others.[272][273] Shiva has been called Sadasiva, Paramasiva,
Mahadeva in benevolent forms, and Kala, Bhairava, Mahakala in his Shaivism and Buddhism have co-
developed in many regions. Above a
fierce forms.[273] The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same
syncretic image of Yoni-Linga with
philosophical diversity of Shaivism traditions found on the
four reliefs of the Buddha in a
subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the Vajrayana temple.
contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva
Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).[274]
As Bhakti movement ideas spread in South India, Shaivite devotionalism became a potent movement in
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Shaivism was adopted by several ruling Hindu dynasties as the state religion
(though other Hindu traditions, Buddhism and Jainism continued in parallel), including the Chola and
the Rajputs. A similar trend was witnessed in early medieval Indonesia with the Majapahit empire and
pre-Islamic Malaya.[275][276] In the Himalayan Hindu kingdom of Nepal, Shaivism remained a popular
form of Hinduism and co-evolved with Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.
Shaktism
The goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism is closely related to Shaivism. In many regions of
India, not only did the ideas of Shaivism influence the evolution of Shaktism, Shaivism itself got
influenced by it and progressively subsumed the reverence for the divine feminine (Devi) as an equal and
essential partner of divine masculine (Shiva).[277] The goddess Shakti in eastern states of India is
considered as the inseparable partner of god Shiva. According to Galvin Flood, the closeness between
Shaivism and Shaktism traditions is such that these traditions of Hinduism are at times difficult to
separate.[265] Some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples.[13]
Smarta Tradition
Shiva is a part of the Smarta Tradition, sometimes referred to as Smartism, another tradition of
Hinduism.[278] The Smarta Hindus are associated with the Advaita Vedanta theology, and their practices
include an interim step that incorporates simultaneous reverence for five deities, which includes Shiva
along with Vishnu, Surya, Devi and Ganesha. This is called the
Panchayatana puja. The Smartas thus accept the primary deity of
Shaivism as a means to their spiritual goals.[30]
Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols (murti) are
icons of saguna Brahman, a means to realizing the abstract Ultimate
Reality called nirguna Brahman. The five or six icons are seen by Smartas
as multiple representations of the one Saguna Brahman (i.e., a personal
God with form), rather than as distinct beings.[279][280] The ultimate goal
in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, then follow a
philosophical and meditative path to understanding the oneness of Atman
(soul, self) and Brahman (metaphysical reality) – as "That art
Thou".[278][281][282]
Panchayatana puja that incorporates Shiva became popular in medieval

A seated Ardhanarishvara
symbolically presenting the
India and is attributed to 8th century Adi Shankara,[278][281] but
feminine Shakti as
archaeological evidence suggests that this practice long predates the birth
of Adi Shankara. Many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been
inseparable part of masculine
Shiva. uncovered that are from the Gupta Empire period, and one Panchayatana
set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from Ajmer) has been
dated to belong to the Kushan Empire era (pre-300 CE).[283] According to
James Harle, major Hindu temples from 1st millennium CE commonly embedded the pancayatana
architecture, from Odisha to Karnataka to Kashmir. Large temples often present multiple deities in the
same temple complex, while some explicitly include fusion deities such as Harihara (half Shiva, half
Vishnu).[282]
Vaishnavism
Shaivism iconography in Cambodia, at Kbal Spean river site. As in India, the site also co-features Vaishnavism-related
iconography.[284]
Vaishnava texts reverentially mention Shiva. For example, the Vishnu Purana primarily focuses on the
theology of Hindu god Vishnu and his avatars such as Krishna, but it praises Brahma and Shiva and
asserts that they are one with Vishnu.[285] The Vishnu Sahasranama in the Mahabharata list a thousand
attributes and epithets of Vishnu. The list identifies Shiva with Vishnu.[286]
Reverential inclusion of Shaiva ideas and iconography are very common in major Vaishnava temples,
such as Dakshinamurti symbolism of Shaiva thought is often enshrined on the southern wall of the main
temple of major Vaishnava temples in peninsular India.[287] Harihara temples in and outside the Indian
subcontinent have historically combined Shiva and Vishnu, such as at the Lingaraj Mahaprabhu temple
in Bhubaneshwar, Odisha. According to Julius Lipner, Vaishnavism traditions such as Sri Vaishnavism
embrace Shiva, Ganesha and others, not as distinct deities of polytheism, but as polymorphic
manifestation of the same supreme divine principle, providing the devotee a polycentric access to the
spiritual.[288]
Similarly, Shaiva traditions have reverentially embraced other gods and goddesses as manifestation of
the same divine.[289] The Skanda Purana, for example in section 6.254.100 states, "He who is Shiva is
Vishnu, he who is Vishnu is Sadashiva".[290]
Sauraism (Sun deity)
The sun god called Surya is an ancient deity of Hinduism, and several ancient Hindu kingdoms
particularly in the northwest and eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent revered Surya. These
devotees called Sauras once had a large corpus of theological texts, and Shaivism literature reverentially
acknowledges these.[291] For example, the Shaiva text Srikanthiyasamhita mentions 85 Saura texts,
almost all of which are believed to have been lost during the Islamic invasion and rule period, except for
large excerpts found embedded in Shaiva manuscripts discovered in the Himalayan mountains.
Shaivism incorporated Saura ideas, and the surviving Saura manuscripts such as Saurasamhita
acknowledge the influence of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, assigning "itself to the canon of
Shaiva text Vathula-Kalottara.[291]
Yoga movements
Yoga and meditation has been an integral part of Shaivism, and it has
been a major innovator of techniques such as those of Hatha
Yoga.[292][293][294] Many major Shiva temples and Shaiva tritha
(pilgrimage) centers depict anthropomorphic iconography of Shiva as a
giant statue wherein Shiva is a loner yogi meditating,[295] as do Shaiva
texts.[296]
Many Shaiva temples present
In several Shaiva traditions such as the Kashmir Shaivism, anyone who Shiva in yoga pose.
seeks personal understanding and spiritual growth has been called a Yogi.
The Shiva Sutras (aphorisms) of Shaivism teach yoga in many forms.
According to Mark Dyczkowski, yoga – which literally means "union" – to this tradition has meant the
"realisation of our true inherent nature which is inherently greater than our thoughts can ever conceive",
and that the goal of yoga is to be the "free, eternal, blissful, perfect, infinite spiritually conscious" one
is.[297]
Many Yoga-emphasizing Shaiva traditions emerged in medieval India, who refined yoga methods such as
by introducing Hatha Yoga techniques. One such movement had been the Nath Yogis, a Shaivism sub-
tradition that integrated philosophy from Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism traditions. It was founded by
Matsyendranath and further developed by Gorakshanath.[243][244][298] The texts of these Yoga
emphasizing Hindu traditions present their ideas in Shaiva context.[note 7]
Hindu performance arts
Shiva is the lord of dance and dramatic arts in Hinduism.[300][301][302] This is celebrated in Shaiva
temples as Nataraja, which typically shows Shiva dancing in one of the poses in the ancient Hindu text
on performance arts called the Natya Shastra.[301][303][304]
Dancing Shiva as a metaphor for celebrating life and arts is very common in ancient and medieval Hindu
temples. For example, it is found in Badami cave temples, Ellora Caves, Khajuraho, Chidambaram and
others. The Shaiva link to the performance arts is celebrated in Indian classical dances such as
Bharatanatyam and Chhau.[305][306][307]
Buddhism
Buddhism and Shaivism have interacted and influenced each other since
ancient times, in both South Asia and Southeast Asia. Their Siddhas and
esoteric traditions, in particular, have overlapped to an extent where Buddhists
and Hindus would worship in the same temple such as in the Seto
Machindranath. In southeast Asia, the two traditions were not presented in
competitive or polemical terms, rather as two alternate paths that lead to the
same goals of liberation, with theologians disagreeing which of these is faster
and simpler.[308] Scholars disagree whether a syncretic tradition emerged from
Buddhism and Shaivism, or it was a coalition with free borrowing of ideas, but
they agree that the two traditions co-existed peacefully.[309]
Dancing Shiva
Nataraja at the 6th
The earliest evidence of a close relationship between Shaivism and Buddhism
century Badami cave
comes from the archaeological sites and damaged sculptures from the
temples.
northwest Indian subcontinent, such as Gandhara. These are dated to about the
1st-century CE, with Shiva depicted in Buddhist arts.[310][note 8] The Buddhist
Avalokiteshvara is linked to Shiva in many of these arts,[311] but in others Shiva is linked to Bodhisattva
Maitreya with he shown as carrying his own water pot like Vedic priests.[310] According to Richard
Blurton, the ancient works show that the Bodhisattva of Compassion in Buddhism has many features in
common with Shiva in Shaivism.[311] The Shaiva Hindu and Buddhist syncretism continues in the
contemporary era in the island of Bali, Indonesia.[312] In Central Asian Buddhism, and its historic arts,
syncretism and a shared expression of Shaivism, Buddhism and Tantra themes has been common.[313]
The syncretism between Buddhism and Shaivism was particularly marked in southeast Asia, but this was
not unique, rather it was a common phenomenon also observed in the eastern regions of the Indian
subcontinent, the south and the Himalayan regions.[92] This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu
Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva.[92][note 9] In
the pre-Islamic Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions, though
not identical religions.[315][note 10] This idea is also found in the sculptures and temples in the eastern
states of India and the Himalayan region. For example, Hindu temples in these regions show Harihara
(half Shiva, half Vishnu) flanked by a standing Buddha on its right and a standing Surya (Hindu Sun
god) on left.[317][318]
On major festivals of Bali Hindus, such as the Nyepi – a "festival of silence", the observations are
officiated by both Buddhist and Shaiva priests.[92][319][320]
Jainism
Jainism co-existed with Shaiva culture since ancient times, particularly in western and southern India
where it received royal support from Hindu kings of Chaulukya, Ganga and Rashtrakuta dynasties.[321]
In late 1st millennium CE, Jainism too developed a Shaiva-like tantric ritual culture with Mantra-
goddesses.[321][322] These Jain rituals were aimed at mundane benefits using japas (mantra recitation)
and making offerings into Homa fire.[321]
According to Alexis Sanderson, the link and development of Shaiva goddesses into Jaina goddess is more
transparent than a similar connection between Shaivism and Buddhism.[323] The 11th-century Jain text
‘’Bhairavapadmavatikalpa’’, for example, equates Padmavati of Jainism with Tripura-bhairavi of
Shaivism and Shaktism. Among the major goddesses of Jainism that are rooted in Hindu pantheon,
particularly Shaiva, include Lakshmi and Vagishvari (Sarasvati) of the higher world in Jain cosmology,
Vidyadevis of the middle world, and Yakshis such as Ambika, Cakreshvari, Padmavati and Jvalamalini of
the lower world according to Jainism.[321]
Shaiva-Shakti iconography is found in major Jain temples. For example, the Osian temple of Jainism
near Jodhpur features Chamunda, Durga, Sitala, and a naked Bhairava.[324] While Shaiva and Jain
practices had considerable overlap, the interaction between the Jain community and Shaiva community
differed on the acceptance of ritual animal sacrifices before goddesses. Jain remained strictly vegetarian
and avoided animal sacrifice, while Shaiva accepted the practice.[325]
Temples and pilgrimage

Shaiva Puranas, Agamas and other
regional literature refer to temples by
various terms such as Mandir, Amarnath
Shivayatana, Shivalaya, Shambhunatha, Katas Raj
Jyotirlingam, Shristhala, Chattraka, Kedarnath Kailash
Badrinath
Bhavaggana, Bhuvaneshvara, Goputika, Jageshwar
Harayatana, Kailasha, Mahadevagriha, Kathmandu
Bhairavanath
Saudhala and others.[326] In Southeast Sivasagar
Asia Shaiva temples are called Candi Khajuraho Varanasi
Deoghar
(Java),[327] Pura (Bali),[328] and Wat Ujjain
Dwaraka Taraknath
(Cambodia and nearby regions).[329][330] Omkareshwar Chandranath
Somnath
Many of the Shiva-related pilgrimage sites Triambak ElloraAundha Puri
Bhima
such as Varanasi, Amarnath, Kedarnath, Parli
Somnath, and others are broadly
Srisailam
considered holy in Hinduism. They are
called kṣétra (Sanskrit: क्षेत्र[331]). A kṣétra
has many temples, including one or more
major ones. These temples and its location Chidambaram
attracts pilgrimage called tirtha (or Rameshwaram
Koneswaram
tirthayatra).[332] Munneswaram
Many of the historic Puranas literature

embed tourism guide to Shaivism-related Major Shaiva Hindu temple sites. Orange markers are UNESCO
pilgrimage centers and temples.[333] For world heritage sites.
example, the Skanda Purana deals
primarily with Tirtha Mahatmyas
(pilgrimage travel guides) to numerous geographical points,[333] but also includes a chapter stating that
a temple and tirtha is ultimately a state of mind and virtuous everyday life.[334][335]
Major rivers of the Indian subcontinent and their confluence (sangam), natural springs, origin of
Ganges River (and pancha-ganga), along with high mountains such as Kailasha with Mansovar Lake are
particularly revered spots in Shaivism.[336][337] Twelve jyotirlinga sites across India have been
particularly important pilgrimage sites in Shaivism representing the radiant light (jyoti) of
infiniteness,[338][339][340] as per Śiva Mahāpurāṇa.[341] They are Somnatha, Mallikarjuna,
Mahakaleshwar, Omkareshwar, Kedarnatha, Bhimashankar, Visheshvara, Trayambakesvara,
Vaidyanatha, Nageshvara, Rameshvara and Grishneshwar.[337] Other texts mention five Kedras
(Kedarnatha, Tunganatha, Rudranatha, Madhyamesvara and Kalpeshvara), five Badri (Badrinatha,
Pandukeshvara, Sujnanien, Anni matha and Urghava), snow lingam of Amarnatha, flame of
Jwalamukhi, all of the Narmada River, and others.[337] Kashi (Varanasi) is declared as particularly
special in numerous Shaiva texts and Upanishads, as well as in the pan-Hindu Sannyasa Upanishads
such as the Jabala Upanishad.[342][343]
The early Bhakti movement poets of Shaivism composed poems about pilgrimage and temples, using
these sites as metaphors for internal spiritual journey.[344][345]
See also
Chaturdasa Devata
Ein Sof
Hindu denominations
History of Shaivism
Jangam Lingayat
Siddha
Sophia (wisdom)
Notes
1. Kapalikas are alleged to smear their body with ashes from the cremation ground, revered the fierce
Bhairava form of Shiva, engage in rituals with blood, meat, alcohol, and sexual fluids. However,
states David Lorenzen, there is a paucity of primary sources on Kapalikas, and historical information
about them is available from fictional works and other traditions who disparage them.[74][75]
2. The Dunhuang caves in north China built from the 4th century onwards are predominantly about the
Buddha, but some caves show the meditating Buddha with Hindu deities such as Shiva, Vishnu,
Ganesha and Indra.[89]
3. There is an overlap in this approach with those found in non-puranik tantric rituals.[99]
4. Pashupatas have both Vedic-Puranik and non-Puranik sub-traditions.[97]
5. Vasugupta is claimed by two Advaita (Monistic) Shaivism sub-traditions to be their spiritual
founder.[132]
6. For Śvetāśvatara Upanishad as a systematic philosophy of Shaivism see: Chakravarti 1994, p. 9.
7. For example:
[It will] be impossible to accomplish one's functions unless one is a master of oneself.
Therefore strive for self-mastery, seeking to win the way upwards.
To have self-mastery is to be a yogin (yogitvam). [v. 1–2]
[...]
Whatever reality he reaches through the Yoga whose sequence I have just explained,
he realizes there a state of consciousness whose object is all that pervades.
Leaving aside what remains outside he should use his vision to penetrate all [within].
Then once he has transcended all lower realities, he should seek the Shiva level. [v. 51–
53]
[...]
How can a person whose awareness is overwhelmed by sensual experience stabilize his
mind?
Answer: Shiva did not teach this discipline (sādhanam) for individuals who are not
[already] disaffected. [v. 56–57]
[...]
— Bhatta Narayanakantha, Mrigendratantra (paraphrased), Transl: Alexis

Sanderson[299]
8. Some images show proto-Vishnu images.[310]

9. Similarly, in Vaishnavism Hindu tradition, Buddha is considered as one of the avatar of Vishnu.[314]
10. Medieval Hindu texts of Indonesia equate Buddha with Siwa (Shiva) and Janardana (Vishnu).[316]
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External links
Encyclopædia Britannica, "Shaivism" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaivism)
Saivism.Net (http://www.saivism.net/)
Alexis sanderson, Publications (https://web.archive.org/web/20171207081214/http://www.alexissand
erson.com/publications.html), scholarly studies in Shaivism
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19/07/2021 Shaivism - Wikipedia

Shaivism developed as an amalgam of pre-Vedic religions and

Etymology and nomenclature

Origins and history

Indus Valley Civilisation

Some trace the origins to the Indus Valley Civilization, which

The Rigveda (~1500–1200 BCE) has the earliest clear mention of

According to Gavin Flood, "the formation of Śaiva traditions as we

Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya, dated to the 2nd century BCE, mentions

weak and subject to competing inferences.[51][67]

The inscriptions found in the Himalayan region, such as those in the

Most of the Gupta kings, beginning with Chandragupta II

Major scholars of competing Hindu traditions from the second half

Shaivism was likely the predominant tradition in South India, co-existing

The Mantramarga of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, provided a

Along with the Himalayan region

Buddhism had arrived in Indo-China region in the Funan period,

Beliefs and practices

Vedic, Puranik, and esoteric Shaivism

Vedic-Puranik. The majority within Shaivism follow the Vedic-

Shaivism versus other Hindu traditions

Comparison of Shaivism with other traditions

Creator Shiva Vishnu Devi Brahman principle [107][109]

Avatar Minor Key concept Significant Minor [105][110][111]

Monastic life Recommends Accepts Accepts Recommends [105][112][113]

numerous texts ranging from scriptures to (post-8th century)

According to Gavin Flood – a professor at South India = 8,600

Oxford University specializing in Shaivism and Others (Devanagiri) = 2,000

phenomenology, Shaiva scholars developed a Bali and SE Asia = Many

Vedas and Principal Upanishads

The Veda is the cow, the true Agama its milk.

— Umapati, Translated by David Smith[14]

Shaiva minor Upanishads

Sharabha Upanishad Unknown Shiva as Sharabha [152]

The tradition is attributed to a sage from Gujarat named Lakulisha (~2nd

The Pashupatas have been particularly prominent in Gujarat, Rajasthan,

Lakula Atimargi Lakulisha at Sangameshvara

Grihastha and Sannyasi Shaiva: Mantramarga

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism र्ग 13/45

Srikantha, influenced by Ramanuja, formulated Shaiva Vishishtadvaita.[200] In this theology, Atman

The Śaivasiddhānta ("the established doctrine of Shiva") is the earliest

By the 7th century, the Nayanars, a tradition of poet-saints in the

Tantra Diksha traditions

Kashmir Shaivism is an influential tradition within Shaivism that

Kashmir Shaivism has been a nondualistic school,[232][233] and is

Nath theology integrated philosophy from Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism

Lingayatism, also known as Veera Shaivism: is a distinct Shaivite religious

Lingayatism emphasizes qualified monism and bhakti (loving devotion) to

In Shaivism of Indonesia, the popular name for Shiva has been

Panchayatana puja that incorporates Shiva became popular in medieval

Sauraism (Sun deity)

Hindu performance arts

Temples and pilgrimage

Many of the historic Puranas literature

Therefore strive for self-mastery, seeking to win the way upwards.

To have self-mastery is to be a yogin (yogitvam). [v. 1–2]

he realizes there a state of consciousness whose object is all that pervades.

— Bhatta Narayanakantha, Mrigendratantra (paraphrased), Transl: Alexis

8. Some images show proto-Vishnu images.[310]

60. George Cardona (1997). Pāṇini: A Survey of Research (https://books.google.com/books?id=adWXh

00. Sanderson 1988, pp. 660–704.

32. Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare (2002). The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy (https://books.google.com/books?id=

50. Kramrisch, Stella (1981). The Presence of Śiva (https://archive.org/details/presenceofsiva0000kram).

11. Hilko Wiardo Schomerus 2000, pp. 1–7, 29–37, 44–49.