ee Ale c_HIMNE YS D ESIGN V consTeerTan de eR eT Oe Re bi TALL CHIMNEYS Design and Construction SN MANOHAR Chiet Civil Engineer Tata Consulting Engineers Bangalore Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited NEW DELHI Torsteel Research Foundation in India BANGALORE Coil)© 1985, TATA MeGRAWAIILL FoBLISHING COMPANY LIMITED 1No pact ofthis publication can be tepraduced in any form or by any means Without the prior writen permission of the two publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, and the ‘orstee! Resnarch Foundation in India ‘This edition can be exported from tnlia only by the publishers ‘Any opinions/statements expressed in the hook are that ofthe author and not necessarily that of the publishers; unfess specifically indicated otherwise Publishing Monager: Rasy Bent Production Editor: Ravan KAvL Production Assistont: BL Docks Jointly nublished by Tata MeGras-t fil Publishing Conypuny Linvited, 12/4 Asaf Ali Road, Now Delhi [10 02, snd Torstec! Ress. ch Foundation in tnd 7, Crescent Road, Mangalore $60 1, and! printed at ‘nikal Electric Press, 4163 Arya Pues, Delhi 110 007a FOREWORD It has long been established that introduction of Torstecl as a high-strength, high-bond rein- forcing steel has contributed significantly in the development of reinforced concrete design ‘and construction all over India and abroad. It has been realised that the use of Torsteel in properly designed structures leads to conservation of precious stecl resulting in substantial reduction in construction cost with improved structural elliciency not only in simple reinforced wcaihers but also in complex structures. |As research and development is continuously taking place cnd knowledge and experience bociny gained, seinloreed concrete construction is being rendered more and more versatile. Many coniplicated and special types of structures cilering to a variety of service conditions und design criteria are now conceived and constructed in reinforced concrete more economi- cally than with structural steel, masonry or other ma © publication of technical literature incorporating wellestablished design procedures criteriy based on latest developments is one of the important activities of Torsteel ch Fourshution’s (FRED tectnival services. As large-scale industrial development is ing place all around, at ktrge number of tall chimneys should be required to be construc every year and if was therefore felt that “Design of Tall Chimneys” was one of the riportan: anal urgent topics to be taken up for publication. Design and construction of tall a highly specialised nature and data so far publised even in the developed scanty and the information available being in smelt bits, need was felt to Ishcu!ion as one of the single sources covering all the required design details in a prehensive extrner. Being compan ‘a new subject it was with great difficulty that pert of emineiter, MF S.N. Manohar could be found and persuaded to take up the this publication, On behalf of the engineering community and on my own ons to Mr Manchar for having brought out references on all aspects of wonerete countries. by bohulf, Ponisi teestend my hearty eongraty sl num nd study. this eXeellent Fook incorporating. a fund of data a Ucsiga of tall chimneys, based on his own experiencevi FOREWORD, With the help of this publicatfon, 1am sure that it should be possible to design ant build industrial chimneys taller, slimmer, lighter yet stronger, stabler, cheaper sind more durable in reinforced concrete with Torsteel PR Mueosey| { | | : PREFACE Mier realising the urgent need to restrict pollution levels, chimney heights rapidly increased. ‘This is hecause pollutants now had to be discharged at a considerable height such that after dispersion over a wide area, their concentration on reaching the pround would satisfy the ret stipulations of pollution-regulatory standards. As a result, short brick chimneys of the Hav gave way t0 the present-day tall reinforced conerete chimneys. Tie advent of tall chimneys foreed engineers to take a second look at design methods and construction practices then in vogue. It was realised that it was not enough to design such structures for static Loads alone, but that their response to randomly varying time-dependent wind and seismic loads also had to be examined. At the same time, execution of work at considerable heights posed techno-economie problems to the contractors which forced field engineers to look for technical innovations and cost-saving measures. This led to the intro= duction of slipform construction, use of metal liners, ete. As a result of these developments, the installation of a present-day tall chimney requires the use of modern sophisticated design tools and construction techniques In addition co undertaking a comprehensive structural analysis and constructing to accept ble standards, the proper engincering of a chimney requiresa study of environmental aspects, estimation of aerodynamic and seismie forces, determination of thermal stresses as well as valuation of alternative lining and insukstion materials with due reference to. their cost, corrosion resistance, perlormance under dillerent operating conditions, etc. Thus it embraces subjects like metcorofogy, chemistry, mathematics of risk theories, thermal engineering, and soon. This makes chimney design a truly multicdisciplinary activity. ‘There is, however, a ture which can provide inputs from various specialist disciplines for engineer, This book aims at providing such information, “Throughout the text there is emphasis on understanding the basic concepts, which are ex- plained with mathematical support, This will provide a theoretical background to a prace incey and will draw his attention to the assumptions and limitations inherent in iniethods he intends to tse, It is hoped that this approach will lead to a better vitiual absence of Tite the benefit of @ practisi rising the desigvili PREFACE understanding wf the phenfmena involved and résult in a pragmatic design and in the interprciativn of cites of practice. the teacher and student alike since at deals with the theeteticel dures and in the application oF these procedues to jractie aim hats been to present desien jracodures 9 yield results ef acceptable avcuraey. In special analysis could be used, if necesit While kine much of the thenretival work hus been developed | Forms an exten Hy deen from references ited iva bib ion of me earlier papers. This wort: emboxtiss 1 during the evsincering oF nyzny cium, received engi wets. 1 is not possible to hank deeply indebted to the Torsteel Research Fount, of this work. In conclusion, while recor: Consulting Engineers for permisiing yy Wiews expressed hervin are personal and do not nevessatily re Sever tin Good 1 My APpTEciatien oF th Hication oF this buh, # Taig Boneh sf ch Ful 4himney reful to proce s. The which lement + book, cases it gained cstions Tam cation f Tata at the ‘pany, SOHAR we ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Permission received from various institutions/agencies for use of the following material in the book is gratefully acknowledged. |. Equations (2.6), (2.8) and (2.9) and Charts 2.3 and 2.4 are from ASME Recommended Guide for the Prediction of the Dispersion of Airborne effluents, 2nd edn, published by the American Society of Mechanicat Engineers, 1973, Basie equations for shear and torsion in Appendix E are reproduced from a paper titled “Shear stress analysis of cylindrical chimneys with openings” by A Fafitis, Indian Concrete Journal, Feb. 81, p. 42. 3. Section 5.3 is based on a paper, “Vertical stresses in chimneys due to temperature" by S.B. Desai, Indian Concrete Journal, v. 42, Apt. 68, p. 176. 4. Sections 5.6 and 10.5b (ii) are based on a publication, Design and Construction of Steel Chimney Liners by Task Committee on Steel Chimney Liners published by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 1975. 5. Equations (3.3) and (3.8), Chart 9.2 and Section 9.4 are based on a paper “Gust load= ig factors” by A.G. Davenport, Proc. ASCE, ST 3, June 67, p. 11. 6, Tables 4.1 and 4.2 are extracted from IS: 1893-1975 and Chart 4.1 is based on draft IS: 1893. Values of coefficients Ki (Chart 5.1), Ka, Krand Ke are-fcom IS: 4998 (Part 1)- 1975. These have been reproduced with the permission of Indian Standards Institution, These standards are available for sale from Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi, and its regional and branch offices.CONTENTS Foreword y Preface vii { Acknowledgements ix } List of Plates av 1 INTRODUCTION 1 | Ll Function of a Chimney 1 1.2 Historical Review 1 1.3 Types of Chimneys 4 14° Architecture 6 2 CHIMNEY SIZING 7 24 Exit Velocity 7 2.2 Physical Dimensions & 2.3 Plume Rise 12 24 Environmental Aspects /4 2.5 Estimating GLC 16 2.6 Particulate Settling 2/ 2.7 Special Aspects 23, 2.8 Illustrative Examples 24 3 WIND EFFECTS » ‘ 3.1 Wind Characteristics 30 3.2. Strouhal Number 32 3.3 Static Wind Effects 34 3.4, Dynamic-wind Effects 37 3.5 Wake Bufetting 39xii CONTENTS 4 SEISMIC EFFECTS 4.1 Seismic Excitation 41 4.2 Response-spectrum Method 43 43° Modal Analysis 45 4.4 Time-history Response Analysis 48 45. Seismic Elect on Metal Liners 48 4.6 Mlostrative Frample 50 5 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS S.L Thermal Gradient 50 5.2. ‘Temperature Stress 59 5.3 Combining Vertical Stresses 60) 54 Circumforential Stresses 63 5.5 Ventilation of Access Void 63 5.6 Temperature Eifects on Metal Liners 65 5,7 Insolation Ellect 67 5.8 Illustrative Examples 68 6 FOUNDATIONS 6.1 General Aspects 7 6.2 Raft Foundation 73 63. Pile Foundation 86 6.4 Shulls of Revolution 94 6.5. Miustrative Examples J04 7 ELASTIC DESIGN 7.1 Loads 1/0 7.2 Shell Analysis 110 7.3, Shear and Torsion 134 7A Dellection 137 7.5 Corbel Effect 137 7.6 Mlustrative Example 1/38 | 8 LIMIT STATE DESIGN 8.1 Partial Load Factors /4/ 8.2 Limit Ste of Collapse 142 8.3 Vertical Temperature Effects 176 8.4 Limit State of Serviceability 176 8.5. Ilustrative Example 177 9 DYNAMIC WIND ANALYSIS 9.1 rameters JS0 9.2 Stability 182 at 56 10 141 180a 56 nm 0 141 180 9.3. Effect of Flexibility on Response 183 9.4 Along-wind Response 184 9.5 Across-wind Response 188 9.6 Dynamic Response 189 9.7 Ovalling 189 ~ 9.8 Vortex Suppression 190 9.9 Illustrative Examples 197 10 LINING AND INSULATION 10.1 Functions of a Liner 196 10.2. Liner Properties 196 10.3 Chemical Corrosion 196 104 Types of Liners 197 10.5 Liner Design 199 10.6 Mortars 202 10.7 Insulation 203 10.8 Illustrative Examples 204 11 ACCESSORIES 1 Cap. 207 11.2. Lightning Protection 203 11.3 Aviation Warning Lights 209 114 Ladder 209 ILS Clean-out and Access Doors 209 11.6 Breeching Connection 209 11.7 Mounting for Lifting Materials 210 18 Air Vents 211 11.9. Galleries 2/7 11.10 Platforms 2/1 ILL Soot Hopper 2/3 12 CONSTRUCTION 12.1 General Aspects 2/5 12.2 Conerete and Reinforcement Work 216 12.3 Formwork 2/8 124° Lining 220 13 MODEL SIMULATION 13.1 Need for Simulation 221 13.2. Simulation 222 13.3, Limitations 223 Notation CONTENTS. xllh 207 215 21 205xiv contents Appendices A’ Raft Foundation 235, Pile Cap 239 Shell of Revolution 247 Elastic Analysis of Shell wi Shear and Torsion 250 Limit State Analysis 255 Recent Developments 259 References and Bibliography Index ° Mulli-lue Openings 247 O7™mone Fron Pla Plare Plite Plate Plate ( Plate 7 Phere &233 262 269 Frontispiece Trombay chimney (Courtes; Plate 1 Plate 2 Plate 3 Plate 4 Plate 5 Plate 6 Plate 7 Plate 8 oy LIST OF PLATES Tata Electric Cos.) ‘Twin towers (Courtesy: Karnataka Power Corporation Ltd.) Chimneys dominate (Courtesy: NTPC) Lower portion of a chimney (Courtesy: NTPC) i Raft reinforcement . | A chimney with strakes (Courtesy: Gujarat Electricity Board) ‘A molii-flue chimney (Courtesy: Gujarat Electricity Board) (Top) Stipform being installed (Bottom) Chutes for placing conerete during slipforming (Loft) Slipform construction (Right) Jacks for slipformingPLATE ‘Twin Towers (Courtesy: Karnataka Power Corporation Ltd.)PLATE 2 Chimneys dominate (Courtesy: NTPC) Chimneys, as we kt function, They had a, Targer and taller, the: In USA, however, Piece added to a fluc» area of an industry. ¢ perature and velocity “stack” has gained pc 1.1 Function of” A chimney is a me that after dilution duc entrained solid parti achieves simultaneous etc.) and being high! mets itis well to re pollution control. 1,2 Historical Re Man has always beePLATE? Chimneys dominate (Courtesy: NTPC) 1 INTRODUCTION faimneys, as we know them today, are tall slender structures which fulfil an important netion. They had a humble beginning as household ven: and overthe years, as vents grey farger and taller, they came to be known as Chimneys, A cluster of them is a stack. In USA, however, during early days the term “stack” was used to describe the extension rece gp ed #0 a fue duct to convey and discharge combusting gases away from the operating area of an industry, A stack which was scientifically designed t6 take cognizance of gas teme aetack pane Yeleity elects, corrosion aspects, ete, was called a ney. By usage, the term “stack” has gained popularity and today it also signifies a chimney. 1.1 Function of a Chimney A chimney is a means by which waste gases are discharged at a high enough elevation so that after dilution due to atmospheric turbulence, th entrained solid particulates achieves simultaneous reduction in concentration of a nuyhee of pollutants (S02, fly ash, cic.) and being highly reliable it does not requite a Standby. While these are its distinct metts, itis well to remember that a chimney is not the complete solution to the problem of pollution control, 12 Historical Review ways been in search of an cflective system to dispose off undesirable gaseous Man has2 TALL Chineys Products of combustion. ‘he earliest form of Auch a system wats a small vent. Over the years there was an increase in both dealt irc ts ated volume of eases 10 be handled and ce Faault vents were'replaced by smd brick chinny ch chimneys eontinued to increase and those ta "1 as industrial ehinineys, (@) Material of Construction Until the beginning of this eontury, the Populae materials for ein brick and steel. As chinmeys prow taller, a sp fee cnmical and were replaced by steel ehinmeys bath self'supporting and gnyed. White she fist conerete chimney was built in Germany, 1876, reinforced conerete: chimney introduced in UK and Europe i 1907 andl tapering cone prcinforeed concrete chimneys have heen built ay ts SA and USSR since 1900 anda. dosm jal conerete chimney bulk in Japan in 1916 remarneg the tallest chimney in the work fae between jong see, Mere marked technical improveneee in the field of concrete chimn Hep SOuCFetE tla ts present pradomnin HF StaLUS aS a construe. tion material only alier the problem at Sonerete cracking due to a thermal eradient wg resolved in the early 195s. Nav teached when brick ehinmneys became chimney wits buill in tatg, (©) Lining arly chimneys were unlined, Developments in boiler and fuel technolo, ininge, Mich ®agravated the corrosion probe rode Hing Lnitaly, seltsupporting, Jats eine brickwork backed by an insulatin medium was used as a lining, but soon insulating bricks were introduced in the 19s gabsequent development, such a lining wes Ihe thet tot Cotbels (at intervals) oft the sa” ra Int Cotresion of the concrete shell and te overcome this de sir Bap was introduced between the and the conerete shell, eerie ste! liners are popular beesune a impervious to gases and compared to pricks, ar lighter an permit a hic hy Velocity, Insulated stect tiners made th ir appearance in 1960 and the probiem of buckling otsvch Hiners came tothe forefront in 1971 when design sraulfeations had to be introduced to cates fa orig ortlure-dtferentialetiets, ete. In eoeen edu etaies are being tied out as a lining thant and if new technology can achieve cent jajtetion ad improvement in their ptern nee, plastic may well prove to he the primary Tining material in the future. ieney,a ventilated (©) Pollution Regulations abla reference exists to air and water Pollution and more recently King ted JRelind promulgated the Sea Coste Act [towever, the emission of gaseous poten St aschinneys continied to be tolered ate necessary evil until th °F 1852", Then technologists realicd the atmospher. ‘ard of ms from ¢ London smog disaster absorb an unlimited “Nebel ruber fnicate te erence mumier inthe bibliography, quantity of American ¢ USSR in 1 Inv the ear achieved if von this wv mate disteit work of Sut and severa’ plume rise: (1980), Hol nd Briggs ( predict plus of poltutants @) Design Desi proc modern sop! Early chime allowed fors this end, AC was updated A chitnney role. Primiti structures wa and Duchem neers ascribe At about in the field, b formation wa with the fort callapse of Ts Feerybridge ¢ insight into « To study 5 theory were b increase in ¢ plus. For the ctiticatly reass response, It w. and behaviour on prototype s MichelangetOver the years dled and as a continued to Fial chiraneys, Tuction were wys became +d, While the mneys were lin 1910, nd a 165-m world for ie chimneys 1 construc- ‘dient was > Tow ilue- duction of insulating 508. As a the con- rough the ventilated ‘pared to nearance mn design ' recent ee cost orimary ard of 's from sisaster fimited INTRODUETION 4 Siannly of Pollutants and this led to advice, followed by legislation, such as the British and Aaercan Clean Air Acts of 1956 and 1963 respectively, echniegt stride to air quality in USSR in 1967 and the establishment of an environmental pr achieved iff a chimney was about two-anda-hall timer the height mate distribution of pollutants in a plume and its dispersion in the ‘atmosphere baséd’on thie? work of Sutton (1922), Bosanquer (1936), Hay Pasquill and Cramer (1957) Gittota°(i961) and several others. In addition, many semi-empirical methods were’ developed’ té predict plume rise: notably among them were-Da ‘idson-Bryant (1949), Bosanquet-Cai ‘Halton C950), Holland (1953), Priestley (1956), Bosanquet (1957), Lucas’ Menne and: Spurt (1963) and Briggs (1969). Their work enabled the forinulation of mathematical models to reasonably’ sre Diane behaviour and thereby arvive at an estimate of the ground lencl ‘concentration of pollutants, sunt procedures have come a long way from the early rule-of-thumb melts to,the rate t fophistcated mathematical techniques backed by data from tests na ene models. Line chimneys) developed cracks since temperature and other streawe yore nos adequately allowed forand this focussed attention on the need for a rational deeigy Procedure. Towards this end, ACI published a specification for the design of cononre chimneys in 1934 which was updated in 1954 and again in 1969. A chimney isa wind structure, ie a structure in whose desiga wind loads play a dominant ree meamitive man was awed by wind and a fundamental knowledge abort ag forces on ad Deckenan Stined only afer the work of Gatiteo (1655), Newton (1680), Smoce (1759) and Duchemin (1842), The disastrous failure of the Firth of Tay bridge iw tie ‘made engi- neers ascribe quantitative values to wind loads aie amatt the same time, the vibration of chimneys due to vortex shedding was observed jn te Eeld, bu an association between the periodicity of the wake of a eylindes and vortex formation was stated by Bénard only in 1908. Thereafter, the relationshiy, ofthis Periodicity with the formation of a street of stable vortices was stated by von Kérman in 1912. The collapse of Tacomas Nartows bridge (1940) due to wind-induced oscillations followed by aciplse cooling towers (1965) resulted in much research directed towads gaining more insight into the cause and magnitude of aerodynamic forces. To ‘study pollutant dispersion, mathematical models based on the turbulent diffusion theory were being used in 1960. At the same time, pollution regulations. forced a rapid increase in chimney heights which today have reached the staggering magnitude of 400 ra rae ieee stisctory and economical design of such chimneys, it became necessary to critically reassess wind Toads and improve the mathematical models for predicting strncrarct response, If was ccallsed that sueh reassessment can best be done by studying the efleet on and behusiour of scale models in wind tunnels coupled with field measurements of respons on prototype structures . ; Michela lileo and others’are known to have dsed models as an aid to resolve4 TALL CHitasieys ehltectural and structural problems. hough Teminger:* sed Models to study wind etfeets On buildings in 1893, their scismilic use 09 meavure wing toads and steuctural response is polly @ development of this century. Tie sins wind tact for simulating w Ported by Cérmak* in 1933 and thereafter valuable work wen done by studying the behaviour of Seale models in wind tunnels by Seruton 1958), Fung (1960), Davenport (1961) and Orne. Such work has yildsd valuable information aheut ae hatte and magnitude of dynamic loads due to wind and in understanding © structure's respanse 10 such loads, [tel chimneys were rarely checked for adequacy ules earthqutke conditions. Probl ag iter the Nobi carthyuake of 1891 aud tte Son | aneisco earthquake of 1906 that font methods were applied to evaluate the resins OF structures to earthquakes. Farly Seismic theories were evolved an the basis ola cane force analysis but disasters wrought by pocg duakes at Kant (1923), Niigata (1960s) and Alaces meat fo study dynamic soil propertcs andthe weeesaie ar jon theories to evalu k of electronic computers his greatly speeded up the amlysis of chinnecs Today, chimney design is a complen multe disciplinary exercise posing chatlenges to nscialists in various fields. A typical team which wy needed for adequately handling a mo, {all chimney project is indicated in Table 1.1 TAMELT RE Cuwusty tor turnarioy Thaw Pnoueer €o-on0maToR PROJECT MECHANICAL EKG, | Me dat i Eeuirmont | thetmat Metatngi Shed | Eroineer m= PROAECT CHEMICAL ENGINEER cuir Engineer Sheciaise, Spesiatat Da Mada ol i - Held Matoriat siphon Chemist Phys Tron Serr Stee | iad r Tost er Suuetwral —arehitect Soils douincey Brg i 1 1 mation Model Study Seistotonit Groth Analyst Moga Stedy Oe Geotoait 13 Types of Chimneys Chinineys may be clastied ina varen of Ways as illustrated in Table 1.2, areas becla iy of ways a ‘ated in Table 1.2, Some of the aspects t Heig. Tat Enginessing (a) Height Initially, ct with the ree be consider that it calls only a ma tall, () Number Often, a si sources is s) reduetion i: in order to with «separ concrete wit (©) Reinfore Above a cer sive than a | logical strai material use with or with competitiontudy wind effects tural response is vind was reported the behaviour sport (1961) and and_magnitude » such loads, tions, Probably ake of 1906 that ‘thquakes. Early ters wrought by tention on the ories to evaluate ers has greatly s. challenges. to sting a modern | | ENGINEER i sete0r0ogieat Speriaist the aspects | TAOLE 1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF IxDUStRIAL Ci INDUSTRIAL - CHIMNEYS ———, warthutor nooo weloT NUMBER waTERIALOF —__stmudrunac unin OFFLUES CONSTRUCTION ‘SUPPORT To 1, Tall Shon Single Muttitve Guyed Self sup. 1) fue orting T Bri Reinforced concrete Steet FAP. a) 1 T 1 q Sroinwion le fie tasty Paco erchesad la Sais Wang lay Stool “stool ste Wh Terstest wit ad stot (0) Hefghe Inilally, chimneys with heights exceeding 150 m were considered tall chimneys. However, uth the recent emphasis on structural dynamics, itis generally ‘accepted that a chimney may be considered as tall when its height exceeds 150 m and in addition fe aspect ratio is such that it calls for evaluation of the structures response to dynamic wind loads. Thus, it is not nly a matter of height but also the aspoct ratio when it comes ta classifying a chimney as (©) Number of Flues Oem, a single chimney serves more than one boiler. In such @ ease, when one of the gas serrctoa, shut down (say for maintenance) the gas exit velocity will reduce because of rcauction in the total volume of gases to be handled. This can lead to heavy pellosen ona Uy gider te overcome this problem, a chimney serving more than one beiler san be moviteg sree mirage foreach gas source with such Mues housed in~a-common enchsiee concrete windshield. These are popularly called multi-flue chimneys. (©) Reinforced Conerete as a Construction Material Above a cert ht, an RCC chimney requires less materials, is lighter and is less expen: jive than a brick chimney. It has greater resistance against wind-induced vibrations, hee. lesical strains and foundation settlement, Today, reinforced concrete is the deminne meferial used for construction of tall chimneys and foi short chimneys precast concrete With or without prestressing is used. In the latter range reinforced concrete has to fase severe competition from steel- and glass-reinforced plastics. =BL cases 14 Architecture “Aesthetic” is a word derived fan a Greek worl mevnim more with the appearance of « thing rather than th Shismbey with a detatched eye rather than with a prejudiced sion oh it is essentially drainage channel for waste gases. Viewed this wa, even the spiral form of white smoke ean appear pleasing agatinst a blue sky. al himneysateruet considerable visual attention since they stand out froin neighbouring Siructures. In an attempt to increase their aesthetic appeal, various Shapes such as rectan- Bulan triangular, elliptical ere. have been tied. However, as far ae chron We concerned, estates Goes have severe imitations imposed on him since itieekere ie a cirvulae Up Aiesl atrueture tracts least ind forces and poses minimum awdara a and de Problems Itis not possible to ignore this fact particularly with chimney costs now becoming significant, In view of the above, most chimneys have a crear sap i Plan, Even so, their appears ance improved by incorporating special Keatures, such as grooves special finishes, Mere such features are specified exteie cae i etuited in hag 1g Work Will be easily not imneys to serve more than one boiler is a distinet ingleue chimneys are oo thin 10 hold the eye but mote chimneys, because of ther larger width lend strength nnd nd hence are aesthetically preferred. Such chimneys are gene duction of a taper is both technically meaningful and assiher ically esi “perceptive”, ie. it is concerned ality. Hence one must look ata toa chiomney structure ally cylindrical but the intro. ble. The sizing 0 can be said t a suitable ek pollutants, tory standar. ‘quantity of 1. Draft 2. Enviro: 3. Steuctu ‘ach of the 21 Exit I flue gases speed will be gas plume ar it can permit Bases to cone Henee, the such that the speed at site,¢. it sconcerned + must look at a is essentially a vhite smoke can mneighbouring uch as rectan- sare concerned, that a circular aie and design now becoming », their appear- pecial finishes, quired in their srisa distinet but multi-ive ney structure out the intro- 2 ‘The sizing of a chimney depends on many factors wich are diffcult to quantify. Broadly, it can be said that a chimney is sized auch that it can exhaust a given quantity of flue gases at & atilable clevation and with such a velocity that the ground level concentraron (GLC) of Pollutants, after atmospheric dispersion, is within the limits prescribed in pollution-regula- {ory standards while the chimney retains its structural integrity. Thus, whi handling given wantity of Mue gases, the major factors which influence a chimmney's dimendions wee 1, Draft requirements 2. Environmental regulations 3. Structural considerations Exch of the above aspects is covered in the discussions which follow. 2.1 Exit Velocity Ufiue gases emanating from a chimney experience a field of increasing wind speed, soon a speed will be reached (termed critical wind speed) when the wind will shear off the emerging fs Plume and this ean lead to excessive pollutant deposition, Also, i the exit velocity is low, it can permit cold sit to Row down a patt of the chimney causing’ acids contained in tee 288¢5 to condense on the walls and cause damage. Hence, the least flue gas velocity ( ing on part load) should be Such that the corresponding critical wind speed is. greater than the estimated design wind speed at site. In Chart 2.1 are givén the minimum exit velocities which will ensure, for different8 TALL cHIMNEYS wR 2 fs EXIT VELOCITY H,/2, +20,16 TALL CHiMNeys 2.5 Estimating GLC Growing realisation of te need to control the ever-increasing nuisance from pollution has forced the development of analytical took, ty predict GLC. While there has been considerable an retthis dtcetion, none ofthe presentdavanalstic te ques, however sophisticated seeaeCUaely eepresent meteorolopicul conditions se nature of terrain, ete. Hence the Fontan oon Prelcted GLC varies widely depending on the Logical conditions prevailing at the vite. tn mea simple eases, preveit-lay analytical techne, ‘ues yield acceptable results as eontirmed frome field observations, nilormity in meteor. ~ a ° ‘ see As : ae Syst Oisriat io Tiga Fig. 2.2% Spread of a Plumo In order to formulate a mathematical modsl of plume dispersion, consider a single ei aney fe mane Pollutants ata constant rate (Fig, 2.2). The assumed steady averave wind ty nsports it & distance 2 in time ¢ atone the wind oe jon AD. Crosswind turbulence, though radon, Hi ature, is assuined to spread the plana Out horizontally equally on cither side of she plume axis 4, . Based on a broad edtrelation with Tol a Chsettitions the Horizontal and vertical spread of a plumé-tre both assumed to follow a Gaussian curves With this assumption, the equatic where asshoy at thes Ther It show distinet Consi pollutan adhere t there is, the grou tance fre axis. Helution has asiderable histicated, Hence the meteoro- a techni- vimney asports andom of the vertical a, the CHIMNEY SIZING 17 ‘equation for pollutant concentration can be taken as ¥=Crexp [~ y2/209]-exp [= 22/203] ~ where Cis a constant and y and z are distances along directions Perpendicular to thé wind axis as shown in Fig. 2.2 and o,and o- are standard deviations in the J and & directions respectively; at the location where GLC is required. The area under this curve for y is given by te te ff expt-p2pot exp t—2204)-ay.de ise, 2-05-00 itude ofthis ara signifies the rate of emission Q,/0 and we get ro aati (exp l-y'2etl-expl-s4/20tp vrocautl be noted that Q, inthe above equation isthe rate of pollutant discharge (o/s) as ‘lstinet from O. used in Eq, (2.3) whieh is the mass flow rate of fe gases Tanider a typical plume spread as shown in Fig. 2.3. 1 is assumed that when gascous Popitants sicike the ground (at C) they are totaly reflected, although some quantity would und surface or vegetation. Hence at location £ at a height Z above ground, «_& a portion ofthe pollutant reaching directly and an addtional quantity reflected off she ground. The latter is taken as equal to the direct component calculated at the same cee Lane fiom the source but ata distance z below ground, i. adistance Ha-+2 from the plume axis. Hence the equation for pollutant concentration now becomes Fig, 2.34" Effect of Ground on Pollutant Dispersion18 TALL cHIMNeys exp = 5285-foxp | - cnet aya where y= Poilutant com ob Me AE) poof! ( =I, yy} er Putting above cation, we yet mavionin GLE atoms the plume asig ax Y, : Pr Or enh te] Qu) Ean 222 expres a power lations Ihc when the sie) on toa and MP where A, fp are constants, then wes th For obtaining maximum eonce this value in the bove equation, we have 0117-0, c The important conclusions to be drawn fi exp [= Hap stration, we put a aly and get irom the shove ane 4 When esas is independent of s, asin GC along the pinny Ince WHEE Me MeN” ail is depenkhent only oe te . 2. Maximum value of GLC is inversely Proportional 66 wind speed Teer act dower the wind speed, hisher the tos {eiser the GLC, This siyysts that there bs ennany sind oy GLC occurs, Wales of standard devistiony sy an as recommen he ASA and 2.4 in whieh das depend on many £ Jing distance from about one hour for a rel edt Tine indicate th factors, such as the aun 9p (a) Accuracy of Estimates The accuracy of dispersion esimare sampling time, ete. V ively open country ined From Table 3.3, Ne Fan}pe OF ess eonfiicinec, Sian pherie strnetute, topyopegpi ‘ales in the ehatris ane nd for Four stabi HV Substituting Om NS OCCUR AT dis sectica spre, Va thee tice hat as So piven in Charts 2.3 Mardbcevistion values iy. wind speed, samp: fora sumpling time of sos. The stability clays SEN CAEN FM AS, tar tap {he complexity of the dispetsion pionoenon renerated by tersin sy Ferditions, ete. The equations stated steae cage eh ites dest wae However, there ave eases sven ni snagy Jachars need 0 Be tian si acount such ng SUE terrain features. guounid slopes. abnormatmeens Wat concaitioves apydicaste to the Aa Sch conitions can ie appwosimatcly aecommat oe nedifying the above Aton center programmes exist tw eater fir sch woos ae meyer, it compe Neated situations specialist advise slut he ea aps The reader is made avaire of some oF the principal assumption sen x nie equations and standasd d lev ition vates are ba wed. fh thoabove dispersion} “ex axis as Qn) Ax? and sbstituting (2.12) at a’ dise sad.” hand, as ind hence naximum charts 2.3, on values, J, samp. atime of ulity class nding on logical tuations, stich as leto the ove Vcomp= spersion 10000 (HOURLY MEAN VALUE) sel 3, POWER LAW EQUATIONS FOR oy VERY UNSTABLE 0-40x x°9! UNSTABLE 036% x26: NEUTRAL 032x x°78. STABLE — 031x x7! 1000 10600 700.000 X(m) Distance downwind from chimney Chart 2.3 Horizontal Standard Deviation of a Plume 1. Lapse rate is assumed uniform, 2. Wind speed and its turbulent, characteristies are asgumed uniform over the distance travelled by a plume and the turning of wind with eight is neglected,(HOURLY MEAN vatues ) 10000 1000 (m) 100 Law FOR ony 10 = 040% x7 0-33% x86 0:22 x x0+78 0.06% x07! 109) voc 100 000 Xm) Distance dowawing trom chimney ChE 2A Vertical Standard Deviation of a Plume 3 4 A Mat topography is assumee. The pollutant emission rate also assumed that a lume tises vertically after emis “aches an equilibrium attitude ant therealter travels horizontally.CHIMNEY SIZING 21 5. With respect to the stationary plume axis, the plume-spread profile is taken as Gaussian in both orthogonal transverse directions. 6. None of the effluent is tost from at plume and there is total reflection, of gaseous plumes from the ground, . 7. Chemical and photochemical reactions along a plume path are neglected. ‘Tante 2.3. Key to Srantciry Cass" (uaseo oN TURNER, 1969) Key to stability categories Surface wind Day Night j speed ~ Tnsolation Thinly i, (at 10m ee overeatior © 40% (ons) Strong Moderate Slight => 50% low cloud | cloud “2 vu vu vu — — Fa) vu vu u s s 3s vu yuu u N s 56 v UN N N N 6 u N N N N Notts: 1, YU—vety unstable, U—unstable, N—neuteal and S—stable, 2, Night refers to one hour before sunset to one hou after sunrise. 3. Neutral class should be assumed for overcast conditions duting day or night, regardless of wind speed. 4. Sirong insolation corresponds to a solac altitude > GO” with clear skies; slight insolation corres+ ponds to a solar altiuide from 15-35° with clear skies ‘ 5, Moderate insolation occurs. when solar elevation is 35-60° and the sky is clear or sola elevation > 60° with partially cloudy skies. 2.6. Particulate Settling ‘A particulate’s settling rate is allected by its size, stiape, medium viscosity, electrical and ‘thermal migration and many other factors and hence itis dfficult-to.define the aerodynamic 00 behaviour of particulates. As a simplifying assumption in practice, particulate-settling characteristics arc based on their apparent spherical sizes and it is furthet assumed that after discharge from a chimney, they initially rise vertically with the flue gases. Thereafter, for particulates tess than 20 x in diameter, their motion is assumed the same as that of the gases in Which they are entrained, Particulates larger than 20 in diameter are acted upon by buoyancy forces of the medium as well as gravity forces and the net force is med that given by tude and Fin GG ely Po)22 TALL CHImNeys. The atmospheric viscous drag on a settling particulate given by al, Ge 2 Pe den 2 Ge #7 tee V5 for a spherical particle Ge Which is the drag forve coullicient, is a function Of Re (refer Vig. 3.3). The value of Cunningham correction factor C. depends on the dimenin ee the particle in relation to the unity ie Path of medium molecules. For particles larger thang 20-re diameter, Ce is taken as nity. A particle attains its terminal velocity (Y,) whew Fi Fzand taking (6p—p.) ~ pp, we get vind Coy oe Vem Edge Ot @13) Substituting pes 1.1765 kejeu.m at S1P, values o/s. taking de sre sgrmestion into aecount- for cange af parce a an Table 2.4, variations and Cunni densities are given in Vanty 24 Tossa vi Pasticulate Particulate density tkycu.m ameter (Hy 300 sow 1309 20 Pn 0.006 oo: sors 0.024 30 ota 0.027 004 oss 40 oon von 0.0m was 50 0.037 oor 106 0.9 “o 032 O.t0r 037 0.190 70 0.070 ong ows 0.251 80 0.089 0.170 0246 ons ¥0 0.110 209 0.300 0386 100 ons 0249 0356 0.437 130 0.263 047 0.4658 0.826 200 0.407 0709 0.965 250 0.386 0.993 4am 300 o70s 1170 1560 330 0.830 1390 sso 400 0.92 L610 2120 450 1130 Es20 2340 00 1270 2.020 Beto B90 The dispersion of a particulate ean be looks! upon a that of a sascous plume tilted sepetvind at am angle of tan Yi whichis equal te te/O ton small clues. Thus the plume dispersion equation develajed earlier can be wat andl replacing Ut by He~ V'5/0, the equation POFGLC of particule polluiistrp) at a doumund dene ¥fiom the source, becomes a expl— spoof en 3 (ener stol y] (2.14)The value of lation to the ‘istaken as Pa) ~ Po. We (2.13) nd Cunnine re given in ne tilted *plume -quation mes 2.14) CHIMNEY SIZING 23 ¢auation itis assumed that there is no reflction of particulate’: after. touching the ground, This equation yields an average deposition for a partculee wind speed and one free settling velocity. In practice, one has to deal with a ran of particle sizes and wing ances and to analyse such cases itis necessary to consider in Heremene ¢ range of, particle sizes and wind speeds and the rate of deposition is determined for exch such incre- ment. Summation of the same over a tite period will give the otal deposition 2.7 Special Aspects Some special aspects are dealt with here. (a) Short-term Deposition As mentioned carlier, values of oy and ¢: in Charts 2.3 and 2.4 for calculating the ground- level concentration of pollutants are for an averaging time of one. hour, the following cal eauation can be used for determining the quantity of deposition fora peried toe em than ane hour (3). 3600)" F-Q2y 15) where 1 is the GLC for an averaging time of one hour and ¢ isthe desired short time period in sevonds. Index rin the above equation depends on dispersion conditions as given tela: Stability class ‘ Very unstable 065 Unstable 082 Neutral (b) Long-term Deposition For evaluating GLC over a very long period (say one month), allowance must be made for ing wind speed and direction. The sector angle (p degrces) subtended the continuously changing g dc by a receptor at the chimney is frst determined. With frequency of wind incidence (2) towards a receptor in this sector, the equation for GLC becomes (2.16) where x= distance of receptor (m) ‘The total time period over which GLC is required may have to be broken! down into incremental periods and atmospheric stability and wind speed appropriate to each incre- mental period used for determining the GLC (7), Summation of such values would give the total GLC.