Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 281 – 298

www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto

Stratigraphic responses to a major tectonic event in a foreland

basin: the Ecuadorian Oriente Basin from Eocene to
Oligocene times
Frédéric Christophoul a,b,*, Patrice Baby a,b, Celso Dávila a
a
Convenio IRD-Petroproducción, Apartado 17-12-857, Quito, Ecuador
b
Laboratoire de Dynamique des Bassins, Université Paul Sabatier, 38 rue des 36 ponts, 31400 Toulouse, France
Received 30 March 2000; received in revised form 23 February 2001; accepted 26 February 2001

Abstract

The Eocene to Oligocene sediments of the Ecuadorian Oriente Basin record two kinds of second-order stratigraphic response
to the tectonic evolution. Lower Eocene shows evidences of local scale syntectonic deposits. This tectonic activity can be
related to right lateral convergent movements inverting pre-cretaceous extensional structures. Upper Eocene and Oligocene
sediments are integrated as the expression of an isostatic rebound characterizing a basin scale syntectonic deposition. This
response is evidenced by a reciprocal architecture of the depositional sequences identified in the sedimentary formations. These
data have allowed us to propose a new geodynamic model for the Paleogene evolution of the Oriente Basin. D 2002 Elsevier
Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Ecuador; Tectonics; Sedimentation; Reciprocal stratigraphy; Retroarc-foreland basin

1. Introduction exploration and production during the last years have

The Oriente Basin of Ecuador (Fig. 1) (Dashwood
and Abbots, 1990) forms part of the Sub-Andean
retro-arc foreland basin system (Marksteiner and
Aleman, 1997) which consists in actual foredeep
(Oriente Basin) and the Subandean Zone (Napo and
Cutucu uplifts) between the Putumayo Basin of
Colombia and the Marañon Basin of Peru. Petroleum
*
Corresponding author. Laboratoire de Dynamique des Bas-
sins, Université Toulouse, 38 Rue des trenta-six ponts, 31400
Toulouse, France.
E-mail addresses: christop@cict.fr, geostruc@cict.fr
(F. Christophoul), pbaby@ecnet.ec (P. Baby).
provided new seismic and well log data. Collectively,
they permit tectonic and sedimentary evolution to be
defined. The structural setting and stratigraphy of the
Oriente Basin have been described in several pub-
lications (Tschopp, 1953; Bristow and Hoffstetter,
1977; Baldock, 1982; Canfield et al., 1982; Dash-
wood and Abbots, 1990; Baby et al., 1998, 1999).
Stratigraphically, the basin preserves Phanerozoic
sedimentary formations ranging in age from Paleo-
zoic to Recent, which outcrop in the foothills (Napo
and Cutucú Uplift) (Fig. 1). The sedimentary se-
quence can be subdivided into three mega-sequen-
ces: Carboniferous to Upper Jurassic series (Christo-
phoul, 1999), which is unconformably overlain by a

0040-1951/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 0 - 1 9 5 1 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 2 1 7 - 7
282 F. Christophoul et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 281–298

Fig. 1. Location and simplified tectonic map of the studied area (modified from Baby et al., 1999).
 F. Christophoul et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 281–298
shallow marine to continental Aptian to Maastrich-
tian sedimentary series (White et al., 1995; Jaillard,
1997; Shanmugam et al., 2000; Baby et al., 1999;
Barragán et al., 1999), and a Paleocene to Recent
continental and shallow marine series of the filled
foreland stage (Baldock, 1982; Almeida, 1992; Mar-
occo et al., 1996; Valdez Pardo, 1997; Baby et al.,
1999; Christophoul, 1999; Barragán et al., submitted
for publication).
Integration of seismic profile interpretations, well
log analyses, outcrop descriptions, thematic cartogra-
phy as apatite and zircon fission-track data (Spikings et
al., 2000) and an analysis of clay mineralogy (Delfaud
et al., 1999) have provided a new understanding of
syntectonic sedimentation in the Oriente Basin. This
tectono-stratigraphic analysis allows us to investigate
the relationships between local and regional scale
tectonics and the different stages of evolution of a
retro-foreland basin. Geodynamic implications are
discussed.
2. Geological framework
2.1. Structural settings
Major compressive NNE – SSW-oriented wrench
fault zones (Baby et al., 1998, 1999) (Fig. 1), which
correspond to inverted Triassic and Jurassic extensive
systems, can be traced across the Oriente Basin. Main
structural features correspond to positive flower struc-
tures (Harding, 1985) which developed along three
NNE – SSW right-lateral transpressive zones. (1) In
the western part, the Subandean Zone, which is
presently seismically and volcanically (in the Napo
Uplift) active, hosts two en echelon NNW – SSE
positive structures (Napo Uplift and Cutucú Uplift)
(Fig. 1). (2) In the center of the basin, the Sacha-
Shushufindi Corridor inverts a NNE – SSW trend of
Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic grabens (Christo-
phoul, 1999). (3) In the eastern part of the basin, the
Capirón-Tiputini Inverted System was generated by
the inversion of Upper Jurassic half-grabens. Upper
Jurassic to basal Cretaceous volcano-clastic sedi-
ments, or the Aptian-lower Albian Hollı́n Formation
sealed the remnants of the extensional structures of
the Sacha-Shushufindi Corridor and Capirón-Tiputini
Inverted System.
283
Seismic reflection data reveal syn-tectonic sedi-
mentation, which records three periods of inversion
(Turonian – Maastrichtian; Early Eocene; Pliocene –
Quaternary) in a right lateral convergent context (Baby
et al., 1998, 1999). The Sacha-Shushufindi Wrench
Fault Zone mainly formed between the Turonian and
the Maastrichtian, while the Capirón-Tiputini Inverted
System is principally Eocene in age. The Subandean
Zone developed during the Pliocene and Quaternary
(Baby et al., 1999). The Turonian– Maastrichtian inver-
sion is contemporaneous with a volcanic event under
the Oriente Basin, which generated magmatic bodies
within a right-lateral wrench-fault zone in the Sacha-
Shushufindi Corridor (Barragán and Baby, 1999).
2.2. Eocene – Oligocene stratigraphy
The Tiyuyacu, Orteguaza and Chalcana sedimen-
tary formations were deposited during Eocene –Oli-
gocene times in the Oriente Basin.
The Tiyuyacu Fm. (Tschopp, 1953) consists of
coarse to fine fluvial deposits (Marocco et al., 1996;
Valdez Pardo, 1997; Christophoul, 1999) and has been
divided in two members (Lower and Upper) based on
both sedimentological and structural arguments (Mar-
occo et al., 1996; Baby et al., 1999). The base of the
Lower Tiyuyacu is a regional erosional unconformity
identified on both outcrops and seismic sections. Sedi-
mentary sequences are organised into 10-m-thick,
fining upward fluvial sequences. Upper Tiyuyacu
Mb. is separated from the lower member by a regional
erosional unconformity and is also composed of 10-m-
thick fining upward fluvial sequences. The main differ-
ence between Lower and Upper Tiyuyacu Mb. consists
in the lithological composition and the tectonic context
of sedimentation (see paragraph 3). Upper Tiyuyacu
Mb. is overlain by the fluvial and shallow marine
deposits of the Orteguaza Fm. (Canfield et al., 1982).
The Chalcana Fm. overlies the Orteguaza Fm. and is
composed of fine-grained distal alluvial prograding
deposits.
Accurate ages from the Eocene – Oligocene Forma-
tions in the Oriente Basin are scarce. However, biotites
from an interbedded tuff layer within the basal con-
glomerate of Upper Tiyuyacu Mb. yielded an 39Ar/40Ar
age of 46 F 0.6 Ma (Oregon State University, 1999),
placing it in the Middle Eocene (Hardenbol et al.,
1998).
 284
F. Christophoul et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 281–298
Fig. 2. Stratigraphy of the Eocene – Oligocene interval in the Oriente Basin (from Baby et al., 1999).
 F. Christophoul et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 281–298
An analysis of fauna found in the Tiputini well
(Fig. 1) led Tschopp (1953) to derive a Middle Eocene
to Oligocene age for the Chalcana Fm. (Tschopp did
not differentiate the Orteguaza and Chalcana Fms. for
they have similar age but correspond to different
depositional environments). This age is consistent
with a palynologic dating (Zambrano et al., 1999)
which indicates an Upper Eocene to Oligocene age for
the Orteguaza marine deposits in the northern Sub-
andean Zone of Ecuador.
Well log correlation with the Putumayo Basin
shows the same log signal curves for the Colombian
Orteguaza Fm. which is also Lower Oligocene in age
(Casero et al., 1997). Therefore, the Orteguaza trans-
gression probably occurred in the same time within
the Putumayo and Oriente Basin. Eocene and Oligo-
cene ages are summarized in Fig. 2. Palynologic ages
for the Chalcana Fm. (Zambrano et al., 1999) place it
in the Upper Oligocene and lower Miocene.
3. Description of second-order depositional
sequences
The origin of the second-order depositional sequen-
ces is known to be the expression of cyclic and non-
periodic signals, which are in turn controlled by tec-
tonic phenomena (Guillocheau, 1995). This fits well
with the study of a foreland basin where accommoda-
tion space variations are essentially a function of its
tectonic evolution. As a consequence, the study of
second-order sequences in a foreland basin is a useful
tool to define the tectonic mechanisms which con-
trolled its evolution.
The Eocene to Oligocene sedimentary formations
of the Oriente Basin are mainly fluvial deposits, and
therefore it is impossible to define third-order sequen-
ces (Vail et al., 1991; Guillocheau, 1995). However, in
the marine deposits of the Orteguaza Formation, two
third-order sequences were identified correlating with
the lower Oligocene. Tectono-stratigraphic analyses
allowed two second-order depositional sequences to
be defined.
3.1. Lower second-order sequence
The Lower Tiyuyacu Mb. represents the lower
second-order sequence. Its base correlates with a
285
major regional erosive unconformity. Clasts are com-
posed of 80% to 90% of reddish cherts and 10% to
20% white quartz pebbles and metamorphic rock
fragments (Marocco et al., 1996; Valdez Pardo,
1997). These deposits are organized in typical channel
filling, fining upward, 10-m-thick sequences. Each
base of sequence corresponds to conglomerates show-
ing St, Sp, Sr lithofacies (Miall, 1996, Table 4.1, p.
79) deposited in gravel bars (Miall, 1996, p. 139).
Sedimentary structures such as trough cross bedding
were identified. These conglomerates grade upward
into coarse and then fine sandstones (Sl, Sm, lithof-
acies) indicating downstreams accretion macroforms
and lateral accretion macroforms (Miall, 1996, p.
151). The top of the sequence consists of Fl and P
lithofacies as typical for fine flood plain and overbank
(FF, Miall, 1996, p. 177) deposits, and shows gley
type paleosoils when it is not eroded (Fig. 3). These
elemental sequences are repeated, showing an overall
fining upward trend.
On seismic lines and well logs (Fig. 4) this lower
second-order sequence displays sharp reductions in
thickness, which are related to growth structures. In
Fig. 4, stratigraphic response is different on each side
of the fault. On the east of the fault, the condensed
sedimentary series consists of stacking of fluvial
channels; only few fine-grained deposits are observed
and several erosional surfaces can be identified (Fig.
4). In conditions of high accommodation, fluvial
sequences are stacking vertically, one over the other,
preserving whole channel infill and flood plain depos-
its. In low accommodation conditions, channel inci-
sions are eroding sediments of previous sequences,
preferentially their upper part which corresponds to
fine flooding plain sediments. As a result only chan-
nels will be preserved. This applied to Fig. 4 con-
ditions can be interpreted as the effect of fluvial
divagation in a context of low accommodation in
the eastern part and high accommodation in the west-
ern part (Miall, 1996, Fig. 2.26, p. 41). Complete
fluvial sequences are preserved to the west of the fault
and well-developed fine-grained deposits correspond
to floodplain and overbank facies.
3.2. Upper second-order sequence
The Upper second-order sequence comprises Up-
per Tiyuyacu Mb., Orteguaza and Chalcana Fm. The
286 F. Christophoul et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 281–298
Fig. 3. Section of Tiyuyacu Fm, in the Subandean Zone (location:
0880421; 8931755 UTM coordinates zone16). Horizontal scale: C:
clays, S: silts, sandstones: Vf: very fine, F: fine, M: medium, C:
coarse, Vc: very coarse, Cgl: conglomerates (modified from Valdez
Pardo, 1997).
Upper Tiyuyacu Mb. consists in fluvial deposits.
The base of the Upper Tiyuyacu Mb. is a major
regional erosive unconformity, identified both in
outcrops (Fig. 3) and on seismic sections (Fig. 4).
This unconformity can be considered as the base of
a second-order sequence. Facies associations are
quite similar to the Lower Tiyuyacu Mb., and show
the stacking of channel filling sequences (Fig. 3),
representing braided river depositional environments.
The main difference between the members is the
lithologic composition of conglomerates. Conglom-
erates of the Upper Tiyuyacu Mb. are composed of
90% white quartz, well-sorted and very well-
rounded clasts. Matrix is scarce and consists of blue
clays. An interbedded layer of tuff was observed in
several outcrops in the Subandean Zone (this tuff
layer was dated, see Introduction). In seismic sec-
tions (Fig. 4), the Upper Tiyuyacu Mb. shows two
parallel reflectors; the lower one shows a toplap over
Lower Tiyuyacu Mb. reflectors, the upper reflector
is strong due to the important acoustic contrast
between Upper Tiyuyacu Mb. fluvial deposits and
Orteguaza shales. The Upper Tiyuyacu Mb. uncon-
formably overlies the Lower Tiyuyacu Mb. or the
Tena Fm. in the southwestern part of the Oriente
Basin and seals structures developed during the
Lower Eocene.
The Orteguaza Fm. conformably overlies the
Upper Tiyuyacu Mb. and its base corresponds to a
regional transgression surface. In the Western Oriente
Basin (approximately in the Subandean Zone), the
Orteguaza Fm. consists of fine fluvial deposits sim-
ilar to the overlying Chalcana Fm. Eastward within
the basin, the Orteguaza Fm. corresponds to marine
deposits (Fig. 5) composed of greenish shales and
medium to coarse, locally glauconitic, sandstones.
Sedimentary structures such as flaser and wavy
bedding, 2D ripple marks and trough cross-beddings
(Reading and Collinson, 1996) indicate deposition
within the beach to open marine shelf environments
(Marocco et al., 1996; Christophoul, 1999). Well log
sequential analysis (Guillocheau, 1995; Serra, 1986)
suggests the Orteguaza Fm. is composed of two
Transgression –Regression cycles (Fig. 6). Depositio-
nal systems are identified by the shifting pattern of
Gamma Ray and Sonic curves. Due to their proper-
ties, these tools indicate shaly and nonshaly deposits
(gamma ray) and porous and nonporous deposits
 F. Christophoul et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 281–298
Fig. 4. Seismic signature of Lower Eocene growth strata and their sedimentologic expression, Cuyabeno-Sansahuari oilfield area (location in Fig. 1). Right sedimentary column is
derived from well log data, left sedimentary column from seismic data. 10000696; 360340 (UTM).

287
288 F. Christophoul et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 281–298

Fig. 5. Sedimentary outcrop section of Orteguaza Fm. near the

Subandean Front (Rı́o Aguarico, puente del Suizo), modified from
Marocco et al., 1996. 249508; 7759 (UTM).

(Sonic). The first transgressive trend (Fig. 6) begins at

the top of Upper Tiyuyacu Mb. (controlled by lithol-
ogy) where we locate a Transgression Surface. This
trend ends at the point of higher convergence of the
curves (indicating shaly and low porosity sediments).
This point corresponds to the Maximum Flooding Sur-
face. Up to this point we identified a regressive trend. Fig. 6. Sequence analysis of the Orteguaza Fm. after well log data.
From the convergence point of curves to the top, the 9954292; 270835 (UTM).
 F. Christophoul et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 281–298
curves are diverging. The divergence is first slow and
becomes sharper to the top. This change in the
intensity of divergence is interpreted as an acceleration
Fig. 7. Sedimentary column of Chalcana Formation, Rı́o Aguarico,
northern Oriente Basin (modified from Rosero Revelo, 1999).
10000696; 360340 (UTM).
289
of progradation and is interpreted as a Sequence
Boundary (Guillocheau, 1995; Vail et al., 1991).
More to the top, the curves are changing becoming
convergent. The point of inflexion corresponds to the
highest point of regression. It corresponds to a
Transgression surface. Over this transgression sur-
face, the curves converge to a Maximum Flooding
Surface, corresponding to the second cycle maxi-
mum of transgression. Lightly above, a leftward shift
of Gamma Ray curve indicates the Sequence Boun-
dary and final emersion in the basin. These two
transgression – regression cycles can be considered as
third-order depositional sequences (Vail et al., 1991).
However, the lack of accurate depositional ages
prevents them from being attributed to a particular
third-order sequences of Hardenbol et al. (1998) time
scale.
The base of the Chalcana Fm. corresponds to an
unconformity (progradation surface of a third-order
sequence) and consists of fine-grained fluvial deposits
(Fig. 7). Sediments are bioturbated and exhibit rooted
muds, silts and laminated muddy sandstones, gypsum
and pedogenic features. They correspond to Fl, Fsm,
Fm, Fr and P lithofacies (Miall, 1996) and represent
overbank and floodplain deposits in a alluvial plain
environment. They were deposited in the floodplain
related to kilometer-wide asymmetric channels and
their infill has been identified in seismic sections
(Rosero Revelo, 1999).
4. Spatial distribution of sediments
4.1. Methodology
Isopach maps have been generated, using a data-
base of well data (220 Petroproducción well logs
analysed) and outcrop data. Maps were interpolated
using a kriging algorithm and maps of coarse/fine
sediment thickness ratio were interpolated by the
same method using 70 wells and localities. The thick-
ness of coarse sediments was derived from qualitative
well log analysis. These maps show the distribution
and volumes of sediments in the Oriente Basin. The
distribution of wells used in the database is not
homogenous and the thicknesses interpolated within
a few areas, such as the southeastern part of the basin,
are not reliable.
290 F. Christophoul et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 281–298

Fig. 8. Isopach map of Lower Tiyuyacu Mb. Deposits. Database: 220 wells, interpolation algorithm: kriging.
 F. Christophoul et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 281–298 291

Fig. 9. Map of coarse sediments thickness/fine sediments thickness ratio, expressed in percentage of total thickness, for Lower Tiyuyacu Mb.
Database: 70 wells, interpolation algorithm: kriging.
292 F. Christophoul et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 281–298

Fig. 10. Isopach map of Upper Tiyuyacu Mb – Orteguaza Fm. Deposits. Database: 220 wells, interpolation algorithm: kriging.
 F. Christophoul et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 281–298 293

4.2. Results 4.3. Sedimentation rates

Lower Tiyuyacu Mb. isopachs (Fig. 8) reveal a
sequence thickness ranging between 20 and 450 m.
Two zones of low sedimentary thickness can be
recognized in the Subandean Zone (determined by
outcrop data) and the eastern part of the Oriente Basin.
A north 10-strike depoaxis is clearly seen between
these two zones. Two depocenters can be identified
within this depoaxis: a depocenter in the North corre-
sponds to the Northern part of the Sacha-Shushufindi
corridor, and a depocenter is also seen in the center
south of the basin.
The coarse/fine sediment ratio for the Lower Ti-
yuyacu Mb. (Fig. 9) shows the repartition of coarse
sediment accumulation in the basin. The two trenches
of coarse sediments with a N135 strike are observed:
one trench extends from the Putumayo Basin, and a
second trench occurs further south, parallel to the first.
These strikes are different from the main regional
structural strikes (N20), and therefore the Lower
Tiyuyacu Mb. sedimentary system is probably not
related to the erosion identified between Lower and
Upper Tiyuyacu Mb.
It is important to note that the interpolation process
has generated contours across the southwestern region
of the basin where the Lower Tiyuyacu Mb. has been
completely eroded. Therefore, interpolation artifacts
have been generated and the isopachs in the southwest
should be treated with caution.
Isopach map concerning the Upper Tiyuyacu Mb.
and Orteguaza Fm. (Fig. 10) shows a depocenter
located more in the southeast and a depoaxis with a
N10 strike located in the central eastern part of the
basin.
Sedimentation rates are difficult to define because
of the erosional surfaces described above (base of the
Lower Tiyuyacu Mb. and base of the Upper Tiyuyacu
Mb.). The eroded thicknesses of sediments are un-
known and their influence on the history of subsidence
is difficult to establish. Nevertheless, we have attemp-
ted to evaluate the order of magnitude of sedimentation
rates. The original thicknesses of sedimentary series
were reconstructed using well-defined backstripping
methods (Einsele, 1992), including correction for
compaction effects. The time limits for stratigraphic
systems are taken from Hardenbol et al. (1998). For
each second-order sequence, we considered three
points located in the western, central and eastern part
of the basin (Fig. 1), chosen for their regional signifi-
cance. The results are presented in Table 1.
During the Lower Eocene, high sedimentation rates
occurred in the central part of the basin whereas low
sedimentation rates occurred in the east and the west.
This division of sedimentation rates was probably
carved by the erosion of the base of the Upper
Tiyuyacu Mb. During Middle and Upper Eocene
times (Upper Tiyuyacu Mb.), a strong decrease of
sedimentation rates occurred. Nevertheless, sedimen-
tation rates remained higher in the central part of the
basin. Sedimentation occurred at a slow rate during
the Lower Oligocene (Orteguaza Fm.) in the western
part of the basin although a higher rate occurred in the
central and eastern basin, indicating a tilt of the basin
substratum. Deposition of the Chalcana Fm. occurred
at distinctly greater rates during the Upper Oligocene.
This pattern of varying sedimentation rates from west
to east corresponds to an inversion tilt of the basin

Table 1
Sedimentation rates of Tiyuyacu/Orteguaza and Chalcana Fm. for three points (west: 10000696, 360340 UTM; centre: 9954292, 270385 UTM
and east: 9964732, 386006 UTM) of the Oriente Basin
Formations Thickness (m) Compaction Age (Ma) Sedimentation rates (m/Ma)
and members West Center East (% of original) Beginning End West Center East
Lower 170 548 150 0.8 54.8 41 15.4 49.6 13.6
Tiyuyacu
Upper 210 319.4 59.4 0.8 41 33.7 36.0 54.7 10.2
Tiyuyacu
Orteguaza 40 340.6 254.6 0.9 33.7 28.5 8.5 72.8 54.4
Chalcana 250 455.3 310.6 0.8 28.5 23.8 66.5 121.1 82.6
294 F. Christophoul et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 281–298
substratum, which is similar to that derived for the
Lower Eocene.
5. Eocene –Oligocene tectonic and stratigraphic
evolution of the Oriente Basin
Numerous authors (Fauchet and Savoyat, 1973;
Aspden and Litherland, 1992; Baby et al., 1999;
Barragán et al., submitted for publication; Christo-
phoul, 1999) have proposed that the Ecuadorian fore-
land basin originated during Upper Cretaceous times
with the progressive emersion of a protocordillera
between the forearc zone and the Oriente Basin.
Stratigraphically, this emersion occurred during the
period of Tena Fm. sedimentation. For the Eocene –
Oligocene interval, we propose an interpretation based
on the stratigraphic expression of isostatic rebound
and antitectonic concepts (Catuneanu et al., 1997;
Heller et al., 1988).
Spikings et al. (2000) give results of apatite and
zircon fission tracks (Fig. 11). These data of exhuma-
tion represent cooling rates. The lack of reference
horizon made the authors interpret the period of accel-
erated cooling as the expression of increased horizontal
stress and as a consequence of the orogenic root
thickening with consequent isostatic uplift. Two pieces
of information on exhumation are given under theoret-
ical constant geothermal gradient: exhumation in km/
Ma and depth of rocks removed to acquire the meas-
ured cooling. Data exposed in Fig. 11 represent the
result of three sampling traverses across the northern
part of Cordillera Real. The Cordillera Real was rapidly
exhuming during the Lower Eocene (Spikings et al.,
2000) which can be considered as the signature of an
important tectonic event. This time period corresponds
with the accretion of the Piñon Fm. in the forearc zone
during the late Paleocene (Van Thournout et al., 1992;
Jaillard et al., 1997; Pecora et al., 1999). This period of
exhumation was probably accompanied by a rock
uplift which (with a thrusting component) produced
an important topographic load on the foreland basin
and caused the South American plate to flex.
In the Oriente Basin, source uplift and plate flexure
are recorded by the onset of a coarse fluvial sedimen-
tation and the increase of sedimentation rates (Lower
Tiyuyacu Mb.). Locally, in the center of the basin, this
tectonic event caused a second inversion event of the
Triassic and Jurassic inherited structures (Christo-
phoul, 1999), in a right lateral convergent regime
(Baby et al., 1999; Barragán et al., submitted for
publication). This deformation gave rise to local
progressive unconformities producing a local sec-
ond-order stratigraphical response to the uplift event.
During the Middle Eocene (Base Upper Tiyuyacu
Mb.), exhumation of the Cordillera Real continued at
a high rate (Spikings et al., 2000). The progressive
erosion of the Cordillera Real led to the modification
of the sedimentary source and increased the distance
of sediment transport, as shown by the change of
lithologic composition and increased roundness of
clasts of the Upper Tiyuyacu conglomerates in the
Oriente Basin. According to antitectonic concepts
(Heller et al., 1988), the erosive base of the Upper
Tiyuyacu Mb. can be considered to be the expression
of the beginning of isostatic readjustment due to
progressive erosion of the Cordillera Real. In this
case, parts of the Upper Tiyuyacu Mb. sediments are
reworked within the basin. This interpretation fits well
with the very high sedimentary and mineralogical
maturity of conglomeratic clasts.
The base of the Oligocene (Orteguaza Fm. base)
corresponds to an abatement of exhumation in the
Cordillera Real (Spikings et al., 2000). According to
Delfaud et al. (1999) who recognized clay association
characteristic of a low altitude climatic stage in the
forearc basins, the Cordillera Real was below 1000 m
high, and mostly eroded. This abatement of exhuma-
tion and reduction of the volume of potentially erod-
able rock corresponds, at the end of Tiyuyacu Fm. and
during Orteguaza sedimentation in the Oriente Basin,
to the progressive reduction of mean granulometry of
fluvial deposits.
The reduction of sedimentation rates and plate
flexure in the western part of the Oriente Basin
provided sufficient accommodation space for a marine
transgression from the north (Putumayo Basin) and the
South (Marañon Basin) to occur which is mirrored by
the marine shelf and coastal deposits of the Orteguaza
Fm. Rocks of Orteguaza Fm. are organized in two
third-order sequences, whose origin cannot be related
to a particular tectonic event or sea level change. The
end of the isostatic (Upper Oligocene) readjustment
corresponds to the basin emersion expressed by the
prograding fine fluvial deposits of Chalcana Fm. It
corresponds to a period of tectonic quiescence consis-
 F. Christophoul et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 281–298
Fig. 11. Post Paleocene exhumation history of three traverses across northern Cordillera real (modified from Spikings et al., 2000), ages are from Hardenbol et al. (1998), stratigraphy
of the Oriente Basin is from Baby et al. (1999), volcanic series of the interandean region are compiled from Litherland et al. (1994), Steinmann (1997), Hungerbühler (1997),
Steinmann et al. (1999). Traverses (a), (b) and (c) correspond to sampling section across the Cordillera Real; (a) Tulcan-La Bonita (0j30V north); (b) Papallacta-Baeza (0j30V South);

295
(c) Baños-Puyo (1j30V South), location (a, b and c) in Fig. 1.
296 F. Christophoul et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 281–298
tent with very low exhumation rate in the Cordillera
Real (Spikings et al., 2000).
6. Conclusions
The sediments of the Oriente Basin from Eocene to
Oligocene times record two kinds of response to a
major tectonic event.
The initial response occurred during the Early
Eocene and corresponds to the deposition of the Lower
Tiyuyacu Mb. Fission-track analyses show that the
Proto-Andean Cordillera was being exhumed at a high
rate during the Lower Eocene (Spikings et al., 2000).
Additionally, seismic lines reveal the development of
Lower Eocene strike-slip structures in the Oriente
Basin. Growth strata related to these flower structures
created local second-order depocenters.
Topographic variations between fault bounded
blocks caused the accommodation space to increase
on both sides of the developing flower structures
during these local transpressive events. However,
accommodation space did not increase by the flexural
response of the continental plate to the increasing
orogenic load. Considering the rank of time involved
in these growth strata, the corresponding depositional
sequences are tectonically driven second-order se-
quences (Vail et al., 1991; Guillocheau, 1995).
The second kind of response corresponds to the
Upper Tiyuyacu Mb. – Orteguaza Fm. –Chalcana Fm.
cycle, which involves the response of sediments to a
basin scale phenomenon. Reciprocal architecture (Ca-
tuneanu et al., 1997) of the stratigraphic record in the
second-order depositional sequences suggests that
lithospheric flexure, followed by isostatic readjust-
ment, is caused by a small but significant geographic
shift of successive depocenters. This interpretation is
supported by the history of exhumation in the Cor-
dillera (Spikings et al., 2000) and quantification of
uplift (Delfaud et al., 1999). It provides an explan-
ation for the initiation of a regional second-order
depocenter.
These two kinds of responses generate two distinct
stages in the evolution of the Cordillera Real and the
Oriente Basin. The local response corresponds to
changing stress vectors at the convergence zone due
to the accretion of the Piñon Fm. Strain is distributed
either in the Cordillera Real or in the Oriente Basin.
The regional stratigraphic response is characterized by
a tectonic quiescence following the tectonic event
during the Early Eocene. Sedimentation in the Oriente
Basin is recording the isostatic readjustment, which is
the consequence of the variations in the developing
orogenic load.
The model proposed is inspired by classical Fore-
land Basin Systems (DeCelles and Giles, 1996),
although the Oriente Basin must be considered as an
atypical foreland basin. For example, isopach maps do
not show any evidence of a progressing orogenic
wedge and depocenters are static and located in the
same geographic area. Furthermore, the existence of
an orogenic wedge could not be deduced and wedge-
top, foredeep and forebulge depozones (DeCelles and
Giles, 1996) could not be defined. Nevertheless, the
structural position of the Oriente Basin as a retrofore-
land basin is uncontestable. This atypical evolution is
the consequence of a particular kind of strain within
the Oriente Basin and Cordillera Real that is probably
related to wrench movements.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Petroproducción for its technical
support, M. Rivadeneira for his regional knowledge,
R. Spikings and W. Winkler for their help and sug-
gestions.
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