Presidemtiall Address Developments in Sequence Stratigraphy: Foreland and Cratonic Basins! President Robert J. Weimer? INTRODUCTION AAPG is a scientific and professional association dedicated to advancing the science of geology and to the professional well-being of its members. During the past year, I have used my AAPG Explorer columns to discuss professional matters affecting members Therefore, I have chosen in this address to discuss some problems relating to the popular scientific subject, sequence stratigraphy. In my travels over the past several years, many members have expressed confusion about how new stratigraphic terminology, introduced to describe sequence stratigraphy, relates to the older, established terminology as formalized in stratigraphic codes of nomenclature and used in daily exploration and pro- duction activities. Their questions have encouraged me to again evaluate my research and exploration work and the work of others, and to justify why I use certain terms and reject others. [ have given talks before many societies on sequence stratigraphy and I now want (0 share some of my views with you. ‘As a field and subsurface geologist and explo- rationist, I have been trained to observe rock units, 10 interpret the gaps in the record, and to use a system of nomenclature that best communicates my thoughts to others. | am reminded of the adage “books are written by men and women, but they are sometimes wrong; the field is always right if you can read it.” Stratigraphic nomenclature should have the follow ing attributes: (1) widely applicable in different geolog- ic settings on a variety of scales, and incorporates dif ferent technologies in describing rocks; (2) flexible to allow integration of new concepts; (3) usable by both generalists and specialists in describing, mapping, and Presisenta address, June 21, 1992, Calgary, Abeta, Canada. 229859 tt. Vernon Road, Golden, Colorado 8640% Uthank 5. A. Senrenberg ane LT. Shannon fr reviewing the manu: script ana suggesting mprovemenis, and Barbara Brockman Tar {yping interpreting sedimentary rocks; and (4) able to separate objective descriptions of materials from subjective interpretations. The interpretative phase of our work usually changes: the most and seems to be subjected to fads. For exam- ple, how many remember the complex classification of geosynclines, now largely abandoned, that included orthogeosyncline, eugeosyncline, miogeosyncline, par- aliageosyncline, exogeosyncline, epieugeosynclin taphrogeosyncline, autogeosyncline, and zeugogeosyn- cline (Kay, 1955, p. 668). Some terms are retained in usage but others disappear, for example the now-com- ‘mon use of “clinoform,” whereas the companion terms fondoform” and “undaform” are no longer used (Rich, 1951), or use of the term “onlap” without the use of ‘offlap.” Scientists strive to clarify and relate concepts to remove dispute and to guide communication, For near- ly 100 years geologists have formalized stratigraphic terms and published codes to guide investigators and allow for revision as knowledge advances. In the many different systems of stratigraphic analy- ses now in use, which words in the growing list of sequence stratigraphic terms are likely to survive and which terms will be discarded through time? Only care- ful evaluations by scientists as to what is new and what duplicates usable existing systems will determine the REVIEW OF SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY TERMINOLOGY Although unconformities have played an important role in stratigraphic analyses since the inception of the geologic timetable, the term “sequence” was not for- malized until 1949 (Sloss et al., 1949). Sloss (1963) described the Phanerozoic strata in the continental inte- rior of the United States as consisting of six reference sequences and gave names to each (from oldest to youngest, Sauk, Tippecanoe, Kaskaskia, Absaroka, Zuni, and Tejas). Each unconformity-bound sequence was depicted as passing basinward into a conformable section. A sequence was classified as a lithostratigraph- ic unit by Sloss, divisible into supergroup, group, for- mation, and member, a designation recently reiterated (Sloss, 1988), ‘When viewed within the historic framework of strati- graphic analyses, sequence stratigraphy as advanced by some investigators is a specialized study of lithostratig- raphy that emphasizes the association of unconformi- 965966 Presidential Address Fimansrano oerosts EBlowsrano osrosits lower noes Sate coaeeRaSa = sumanint Figure 1Depositional patterns during (a) highstand (SD) and (b) lowstand (LSD) of sea level (from Vail et al, 1977). ties, key surfaces, facies, and condensed sections However, the recognition of unconformities is essential to sequence stratigraphic studies and without this attribute, the subject would be no different from stratig- raphy as commonly defined. Sedimentary cycles are explained by relative sea level changes, syndeposition- al tectonics, or autocyclic depositional processes, I define an unconformity as a sedimentary structure in which two groups of rocks are separated by an ero- sional surface; the erosion may be by subaerial or sub- marine processes, To evaluate an unconformity, one must consider several factors: angular discordance, hia- tus, nature of contact, areal extent of break, duration of erosion, and cause (Blackwelder, 1909). The term “unconformity” is used for major breaks in the record, whereas minor breaks associated with scour or nonde- position within a depositional environment are called diastems (e.g, scour at the base of a channel). Breaks, associated with nondeposition of significant time dua tion, if recognizable, are called paraconformities. The use of unconformities for general correlations is widespread. The erosional surface of an unconformity separates older from younger strata and establishes continuity of lithogenetic units, However, to establish accurate time relations among the strata above and below the surface of erosion, one must use indepen- dent methods to establish time surfaces; otherwise, one cannot reconstruct accurately the events recorded by the unconformity. Facies models may be formulated to interpret the genetically related strata in sequences and to interpret the history recorded by unconformities (sequence boundaries). A facies is defined as the local lithologic or biologic aspect of a chronostratigraphic unit. How. ever, facies also may be used in a vertical succession and, in this format, may be preempted in terminology by formation or member. Based on new observations from well and seismic data, primarily from continental margin basins, the original definition of a sequence as a relatively con- formable succession of genetically related strata bound- ed by unconformities was broadened to include *...and their correlative conformities” (Mitchum, 1977). The concept was illustrated by depositional patterns during, highstand and lowstand of sea level for basins in which shelf, slope, and basin topography existed (Figure 1), Depositional patterns during highstand conditions show nearshore trapping of sediment, delta prograda- tion, low sedimentation rates in the basin, and textures fining seaward. During lowstands, there is shelf expo- sure, fluvial downcutting, nearshore bypassing, and shifting of high sedimentation rates to deep water. The depositional topography of shelf, slope, and basin plays a key role in this model. Other conditions record: ing sea level changes obviously can exist between these two end members in a wide variety of geologic settings. Using the sequence boundaries as defined, a quence subsequently was integrated into sequence chronostratigraphy and subdivided, using new terms, into system tracts, parasequence sets, parasequence, bedset, bed, laminaset, and laminae (Table 1, Figure 2), (Hag et al., 1988; Van Wagoner et al., 1990). I have not used these new terms in my sequence stratigraphic work, in foreland and cratonic basins, and instead have used conventional terms with the addition of key surfaces t0 subdivide and interpret the rock record (Table 1). NORTH AMERICAN STRATIGRAPHIC CODE What one accepts as the definitions of lithostrati graphic, chronostratigraphie, and other material units, dictates how one uses each set of terms in stratigraphic analyses. The North American Stratigraphic Code (1983), which | follow in my work, defines these terms as follows. “A lithostratigraphic unit is a defined body of sedi- mentary, extrusive igneous, metasedimentary, oF metavolcanie strata which is distinguished and delimit- ed on the basis of lithic characteristics and stratigraphic position.” The fundamental mappable unit is a forma- tion. Ranks of lithostratigraphic units are supergroup, group, formation, member, bed, and flow. “A chronostratigraphic Unit is a body of rock estab- lished to serve as the material reference for all rocks formed during the same span of time. Each of its boundaries is synchronous. The body also serves as the basis for defining the specific interval of time, or geochronologic unit (Article 80), represented by the referent.” Ranks of chronostratigraphic units are €ono~ them, erathem, system, series, and stage. Chronozones are nonhierarchical and commonly are lower ranking units‘Table 1. Stratigraphic Terminology Presidential Address 967 NOMENCLATURE USED IN THIS PAPER. SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY (VAN WAGONER ET AL. 990) SEQUENCE SYSTEM TRACTS HIGHSTAND (HST) ———_— ‘TRANSGRESSIVE (TST)_. LOWSTAND (LST)__. PARASEQUENCE SETS LITHOSTR, INFORMAL, ‘TERMS Regressive deposits: & “Transgressve depoats Lowstond deposits PARASEQUENCE ——___ | anc unit onder BEDSET a z BED g LAMINASET I An essential part of stratigraphic analyses is biostrati graphic units, defined in the Stratigraphic Code as “a body of rock defined or characterized by its fossil con- tent. The basic unit in biostratigraphic classification is, the biozone, of which there are several kinds.” Some Units have isochronous boundaries and are biochrono- zones; other units have diachronous boundaries A fourth class of units in the Code that may have application to sequence stratigraphy are allostratigraph- ic units, “An allostratigraphic unit is a mappable strati- form body of sedimentary rock that is defined and iden tified on the basis of its bounding discontinuities.” The hierarchy of allostratigraphic units in order of decre: ing rank is allogroup, alloformation, and allomember. More details of the establishment and use of these stratigraphic terms, along with other types of units, are presented in the Code. ‘A major goal of the Code is to provide a system of stratigraphic nomenclature that is amenable to logical, orderly, and, at the same time, flexible arrangements. By careful definitions and descriptions of terms, con- cepts are brought into clarity, improving communica- tion among scientists. Observational data are kept sep- arate from interpretations insofar as possible. Comparison can be made of conventional terminolo- gy formalized in the Code with new sequence strati- graphic terminology (Table 1). In much of the continen tal interior basins and the shelf areas of continental margin basins, the Code’s system of nomenclature is, adequate for describing sequences because of the clear definitions of terms and the desired flexibility of fiting ATIGRAPHY. CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY FoRmaL. TERMS v é sysTem : IES surenonour| 5 eenee we BIOCHRONOZONE Ee (BIOSTRATIGRAPHY) Pe Formation] = LITHOCHRONOZONE memaer | — BED coser seT sequence boundaries into any scale of units (Table 1. Furthermore, the sequence chronostratigraphic units of Haq et al. (1988) and Van Wagoner et al. (1990) are not everywhere chronostratigraphic units as defined by the Code. None of the system tracts are required to have isochronous boundaries as a part of the definition and, therefore, cannot define a specific interval of time Other methods, based on either paleontologic or physi- cal evidence, must be employed to establish chronos- tratigraphy. Uhimately, time must be measured by uni- directional and irreversible processes of which only two presently provide the desired accuracy in dating: the evolution of life and the radioactive decay of elements Sequence chronostratigraphy has been established in basins where the subaerially exposed sequence bound- ary (unconformity) passes into a conformable succes- sion of strata (e.g., right side of Figure 2). In areas where sedimentation was continuous, isochronous sur- faces can be selected to mark sequence boundaries with their ages determined by paleontology Subsurface work in the Gulf Coast basin, and similar worldwide basin settings, has established chronostrati graphic units based on the use of paleontology, litholo- gy, mechanical logs, and stratal patterns from reflection seismic data. Sequence boundaries are placed at the top of relatively thin shale intervals (highstand deposits; Figures 1, 2) interpreted as condensed deep- water deposits. The shale intervals may be abundantly fossiliferous, may have higher than background total organic content, and may have distinctive mechanical og and seismic signatures (Mitchum et al., 1991).968 Presidential Address 2 5 8 onme.anive 3 SONFORMITY @ SHALLOW DEEP (SEQUENCE BOUNDARY) g 2 SUBAERIAL HIATUS: st? uNcoNFoRMITY | Ss i — : Sane — ‘CORRELATIVE B) IN GEOLOGIC TE CONFORMITY (SEQUENCE BOUNDARY) LEGEND SURFACES. ‘SYSTEMS TRACTS, {8} Sequence BOUNDARIES HST = HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT (S81/= TYPE Tet = TRANSGRESSIVE-SYSTEMS TRACT ($0.2)~ TYPE? WP inctsed-vally tt (OLS) DOWNLAP SURFACES LST. = LOWSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT Tris) = maximum flooding stare ft incigedsvalie ti tts) = top tan satoce tow = lowstand wedge {tm ca) = top mass flow Jchanne! overbank ge = prograding complex (iS) TRANSGRESSIVE SURFACE iio Mateo chanel vrbank pests \Fex Noodng surace above maxim iesalind aloes regression 4 = fan todos SMW = SHELF MARGIN WEDGE SYSTEMS TRACT Figure 2—Sequence stratigraphy depositional model showing surfaces and system tracts, (A) Linear depth and GB) linear geologic time displays for type 1 and type 2 depositional sequences Grom Baum sd Val, 1988). 7Discontinuities and distinctive stratal patterns some- times occur within each defined sequence and signifi- cantly enhance interpretations of both structural and stratigraphic petroleum traps, the future targets for exploration. The application of this new system of analysis is indeed bright for worldwide exploration. FORELAND AND CRATONIC BASINS Sequence stratigraphy is a dynamic and useful sub- ject for generating new ideas for exploration in fore- land and cratonic basins (Weimer, 1989). I want to illustrate my work, and the work of others, by describ- ing examples from the Lower Cretaceous (Albian) of the Western Interior basin and the Lower Pennsylvani- an (Morrowan) of the northwestern Anadarko basin. Lower Cretaceous (Albian), Western Interior The Muddy Sandstone is one of the important petroleum reservoirs in the Rocky Mountain structural basins. Approximately 1.5 billion bbl of oil-equivalent hydrocarbons have been produced mainly from strati- graphic traps (Dolson et al., 1991). Early workers did not recognize unconformities within the widespread shallow-water Muddy Sandstone that intertongues with neritic marine shale, However, the compilation of data from many workers over the past 25 years now clearly indicates the role of regional unconformities in control ling reservoir distribution and petroleum seals. No Muddy exploration prospect is now complete without an evaluation of reservoir facies in relation to the widespread unconformities. The marine Skull Creek Shale, the overlying Muddy Sandstone, and marine Mowry Shale record the oldest ransgressive-regressive-transgressive cycle in the United States Wester Interior basin, In a relatively stable tec tonic setting, these three formations record slow rates of deposition on the thick continental crust of the craton. The geographic distributions of the Skull Creek se: way during a sea level highstand and a subsequent low- stand are shown on Figure 3. An east-west regional cross section shows general lithologies, formation names, and the stratigraphic position of three widely recognized Lower Cretaceous unconformities (Figure 4). Key Surfaces Two types of major erosional surfaces (unconformi- ties) are observed either within or at the formation con- tacts of the Muddy Formation. Fach surface is associat ed with major changes of relative sea level, but the magnitude of erosion may be influenced by local tec- tonic features. One type of surface, a sequence bound- ary, is called a lowstand surface of erosion (LSE) relat. ed to a lowering of base level, which caused subaerial exposure and incisement of drainages into older Presidential Address 969 ay . Sa) sm | & M \ (3 Figure 3—Outlines for Skull Creek seaway (shorelines for sea level highstand) and basin locations during low- stand of sea level. Paleotectonic features controlling paleodrainages are indicated, as is the locations of sec- tion WE, CD, and AB. Top part of diagram after Dolson etal. (1991). deposits. The second type of surface is a transgressive surface of erosion (TSE) related to shoreline and shoreface (marine) erosion that resulted from a rise in relative sea level and water deepening, The unconfor- mity associated with the TSE normally occurs within depositional sequence; however, locally the two ero- sional surfaces may merge. A third type of surface, commonly described in sequence stratigraphy as the maximum flooding sur- face (MES) (Figure 2), is more difficult to identify than. the LSE and TSE. If present as a distinct surface, the MES occurs within a marine condensed shale section that generally has a high total organic content and thin bentonites, e.g., the middle Skull Creek Shale. Minor scour may have concentrated lags of shells or glau- conite and phosphate grains. The condensed section is associated with peak or maximum transgression of the Skull Creek shoreline. The erosional surface associated with the LSE un- conformity has up to 40 m of relief in the paleo-970 Presidential Address DENVER UTAH BASIN = vuntynen SESE OS [EZ] sanosrone ae Teal conevouenare ZZ] vaniecareo snaves LOWER EPHRAIM CONGLOMERATE Figure 4—Disgrammatic section WE showing Lower Cretaccous regional stratigraphic changes (Dakota Group, Denver basin). 1 and 2 = Lytle Formation; 3 = Plainview Sandstone; 4 = Muddy.J Sandstone; 5 = Muddy,J transgres- sive Sandstone; K-0, K-1, K-2 = Cretaceous unconformities (sequence boundaries). Location of section shown on Figure 3. Modified from Dolson et al. (1991), Not to scale. drainages. For the TSE, erosion is estimated at 1-5 m resulting in a diachronous surface of low relief. Locally, diastems, the small breaks within the strata, sometimes are confused with the more important regional breaks (eg,, scour at base of channel and the LSE), Denver Basin During the Laramide Orogeny, the Western Interior Cretaceous basin was segmented into many smaller structural basins of which the Denver basin is one of the largest (Figure 5). The Denver basin is asymmetric with a gently dipping cast flank and a steeply dipping west flank. The basin axis lies close to and parallels the Front Range. Laramide uplift of the Front Range along basement faults has dominated the overall structural style, but changes in regional strike or dip within the Denver basin may be the result of small-scale subtle Figure 5—Map of paleovalleys in the northern Denver basin; direction of flow indicated by arrows. Palcostruc- tural highs influencing drainage patterns and thickness of Muddy Sandstone are W = Wattenberg, TC = Turkey Creek, MC = Morrow County, H = Hartville, PC = present Precambrian outcrop of Front Range. Geographic loca- tions: D = Denver, FC = Fort Collins, GR = Greeley, HR = Hygiene Road, ES = Eldorado Springs, GO = Golden. Numbers = well numbers (see Figure 7).Presidential Address om Tors & B HR B rrr oor FORMATIONS cS = Casaee Sings FACIES GRANEROS HEP or, BASEMENT BLOCKS Oo Some Figure 6—Restored stratigraphic section of Dakota Group (Albian) along the Front Range uplift from Colo- rado-Wyoming state line to south of Morrison, Colorado. Section was compiled from outcrop sections and nearby subsurface. Modified after MacKenzie (1971) and Weimer (1984). Location of section is indicated on Figure 3. Facies boundaries are diachronous (refer to Figure 84) warping of strata over basement fault blocks. Two dominant trends of fold axes are present: northwest and northeast-east Recurrent movement of the basement fault blocks, influenced thickness, facies changes, and location of paleodrainages during the Early Cretaceous. Location of paleotectonic features in relation to paleodrainages (Figures 5, 6) has been described by Weimer and Son- nenberg (1989) and Weimer (1984, 1990). In addition, stratigraphic variations are shown by restored section AB (Figure 6) compiled from outcrop and nearby well data and the electric log cross section (Figure 7) from the Meadow Springs field to Latigo field. Formations, Facies, and Depositional Environments The formation and member names for the Lower Cretaceous, indicated on regional and local stratigraphic sections, are used over a large area. The thickness and distribution of units within the Skull Creek Shale are critical to interpreting the origin of the Muddy Sand stone, The Skull Creek is dominantly marine shale and varies in thickness from 15 0 61 m. The greatest thick- ness is where the upper contact is transitional with the overlying Muddy Sandstone. The thinnest sections are where only the lower Skull Creek is present because erosion, prior to deposition of the Muddy Sandstone cut out the upper part of the Skull Creek (Figures 6, 8)Presidential Address 972 “sonrmsoyuooun Burztu ooas 40} epson 40} ¢ 21qe1 PuE PUDBD| Sax>e5 305 Z a]qEI OF 29}9U"S Dan UO PayE>!PUT S| YORD9S Jo VOR] “(V8 Banka) sNoUOSyPETP axe S9EITPUNOG, sopea “sTearoiuy paresopsod sous seq iy8q ‘speAs21UF paso SMOYS seq KAVOH “SpIY OFT O1 SBulsds MOpEDW MOI} UONDS FOPIAIo[E—C 308g Se oouvs wos am wmvsaue =‘ SURERELIVK Tome ROVER s ® ® ® ® ® ©Presidential Address 973 TH. E.LOG FACIES on— SL. = D c 100 ft— —s > — Ba A -200 ft-—6om CONDENSED SECTION (A) REGRESSIVE DEPOSITS (B) ENVIRONMENTS. Figure 8(A) Facies model for regressive deposits of Skull Creek and Fort Collins Member of Muddy Formation. T-1 through T-5 represent time surfaces (paleoslopes) during progradation of shoreline. LSE = lowstand surface of ero- sion (sequence boundary). Note that facies (lithologic) boundaries are diachronous. (B) Depositional environments and water depths for facies A-D. WB ~ wave base, SWB = storm wave base, D.F. - delta front, P.D. = prodelta, d= deformed layers by slumping. Modified after Davis et al. (1989). c D MowrRY LSE=sB sLSE=sB ‘THERMOPOLIS, 99 Ma DRAINAGE 4 DIVIDE Figure 9—Stratigraphic diagram from Bighorn basin to Denver basin (C-D, Figure 3). The hiatus (time gap) indicat- ed is for the unconformity (sequence boundary) associated with regressive and transgressive deposits of Muddy Sandstone (highstand deposits). Numbers 1 through 4 indicate position of different types of sandstones in relation, to sequence boundary. Sandstone 3 = lowstand deposit (LSD). Microfaunal zones are marked by solid triangles = Ammobaculites euides; solid dots = Verneuilinoides kansasensis. Modified from diagrams by Dolson et al. (1991). Location of section indicated on Figure 3.974 Presidential Address ‘Table 2. Facies Lithologies Average Facies Lithology ‘Thickness E Gray fine-grained to medium-grained, crosysiratified sandstone, shale; coaly 35m D_ Gray burrowed, cross-statified sandstone. 15 m Gray bioturbated sandstone and shale. om Black shale; siltstone, very fine-geained sandstone; ripple lamination; graded beds. 10 m. A Black laminated shale with bentonite and and shell layers; highest total carbon content A paleontologic summary for the Skull Greek Shale was reported by Waage and Eicher (1960), The middle part of the Skull Creek (Figure 9) is the only interval of the Dakota Group that contains common and useful body fossils. The megafossils are the Inoceramus comancheanus fauna and the microfossils are the Ammobaculites ewides and the Verneuilinoides kansa~ sensis biofacies of the Haplophragmoides gigas zone. MacKenzie (1965) and Chamberlain (1976) described trace fossils from the Dakota Group that are useful in identifying facies. Foraminifera and biostratigraphy of the Mowry and Graneros shales were described by Eicher (1965). All these data support the marine inter- pretation for the Skull Creek, Mowry, and Graneros. In the Denver basin, the Muddy Sandstone ranges in thickness from less than 3 to more than 46 m (Figures 6, 7). Thickest sections are in areas where fluvial deposits rest on marine Skull Creek shale. Regional thickness variations of the Muddy were mapped by Haun (1963) and related to patterns of fluvial-deltaic sedimentation, Two types of sandstone bodies comprising the Muddy Sandstone in the Denver basin were described by MacKenzie (1965, 1971) from outcrops along the west margin of the basin, He formally named them the Fort Collins and Horsetooth members of the Muddy Sandstone (Figure 6). The members are separated by an erosional surface interpreted by MacKenzie as recording a drop in sea level The older Fort Collins Member is a very fine-to fine- grained sandstone containing numerous marine trace fossils and is interpreted to be delta-front sandstones, deposited during regression of the shoreline of the Skull Creek sea, Sandstones of the younger Horsetooth Member are fine- to medium-grained, well sorted, cross-stratified, and contain carbonized wood frag- ments. Productive sandstones are intercalated with silt- stone and mudstone and are interpreted to be channels of fresh and brackish water origin deposited as part of valley-fill deposit, The first use of the term *valley-fill deposits” in asso- ciation with productive sandstones in the Denver basin (Nebraska part) was by Harms (1966). He described two sandstone units in the Muddy Sandstone that have lithologies similar to the Fort Collins and Horsetooth members of the Muddy Sandstone. Production is from valley-fill channel sandstones in the Horsetooth Member. A facies model (Figure 8) has been reconstructed from the outcrop and the subsurface of the Wattenberg, field area to explain the highstand regressive deposits of the upper Skull Creek and the genetically related Fort Collins Member of the Muddy Formation. The area for establishing the facies model is near the western shoreline of the Skull Creek seaway (Figure 4). Progra- dation places the lateral facies changes ina vertical sec- tion, the relationship in which facies are usually observed (e.g, in cores and logs), When considered in. a vertical stacking pattern, facies may correspond to either 4 member or a formation, The facies model in cates the diachronous nature of the boundaries of litho- logic units Five facies from A through E, in ascending order of water shallowing, are recognized in Skull Creek and Muddy formations (Figure 8A). The lithologies and thicknesses of the facies are listed on Table 2 and relat- ed to processes within the environments of deposition and water depths (Figure 8B), The facies thicknesses are determined by outcrop measurements and from cores. Because the lithologies can be recognized by mechanical log patterns (Figure 7), the facies also can he easily identified and mapped regionally. Processes in depositional environments responsible for the facies (Figure 8B) are reconstructed using the following: presence or absence of burrowing, indicat- ing aerobi¢ or anaerobic bottom conditions; percent of organic carbon present; energy as reflected by grain size and sedimentary structures: presence or absence of graded beds; nature of contacts; and paleosols or chemical changes beneath the lowstand surface of ero- sion (LSE) separating facies E from whatever under) ing facies. “Assuming that tectonics and eustasy did not vary sig. nificantly during the rapid regression, and by decom- pacting the sedimentary column, an average water depth for the Skull Creek seaway is estimated to be approximately 60 m (from the top of facies D to middle of facies A). Depth variations may occur because of structurally induced topography by fault block move- ‘ment, causing local thinning of facies. Following deposition of facies D, and possibly the thin overlying coastal plain deposits, a relative sea level drop occurred and paleodrainages were incised into facies D, C, or B. The magnitude of incisement varies from a few meters to as much as 40 m (Figures 6, 7). Facies E may be coastal plain deposits and distributary channels of a prograding deltaic shoreline beneath thePresidential Address 975 ‘Table 3. Criteria for Recognition of Unconformities in Outcrops and Cores ————————————————— Lowstand surface of erosion (LSE) (sequence boundary): * Evidence of subaerial exposure: root zones, paleosol, or chemical changes with carly cementation by kaolinite, silica, siderite, and calcite (may be removed by diastem at base of younger channels), + Missing facies because of erosional scour, most commonly the D facies—delta front or shoreface; + Coarse-grained lag with charcoal or coaly fragments at base of channel sandstone resting on marine shale or marine very fine-grained bioturbated sandstone. Teansgressive surface of erosion (TSE): + Missing facies: facies B or C sharply overlies B with facies D missing = Thin relict depos (= 30 cm): lag of coarse-grained or conglomeratic sandstone and clay clasts, intensively burrowed sandstone, ot concentration of phosphate grains, shark’s teeth, fish bones, glauconite + Reworked sandstone above surface as marine bars, LSE, or more commonly, a fluvial and/or estuarine val: ley-fill deposit and associated interfluve deposits above the ISE. Criteria for recognizing unconformities in cores and outcrops (Figures 6, 7) are summarized in Table 3. OF particular significance in stratigraphic trap explo- ration are the seals formed by paleosols (early diagene- sis) under the subaerially exposed surface of erosion (SE-sequence boundary). The position of the uncon- formity between the Fort Collins and Horsetooth mem- bers of the Muddy Sandstone is shown on electric logs from six wells where cores are available (Figure 7) ‘Two cores (wells 3 and 5) show the development of a root zone overlain by carbonaceous shale on the sur- face of erosion (LSE). Associated with the root zone is an underlying interval 3 m thick representing a pale- ‘sol that has kaolinite, siderite, and silica as pore-filing ‘minerals that block porosity and permeability. Kaolinite appears throughout the interval; silica overgrowths and siderite occur either in small isolated concentrations or as lenticular bands. Primary depositional fabric is oblit- crated in the L-m interval below the LSE. The paleosols may be removed by subsequent erosion (diastem) at the base of fluvial channels of the overlying valley fil Regional Sea Level Changes ‘The transgressive-regressive-transgressive cycle recorded by the Skull Creek, Muddy, and Mowry for- mations was influenced by tectonics, custasy, sediment supply, and paleobathymetry of the basin. A large part of the Western Interior was submerged by the Skull Creek highstand (Figure 3). Shoreline regression result- ed from one or more of the following: excess sediment supply, # relative fall of sea level, or minor tectonic movement along the Transcontinental arch. As a result, the central part of the basin was subaerially exposed and a paleodrainage was incised into the older strata. Recurrent movement on basement fault blocks con- trolled local drainage basins (Figure 3). This period of subaerial exposure and accompanying erosion re- moved part or all of the regressive deposits (Figure 9). Therefore, an accurate reconstruction of the deposition during the relative sea level fall is impossible. Rem- nants of regressive sandstones, or stillstands of the shoreline during the fall, are interpreted as the oil-pro- ductive Bell Creek, Rozet, and Amos Draw sandstones in the Powder River basin, Montana and Wyoming, A regional drainage divide formed across southeast- er Wyoming with paleodrainages flowing northward to a Jowstand basin in central Montana and northwest- ern Wyoming, and southward to a lowstand basin in ‘Texas and Oklahoma A regional cross section shows the Skull Creek Shale, the magnitude of erosion into the regressive deposits during sea level lowstand, and the subsequent, coastal onlap and valley fill (Figure 9). Four different types sandstones can be identified, of which three are petroleum reservoirs, Type 1 is the highstand regres- sive delta sandstone; type 2, if recognizable, is valley- fill sandstone deposited as channel lag during incise- ment (2a), and the fluvial-estuarine sandstone during the fill process (2b); type 3 is nonreservoir lowstand sandstone; type 4 is shoreline and nearshore (marine bars) of the Mowry transgression and onlap. The lowstand deposits are marine shale and sand- stones that show no abnormal thickness of lithology. The thin nature of the lowstand shoreline sandstones and lack of reservoir quality probably resulted from erosion during transgression (TSE) with the upper shoreface and beach sand eroded and moved in a land- ward direction. ‘The hiatus (gap) associated with the unconformity is estimated by using the complete section in the north- ern lowstand basin as a reference, and by tracing mark- cr beds and faunal zones to the south and east. The marine shale strata then are restored to horizontal datums both above and below the unconformity. The result is a Wheeler-type diagram that illustrates the missing section (Wheeler, 1958). The magnitude of the hiatus is uncertain because of the limited number of radiometric dates. However, the best estimates suggest that the date at the top of the Mowry is about 96 Ma976 Presidential Address SHOREFACE EROSION: S.L. TSE LSE :SB Figure 10—Facies development in relation to the transgressive surface of erosion (TSE) during relative sea level rise water deepening). Refer to Table 3 for lithologies of facies A-E. Cz is an offshore central marine-bar facies with ‘cross-siratified sandstone. Thin relict residual deposits may or may not form on TSE. LSE = lowstand surface of ero- sion, SB = sequence boundary, IVF = incised valley fill. and the Skull Creek Shale is 99-100 Ma (Obradovich, 1991, p. A296). Thus, the hiatus is estimated to be in the range of 1-2 m.y. in the Denver basin. The date of the sea level lowstand is approximately 98 Ma. The model of sea level change is illustrated as one ‘major relative fall and rise (Figure 9). However, in both. the Denver and Powder River basins, one or more minor pulses of regression are superposed on the over all relative sea level rise. An example is illustrated in the upper part of the Horsetooth Member on Figure 7. A TSE formed above the productive channel sand- stones in wells 4-6, followed by a regressive sandstone that changes facies from the productive sandstone in the Third Creek field to marine mudstone and siltstone in the Peoria and Latigo fields. The younger Mowry- Huntsman transgressive surface (LSE) overlies this, facies change (Figure 7). During the Mowry transgression and water deepen- ing, the lithologies deposited above the TSE are quite variable (Figure 10). Because of shoreface erosion causing the TSE, facies D generally is absent except in areas of minor stillstands of the shoreline. Reworked sands occur as thin burrowed sandstone lags or as marine bars (sand ridges) above the TSE. In the out crop area of the Denver basin (Figure 6), facies B, deposited in water depths of more than 30 m, overlies the TSE (illustrated in the right side of Figure 10), This abrupt water deepening appears related to both tecton- ic subsidence and eustatic rise. In a part of the outcrop area over the Wattenberg paleohigh, the TSE and LSE merge (center of Figure 6). Continued water deepening. resulted in the entire Western Interior basin being inun- dated with maximum transgression during the time of Greenhorn Limestone deposition (Cenomanian). A thin, but economically important, regression is record- ed by the D Sandstone (Figures 4, 7), Stratigrapbic Terminology Standard lithostratigraphic terms are used in this sur- face and subsurface study of the Lower Cretaceous (Figures 6, 7). Formations and members are related to facies and unconformities. The importance of recogniz~ ing the key erosional surfaces and using them to de mine the relative age of units is indispensable to the detailed stratigraphic work. The interpretative terms related to my sequence stratigraphic analysis (Figure 6) are different from the stratigraphic terms proposed by Van Wagoner et al. (1990) (Table 1) and recently applied to studies of the Western Interior Cretaceous. I have not used the terms “parasequence,” “parase- quence sets,” or “system tracts” because they duplicate the standardized well-recognized terms, The subaerially exposed surface of erosion (LSE or sequence boundary) is the result of a relative sea level lowstand. In the absence of a clearly defined reference for what is lowstand and highstand of sea level, 1 arbi- trarily use for this purpose the shoreline of the low- stand basins (essentially the seaward edge of the LSE) (Figure 9). Therefore, any deposits on the surface of erosion (LSE) are called highstand deposits (HSD). The HSD contains transgressive deposits (TD, including the incised valley fills) and regressive deposits (RD) (Figure 6), separated by a condensed section (CS) related to maximum or peak transgression, Where discontinuities bound the lithostratigraphic units, they could be designated as allostratigraphic units. In the Denver basin, the Horsetooth Member is. an allomember because it is bounded by an LSE and a TSE. However, the Fort Collins member is bounded by a discontinuity only at the top (LSE); the lower contact, is transitional. Therefore, the Fort Collins is not an allomember, For this reason I have not used the terms -allomember” or “alloformation,