Power Systems for GATE/ESE/PSU And Other Competitive Exams ANKIT GOYAL KR wwwkreatryx.comPower Systems © Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. Any kind of copying, publication, reproduction, communication to public adaption, recording, dissemination of this work, sale, resale, offer ta sale, licensing ofthis materia, in whole or in parts, by any means including physica, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, ithout the prior written consent of Kreatryx shall deemed to be copyright infringement, and shall be pu ishable as per applicable laws in india, subject to jurisdiction of courts in New Delhi only, Kreatryx Offices Head. Office Lane No.3, 2nd Floor of Khasra No. 258, Situated at Kuldeep House Westend Marg, Saidulajab, New Delhi-110030 Mob: +91-8130183640 Klassroom 665A, Basement, Govind House, Kalu Sarai, New Delhi-110016 ISBN 978-81-935800-6-5, Price e549 For further information about the products from Kreatryx, check out wwwkreatryx.com/plans. or mail us at info@kreatryx.com, First Edition 2019Preface This is the second book in the series of subject-wise books by Kreatryx. This book is an attempt to provide quality concepts along with ample of practice problems to students who wish to do well in competitive exams. We have made sure that language used in this book is simple enough to un- derstand because we know that the biggest issue faced by students is comprehending the typical language used in standard books. Our aim with this book is to climinate the nced to standard books for competitive exams as the time is limited in any exam and in that limited time student has to become proficient in different subjects. So we feel there was always a need of such a book which. can provide in-depth concepts as well as provide problems for practice. Some of the features of this book are topic-wise solved examples and topic wise practice problems as well as level wise exercises at the end of chapter. We have also highlighted important points that one has to remember in every topic so that subject never feels too bulky. The best way to use this book would be to go through the theoretical aspects of any topic and then learn from solved ex- amples as to how to attempt problems based on a particular topic. Then a student must go through the practice problems given under that topic and upon completion of chapter he/she must solve the practice problems at end of chapter. We have made sure that all topies and all types of problems are covered from basic to advanced level. This book covers all the topics asked in GATE and ESE which are Power System Generation, ‘Transmission and Distribution, Economic Load Dispatch, Fault Analysis, Power System Stability, Power System Protection and Load Flow Analysis. We have also made sure that we have explained all the pre-requisites before starting with core of subject such as AC Analysis of Networks. Lam really proud of my team who have made this dream of mine a reality and made it possible for ‘me to serve aspirants better. I would like to thank my student Sudhcer Dhukis (GATE-2018 Air-24) who has worked hard to complete this book on time and Mr. Naveen Sardar who works at Kreatryx and has worked odd hours with me to realize this dream. At last I hope that this book fulfills your expectations and deepens your understanding of the sub- ject. I hope you enjoy reading this book and learn a lot from it Happy Learning and All the best! Ankit Goyal Co-Founder, Kreatryx AIR-A, GATE 2018 EE | AIR-1, GATE 2014 KE | AIR-8, GATE 2013 EE,0Contents Unit-1: Introduction... LI Schematic Diagram 1 1.2 Objectives of Power System Design. 2 13 Power System Generation. 2 14 Hydroelectric Power Plants. 2 1.5 Steam Power Plants. 9 1.6 Nuclear Power Plant. ...nn o o snes AS 1.7 Gas Turbine Power Plants. 9 18 Solar Power Generation. . . sen 21 1.9 Wind Power Generator. 23 1.10 Environment Implications of Energy Generation 4 1.11. Distributed Generation sn sen sn 26 1.12. Base Load & Peak Load Plants 7 1.13 Economie Power Generation ... se se 28 1.14 Per Unit System 32 Exercises 37 Unit-2 : Transmission and Distribution 39 to 250 Chapter-1 : Transmission Line Parameters... a 40 11 Transmission Line, o so so seme AO 1.2 Types of Over-voltages 41 1.3 Classification of Power line voltage levels, . 2 1.4. ‘Types of Transmission Lines, 44 1S Types of Conductors 47 1.6 Equivalent circuit of Transmission Line. 3 1.7 Bundled Conductors. 39 1.8 Three phase conductor configurations 6 1.9 Radio interference with communication system. 64 1.10 Transmission Line Constants 68 1.11 Inductance of Power LineS..n.nmnennsnnsn senennnnnnnnn TL 1.12 Capacitance of Power Line B 1.13. Conductor Configurations ....2 o o seen 9 Chaper-2 : Steady State Performance of Transmission Lin 2.1 Performance Indices of a Transmission Line. 88 2.2 Classification of Transmission Lines 89 m2.3. ABCD Parameters, o a a 933 2.4 Short Transmission Line Analysis. 98 2.5 Medium Transmission Line ee a 106 2.8 Long Transmission Line, 12 2.9 Wave Nature of Long Transmission Line 14 2.10 Equivalent Networks of Long Transmission Line... nnn 16 2.11. Static Power Transfer Equation, 121 2.12 Characteristics of Transmission Lines os so 130 2.13 ABCD Parameters of lossless line (R = 0, G= 0) 134 2.14 Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)... . 135 2.15 Loading on Lossless Transmission Line 138 2.16 Wave Propagation in lossless line (R = 0, G = 0) 139 Chapter-3 : Surges in Transmission Line sss sete 145 3.1 Wave propagation phenomenon... « so sonone 145 3.2 Open Cireuited Transmission Line 149 3.3. Short Circuited Transmission Line 152 3.4 Thevenin Equivalent 154 3.4 Reflection and Refraction Coefficients 155 3.5. Bifurcated / Parallel lines se o 156 Chapter-4 : Voltage Control 160 4.1 Nature of Loads. 160 42. Voltage control methods. 160 43. Reactive Power . . sone 161 44 Relation between receiving end voltage (V,) & net reactive power Q, 163, 45° Shunt Capacitor. - 163 4.6 Shunt Reactor or Shunt Inductor. 166 4.7. Series Capacitor 169 48 Series Capacitor Vs Shunt Capacitor. 171 49 Dynamic Voltage Control 174 Chapter-5 : Load Frequency Control .. 186 5.L_ Flat Frequency Control 186 5.2 Parallel Frequency Control 186 5.3. Flat Tie-Line Control 186 5.4 Area Frequency Response Characteristics. so 186 5.5 Area Control Error 187 Chapter-6 : Underground Cables.. 188 6.1 Construction 188 6.2 Underground Cables Vs Overhead Lines. . se 189 63. Proximity Effect 190 v64 Insulation Resistance of cable. se a 191 6.5. Electrostatic Stress Distribution in Cable 192 6.6 Grading of cables ee sons 193 6.7 Capacitance of single core cable. 195 68 Capacitance of 3 core cable 195 6.9 Losses / Heating in UG cable. senna sow 19T 6.10 Effect of various parameters on Losses in a Cable 199 Chapter-7 : Overhead Insulators 7.1 Properties of Insulators 7.2 Types of Insulators. 7.3. Voltage distribution across Suspension Type Insulator. 207 A Methods to improve String Efficiency... . 209 Chapter-8 : Corona 8.1 Critical Disruptive Voltage 214 82. Corona Loss 215 8.3. Factors affecting corona loss, 216 84 Advantage & Disadvantages of Corona. 216 Chapter-9 : Distribution Systems... 9.1 Source Fed from one end 9.2 Topology of Distribution Systems 9.3 Source fed from both ends... 94 Ring Distribution. 9.6 Uniform Distribution, Chapter-10 : HVDC and FACTS... 10.1 Principle of operation, 10.2 Types of DC link. 10.3 Advantages of HVDC. 10.4 Disadvantages of HVDC... 10.5 Economic distance of HVDC line. 10.6 Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) (Not in Gate Syllabus) Exercises, Unit-3 : Economic Load Dispatch . 3.1 Generator Operating Cost 3.2 Unit commitments decision (UCD) 3.3 Economic Dispatch Decision (E.D.D.) 3.4 Economic Dispatch Problem without power loss 3.5. Power losses. 3.6 Economie dispatch with power loss. Exercises,Unit-4 : Fault Analysis Chapter-1 : Representation of Power System. LL Single Line Diagram, 268 1.2. Transformer in PU System, 21 Chapter-2 : Symmetrical components and Sequence Network... 2.1 Fortesque’s Theorem, 2.2 Symmetrical Components 23° Sequence Network. . 24 Star connected winding with neutral grounding, 2.5 Delta connected winding. 2.6 Sequence network for alternators 2.7 Sequence network for transformer. 28 Sequence Networks for Transmission Line Chapter-3 : Fault Analysis 3.1 Assumptions in Short Circuit Fault Analysis. 305 3.2 Basies of Fault Analysis. 306 3.3. Transient on a Transmission Line s..snson sn son 307 3.3. Short Circuit model of synchronous Machine Bl 3.4 3 Fault or LLL Fault or Symmetrical Fault or Balanced Fault 3Is 3.8 3-4 to ground Fault or LLLG Fault 317 3.7. Selection of Circuit Breakers. 318 3.6 Short circuit fault on loaded synchronous machine «0. snnnenne 319 3.7 Phasor Diagram of Symmetrical Fault 321 3.8. Single Line to Ground Fault (SLG or LG), o se 325 3.9. Line to Line Fault or Double line Fault 327 3.10 Line-Line to Ground (LLG) or Double line to ground Fault 329 3.11 Neutral Grounding, 331 Exercises, Unit-5 : Power System Stability... 351 to 400 5.1 Angular Stability o so so sone 351 5.2 Dynamics of Synchronous Machine. 351 5.3. Steady State Stability cus smn pone 358 5.4 Transient Stability Analysis 365 5.5 Equal Area Criterion 366 5.6 Increasing steam input of alternator 368, 5.8 Fault occurs in middle of one of the Parallel Lines 378 5.9 Fault occurs on one of parallel lines very close to bus 381 5.11. Swing Equation of synchronous motor. 385 5.12 Change in mechanical load on synchronous motor 387 vw5.12 Unit-6 : Power System Protection, Chapter-1 : Protective Switches. Lu 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Chapter-2 : Protective Relays. 2 22 23 24 25 26 t 28 29 2.10 241 212 a 12 13 TA 4S 16 a 78 19 Methods to improve Transient Stability a a 388 Exercises, Types of protective switches ‘Are Phenomenon, Are Interruption Method. Are Interruption Theories. Terms Regarding Circuit Breaker Are Phenomenon. 409 Resistance Switching a2 Current Chopping... son o o als Ratings of Circuit Breaker 416 Types of Circuit Breaker. se sn 417 Protective Zones. Important Terms Primary & Back-up Protection. 426 Time grading principle 426 Desirable qualities of Protective Relaying. 426 Types of relay units. 47 Over current protection, 432 Universal Relay torque equation « o ee) Differential Relay. 441 Protection of Transmission Line/feeders. 442 Protection of Alternators 449 Protection of transformer. 435 Unit-7 : Load Flow Studies 165 to S18 Power System Mattices, 465 Construction of Fy. 469 Construction of Bus Impedance Matrix. 476 us based Fault Analysis 485 Load Flow Analysis 487 Load Flow Solution, 490 ‘Newton- Raphson Method. 494 Decoupled Load Flow method. 501 Comparison of Load Flow methods 503 Exercises, 518 vuSolutions Unit-1 : Introduction. Unit-2 : Transmission and Distribution Chapter-1 ; Transmission Line Parameters, Chapter-2 : Steady State Performance of Transmission Line Chapter-3 : Wave Propagation Phenomenon. Chapter-4 : Voltage Control. Chapters : Load Frequency Control. Chapter-6 : Underground Cables. Chapter-7 : Overhead Insulators Chapter8 ; Corona Chapter-9 : Distribution Systems Chapter-10 : HVDC and FACTS. Unit-3 : Economic Dispatch (optional) Unit-4 : Fault Analysis. Chapter-1 ; Representation of Power System, 585 Chapter2 : Symmetrical components and Sequence Network. 587 Chapter-3 : Fault Analysis 590 Unit-5 : Power System Stability. Unit-6 : Power System Protection. Chapter-1 ; Protective Switches 633 Chapter-2 : Protective Relays. 34 Unit-7 : Load Flow Studies... Blog Post How To Prepare Power System vars ss osm 655 vuPower Systems| Introduction 01 Unit Objectives Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to: + Understand the basic objectives of Power Systems study: + Understand working of different Power Plants + Understand parameters of Economic Power Generation + Represent the power system in per unit system. Introduction A Power System is a complete system encompassing generation, transmission, distribution and ttilization of electrical power. The Power system that supplies a regions home or industry is also called as he grid and it includes the Generators that generate electrical power from renewable or non-renewable resources. Usually Synchronous Generators are used for this purpose. It also in- cludes transmission system that carries power from generators tothe load centers and distribution system that feeds power to nearby homes or industry. In India, we have 5 regional grids Northern, Eastern, North-Eastern, Western and Southern, These all regional grids are interconnected so that Power Surplus areas can support the power demand of Power Defitt areas. 1.1 Schematic Diagram The schematic diagram of Power System is shown below, ee len apes sepa > MéSasumers Ty aerv ts [Petter pow ‘stems Figure 1 : Schema diagram ofa Power System wwwekreatryx.com2 | Introduction 1.2 Objectives of Power System Design 1. Cost of electric energy / unit (1kWhr) is to be minimum. This objective is dealt in terms of fol- owing topies in this book. + Economic load dispatch + Power generation methods 2. Rated voltage & frequency must be supplied to the consumers. This objective is dealt in terms of following topics in this book. + Automatic Voltage and Frequency Control. 3. Reliable power supply as per the consumer requirement has to be available. This objective is dealt in terms of following topics in this book. + Generation, Transmission, HYDC 4, Effective protection system should be available, This objective is dealt in terms of following, topics in this book, + Fault Analysis + Protection & Switchgear 5. Generators must be stable so that they do not lose synchronism under faulty condition, This ob- jective is dealt in terms of following topics in this book, + Power Systems Stability °6, Flexible Power Transfer has to be available, Tais objective is dealt in terms of following topics in this book + UG cable 1.3 Power System Generation 1. Energy Sources can be broadly classified into two categories: + Conventional Energy Sources Yon-Conventional Energy Sources 2. Thermal Power Plants based on Coal, Oil and Nuclear power sources and Hydroelectric Energy are classified as Conventional Energy Sources. Solar, Tidal and Wind energy sources are classi- fied as Non-Conventional Energy Sources. 1.4 Hydroelectric Power Plants 1. Hydroelectric Power is power obtained by converting potential energy in height of water which is further converted to kinetic energy of turbine and then synchronous machines are used to convert this energy to electrical energy. 2. P=wOHnx9.81x10° w= specific weight of water kg/m! Q = rate of flow of water in m/sec ‘H™= bight of fall and head in m n= overall efficiency of operation 3. Factors before constructing a plant + Capital cost of plant ‘apital cast of erecting and maintaining transmission line + Energy generation cost comparison, wwwekreatryx.comPower Systems | 3 1.4.1 Merits and Demerits of Hydroelectric Power Plant 1. No Fuel is required High reliability and cheapest in operation Plant can be run up and synchronized faster ‘The load can be varied quickly and rapidly, changing load demand can be met. Accurate governing, f= constant No stand-by losses. Plants are robust & have longer life. Efficiency is not a function of age ‘Neat and clean (no smoke or ash) Such plants also serve irrigation, 1.4.2 Demerits 1. Larger area Construction cost is high Long Transmission Line are required as plants are constructed in hilly areas, Long dry season may affect power supply 5. Firm capacity is low. 1 1.4.3 Selection of site for Hydroelectric plants ‘The following factors should be considered before deciding the location of Hydroclectric Power Plant, 1. Availability of water Water storage Water head + Depends on topography of area + High head reduces storage requirement 4, Distance from load center + Ibis always desirable to have power plant near to load center so that the transmission cost and transmission losses can be minimized, 5. Accessibility of site + Effective transportation should be available 6. Water pollution can cause corrosion of plant 7. Lange catchment area requires large reservoir area 8. Land availability Example 1.1: A hydroelectric power station is supplied from a reservoir of capacity 3x107m’ at a head of 150 m, Determine the total energy available in kWh if overall 1 of the 70%? Solution: H=150 m, Q=3x10"m" w= 1000 kg/m’, =0.7 Energy = wQh 1x9.81W ~sec =1000%3% 10" x150%9.81%0.7 = 8.58310" kWh wwwekreatryx.com4 | Introduction Reservoir Dam ‘SURGE TANK ‘Value house Bo Penstock Power station 7 ‘Tall Race Figure 1.2 : Schematic of Hydroelectric Power Plant with reservoir 1.4.4 Elements of hydroelectric plants 1. Storage Reservoir: Stores water during excess flow periods (i. rainy season) and supply same ‘during lean flow periods and thus it helps in supplying water to turbines. 2. Dam: The function of dam is not only to create artificial head by raising water surface of stream, but also to provide pondage, storage or facility of diversion into conduits. 3. Fore bay: It serves as regulator reservoir storing water temporarily during light load period and, providing the same for initial inerease on account of increasing load during which water in canal is being accelerated. 4. Spillway: It acts as safety valve. It discharges overflow water in down stream side when reservoir is full during flood period. 5. Intake: The intake includes the head works which are structures atthe intake of conduits, tunnels. and fumes, These structures includes screens or trash racks, sluices to prevent entry of debris & ice into the turbines, 6. Surge Tank: A reduction in load on generator causes the Governor to close the turbine gates and this ereates increased pressure in penstock. This results in water hammer phenomenon which will require pipe of extraordinary strength to withstand otherwise penstock may burst. This can be avoided by providing a small storage reservoir or tank for receiving the rejected flow and thus relieving the conduit pipe of excessive water hammer pressure, This storage reservoir called as surge tank. + Itis located as close to plant as possible + Decrease in load demand causes water level in surge tank to rise. This produces retarding head and reduces velocity of water in penstock to bring it to desired level. + Increase in load demand causes Governor to open turbine gates to allow more water flow through penstock to supply increased load. This creates a vacuum or negative pressure in penstock and it provides necessary accelerating, for 7. Penstoc is a closed conduit which connects forebay or surge tank to the scroll case of turbine, + In medium head plants, each unit is provided with its own penstock. wwwekreatryx.comPower Systems | 5 + In high head plants, a single penstock is used. + The thickness of penstock must be adequate to with stand both the normal hydrostatic pressure and sudden surges due to fluctuations in load. 8. Valves and gates: In low head plants, gates at entrance of turbine caring can shut off flow and. provide un-watering of turbine for inspection. 9. ‘Trash racks: They prevent ingress of floating and other material to the turbine. 10, Tail race: The water after doing useful work in turbine is discharged to tail race which may lead it to same stream or to another one. 11, Draft tubes: An airtight pipe of suitable diameter attached to runner outlet and conducting water down from the wheel and discharging it under the surface of water in tail race is known as draft tube, 12, Prime Mover or Water Turbines: In hydroelectric power plants water turbines are used as prime movers and their function is to convert kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy which altemator converts to electrical energy. 1.4.5 Classification according to extent of water flow regulation available. 1. Run-off river plants without pondage + Some hydro plants are so located that water is taken from river directly and no pondage or storage is possible, + Such plants are called run off river plants without pondage + They cannot be used as & when desired but only when water is available, + Atsuch places the water is mainly used for irrigation & power generation is only incidental 2. Run-off river plants with pondage + Pondage refers to storage at the plant which makes it possible to cope, hour to hour with flue ‘tuations of load through a week or some longer period depending on size of pondage. + They can serve as base load or peak load plant depending on flow of stream. 3. Reservoir Power plants + When water is stored in a big reservoir behind a dam, itis possible to control flow of water, + Itcan be used as base load or peak load plant as per requirement, 1.4.6 Classification according to water head 1. Low head hydro power plants + Itconsists of a dam across the stream to back up the river and create a fal, the water flowing through, + Ih is created near the dam so no surge tank is required. + In low head plants, Francis, Propeller or Kaplan turbines are employed. Since for given output, large quantity of water is required and head is low so pipes of larger diameter and short length are used. 2. Medium head hydro power plants + River is usually tapped off to a forebay on one bank of the river as in low head plant. + Form Forebay water is led to turbines via penstock. + Forebay also acts as water reservoir and surge tank. + Horizontal shaft Francis, Propeller or Kaplan turbines are used, wwwekreatryx.com6 | Introduction Headrace Tail race Figure 13 : Run off rver plant without pondage 3. High head hydro electric power plants + Ihigh head is available, a steep lateral valley can be dammed and a reservoir for storage of water is formed, + Surge tank is built just before valve house so that severity of water hammer effect can be re- duced. + Surge tank can also act as temporary reservoir to meet sudden increase in demand, 1.4.7 Classification according to type of load 1. Base load plants + The plants that can take load on the base portion of load curve of power system are called as base load plants. + Such plants are of usually large capacity. + Since, these plants work on nearly constant load so they operate at high load factor. + Run off river plants without pondage and reservoir, are used as base load plants + The per unit cost of energy generated by plant should be low: 2. Peak load plants + Plants used to supply the peak load of the system corresponding to top portion of load curve are called as peak load plants. + Run-off river plants with pondage can be employed as peak load plants + Reservoir plants can be used as peak load plants. + Load factor of such plants is low. 1.4.8 Classification of Water Turbines 1. Based on type of flow + Axial flow turbines: water flow along the shaft axis. + Inward radial flow turbines: water flows along the radius. + Tangential or peripheral flow turbines: water flow is along the tangential directions + Mixed flows radial inlet and axial outlet wwwekreatryx.comPower Systems | 7 2 Points to Remember + Kaplan Turbine is an axial flow turbine and has adjustable runner blades. + Runner blades of Kaplan Turbine can be rotated. + Ifrunner blades are fixed, then they are called as Propeller Turbines. + Francis turbine is mixed flow turbine. + Pelton wheel is tangential flow turbine. 2. Based on action of water (@) Impulse Type: If entire pressure of water is converted into kinetic energy in a nozzle and the jet thus formed drives the wheel. Gi) Reaction ‘Type: When water pressure combined with its velocity work on running the tur- bine. Specific speed of turbine, WWE Ny= Be IN; specific rotational speed in metrie units. LN: actual rotational speed of turbine in rpm P output in metric hp Hi: effective head (m) 3. Based on name of originator ( Pelton wheel + Impulse turbine suitable for high head and low flow. + Ithas a rotor equipped with elliptical buckets along periphery of turbine. + Majority of the Pelton Turbines are Horizontal Shaft Type. + Impulse Turbines have long penstocks due to high heads. + This turbine is not suitable for water head below 200 m. Brake reales Figure 14 ‘Schematic of Pelton Whee! Gi) Francis Turbine + It is an inward mixed flow type of reaction turbine and is suitable for medium head & medium flow plants wwwekreatryx.com8 | Introduction + They develop power partly due to velocity of water and partly due to difference in pressure acting on front and back of runner buckets + Afier doing work, water is discharged to tail race through a closed tube of increasing cross-see~ tion called the draft tube. + Full load efficiency of this ype of turbine is about 92%. rrancis type turbines can be constructed in horizontal and vertical forms + The alternator is mounted above turbine & thus is fre from flooding. + This can be designed for higher speed than Pelton wheel, ii) Kaplan Turbine + It is also a reaction type turbine and has gate and governing mechanism similar to that of Francis Turbine + In Kaplan turbine water strikes the turbine axially + Due to high specific speeds, itis suitable for low head & large flow plants. + Kaplan Turbine gives high speed than ordinary Francis turbine resulting in lower cost of run- ner and alternator. + It efciency is about 90% at all loads. + ts runner is capable of reverse operation as a pump. (iv) Propeller Turbine + Itisan axial flow reaction type turbine & has got no provision for changing runner blade while turbine isin motion. + Its efciency is 92% at full load 1.4.9 Pumped Storage Power Plant Head water pond 1<-Dam <—Penstock Power house with reversible turbine & pump Dam Tall water pond Figure 15 : Schematic of Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Power Plant 1. This isa unique design of peak load plant. This plant pumps peak all or a portion of water supply during low load period, 2. The generating pumping plant is at the lower end, 3. The plant utilizes some of the surplus energy generated by the base load plant to pump water from tail pond to head pond. 4. During peak load period water is used to generate energy by allowing it to flow from head pond, to tail pond. 5. ‘The capacity of plant should be such that it san supply peak load for 4 to 10 hours. wwwekreatryx.comPower Systems | 9 6. During off peak hours, the generator operates as motor and drives the turbine which now works ‘as pump raising the water from tail pond to head pond, 7. mis around 60-70%, 8. Such plants can be operated in inter-connected systems where other generating plant are avail- able. 1.4.10 Advantages of Pumped Storage Plant 1. Peak loads can be supplied at a lower cost. Steam and nuclear power plants can be operated at almost upf. ‘They can take up loads in very short time. Such plants can supply extra load demand, ‘They can be used for load frequency control by sharing the load to increase frequney. 1.5 Steam Power Plants 1. In Steam power plants, heat of combustion of fossil fuels is utilized by boilers to raise steam at high temperature & pressure. 2. The steam produced drives the turbine or sometimes steam engines coupled to generators. Chemical Combustion Turbine Generator nergy Thermal ———-> mech. ——S Cheetrieal ——> energy energy energy Figure 1.6 : Energy Flow Diagram of Steam Power Plat water Mech. electrical ae energy > enersy _Y Bus-bar Boiler fists) bowaste gases exhaust ‘gases Figure 1.7: Schematic of Steam Power Plant 3. Overall, efficiency of power plant, defined as the ratio of heat equivalent of electrical output to heat of combustion, is about 29%, 4, The thermal efficiency of plant depends on: + Pressure + Temperature of steam entering turbine + Pressure in condenser 5. Major elements of thermal power plant are Boiler, Turbine & Alternator 1.5.1 Merits and Demerits Merits 1. Fuel used is cheaper Lesser space requirement than hydroelectric plant Lesser Initial cost Lesser production cost than diesel plant They can be constructed anywhere irrespective of fuel availability, wwwekreatryx.com10 | Introduction 6. They can be located near load centers 7. Able to respond rapidly to change in load. 8. A portion of steam can also be used in other industries (paper mills ete) Demerits 1. High maintenance and operating costs Pollution to atmosphere due to fumes and residues. ‘Requirement of huge amount of water as coolant Coal handling and ash disposal is difficult Troubles due to smoke and heat. Increase in temperature and pressure causes increase in cost. Requires long time for construction, 11 < 75% at full load, 1.5.2 Working of steam power plant 1. Itoperates on Rankine Cycle 2. Coal is burt in a boiler which converts water to steam, 3. This steam is expanded in a turbine which produces mechanical power to drive alternator. 4. The steam is then condensed to be fed into boiler again. 1.5.3 Fuel and Ash circuit 1. Coal is delivered by rail, road or water 2. Transportation by road is most common, 3. The coal is then taken to bucket boilers by means of bucket conveyers. 4. ‘Then, coal stored in bunkers falls into hoppers by gravity 5. Combustion is controlled by controlling the grate speed, quantity of coal entering grate, the ‘damper openings. 6. Ash after completion of combustion is collected at back of boiler. 1.5.4 Air & Flue Gas circuit 1. Air is drawn from atmosphere by a forced draught fan or induced draught fan through air pre- heater, ‘Air is heated in preheater by flue gases. ‘The flue gases are finally discharged through chimney. 2. Feed water and steam circuit 1. ‘The steam coming out of turbine is condensed and condensate is extracted from condenser. This condensate is forced to low pressure feed water heater where its temperature is raised by heat from bled steam. In boiler water is converted to high pressure steam which is wet. ‘This wet steam is superheated and then supplied to main valve to the turbine. After coming out of turbine, steam is condensed into feed water. 1.8.6 Cooling water circuit 1. Cooling water is supplied from a natural source such as river, canal, sea or take or cooling tower through sereens to remove matter that might choke condenser tubes. wwwekreatryx.comPower Systems| 277 Symmetrical components 02 and Sequence Network Chapter In a balanced system, analysis can be donc on a single phase basis, The knowledge of voltage and cur- rent in one phase is sufficient to determine the voltages and current in other two phases. It is so because ‘we know that in balanced system the magnitude of voltages and currents remain same in all three phases and there is only a phase shift of 120° between the phases. But when the system is unbalanced, the voltages, currents and the phase impedance are in general un- equal. Unbalanced system operation can result due to unsymmetrical fault, ex. line to line fault, double eto ground or single line to ground. Unbalanced operation may also result when loads are unbal- anced, When unbalanced three phase voltages and currents are transformed into two sets of balanced voltages and currents and one set of co-phasal quantities, the method is known as symmetrical components. Ifthe currents and voltages are related by constant impedances, the system is said to be linear and the principle of super position applies. The voltage response of the linear system to the unbalanced currents can be determined by considering the separate responses of the individual elements to the symmetrical components of the currents. This ‘means that we will consider the different elements of Power System separately during analysis. The system elements of interest are the machines, transformers, transmission lines and loads connected to delta or star configurations, For unbalanced 3-phase system, analysis becomes very difficult as shown for the system in Figure 2.1 002.20, Unbalanced Load Figure 2 :A balanced source supplying unbalanced load It we apply KVL, in three loops as shown below, then we observe that loop equations are coupled which ‘means that equations are not independent of each other as each equation contains currents belonging to two different phases, Vig LR, +14Ry Vig =9 Vig 14R, + 1,R,-V.,=0 LR, +1,R,-V,,-0 wwwekreatryx.com278 | Fault Analysis These three equations are not independent of each other as one equation can be derived from the other ‘wo and hence we need one more equation to analyze this system. That equation can be derived using KCLat the star point of the load. 1,+h+1.=0 In order to analyze unbalanced system in terms of balanced system, symmetrical component method is used based on ‘Fortesque’s Theorem’ i Points to Remember + Unbalanced voltages in terms of symmetrical component are ve) fi 1 ty, WJaj afr, vj la «lly, + For inverse matrix, we divide by 3 & exchange « & a? in the matrix Va) ft 1 1%, Yu a aly, vy) “ha ally, + Thisdirect method of inverse can only be applied ifthe sequence of voltages in symmetrical component matrix is 0,1,2 + Zero sequence line voltage is always zero. + Zero sequence current can only exist in line ifneutral of 3-9 4 wire connection is grounded. + Zero sequence current can exist in phase of delta connection but notin line ‘+ Apparent power in symmetrical components is, S=3[Vil Veal + Veale | + Inper-unit system, Sy =[Vala+Vaalea +Voolsa] 2.1 Fortesque’s Theorem 1. Anunbalanced set of ‘n’ phasors the system is resolved into (n-1) set of balanced phasors and one set of co-phasal quantities. 2. In three phase system for a set of 3 unbalanced phasors can be resolved in two sets of balanced phasors and one set of co-phasal quantities. This is applicable for only voltage & currents which are phasor quantity and it eannot be applied. to impedance and power because these are complex quantities but not phasor. 2.2 Symmetrical Components 2.2.1 Positive sequence components 1. Itis consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 120° in phase and having the same phase sequence asthe original phasors 2. Since, magnitude is same for three phasors, [=|] =a wwwekreatryx.comPower Systems| 279 Vu igure 2.2: Thee positive sequence balanced phasors 2.2.2 Negative sequence components 1. Itconsisting of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 120? in phase, and having the phase sequence opposite to that ofthe original phasors. 2. Since, magnitude is same for three phasors, |7,|= [7 Yea Vea va Figure 23: Thre negative sequence balanced phasers 2.2.3 Zero sequence components 1. It consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude and with zero phase displacement from each other 2. Since, magnitude is same for three phasors, Woal=Wal=Wal Wool=Pol =Pol 3. ‘These components are not balanced as there is no phase shift between the three components. —v, — ——+ve Figate 24 Thee ace sequen poet 4, ‘The three unbalanced phasors can be expressed as combination of the positive, negative and zero, sequence components, Veh Vas Vo Vin Yaa + Von VV Va thoe 2.2.4 Phase shift operator (a) 1. As we have seen that positive and negative sequence components are phase shifted by 120° from cach other and have same magnitude. So, we need a phase shift operator in order to obtain one phasor from other. 2. Suppose we have a phasor quantity which is expressed in polar form, A to shift the phase of this phasor by in anti-clockwise direction, we multiply it by e’*. Then it re” Now if we want becomes, Ze” =re"e'* = re"! wwwekreatryx.com280 10. Fault Analysis In such case the magnitude remains same and the phase becomes 0+ 6 In case of symmetrical components, operator ‘a’ is used to indicate the phase displacement and since we wish to shift the phase by 120", a=12120" = 6" 12240" =e" =" which means a clockwise rotation by 120° a? =12360° =120 Lata =1412120" 412240" =0 For positive sequence the ‘b’ phase must be shifted from ‘a’ phase by 120° in clockwise direction and ‘c” phase must be shifted from ‘a phase by 120° in anti-clockwise direction, Vs a'Vn, Va Vag =Vag For negative sequence the ‘6’ phase must be shifled from ‘a’ phase by 120° in anti-clockwise direction and ‘c’ phase must be shifted from ‘a’ phase by 120" in clockwise direction, Vi2=WVnn Veg=OViay Vag= Since, for zero sequence the magnitude as well as phase of each voltage is identical, Vu Veo Veo ‘If we express these relations between symmetrical components in matrix form, wid mepe sf ¥, In concise form, itis writen as, [¥2°]=[4][¥3""] ‘This method expressed the phase voltages in terms of symmetrical components but we also need inverse transformation in which we can express symmetrical components in terms of phase volt- age. For this purpose we need to take the inverse of matrix A, ft Since, this transformation is applicable to all phasors so we can use same matrix for current trans formation as well LJ (11 iV he af-fi ae afi, tlh w hn Le Jae} Similarly, for inverse transformation we can write, wwwekreatryx.comPower Systems| 281 2.2.5 Observations 1 The sum of three line voltages is always zero & hence zero sequence component of line voltage is always zero, ‘The sum of line eurtent in a 36, 4 wite system is equal to cutrent in neutral wire and hence zero sequence curent is given by, 1 1 ty heh +t)=41, fo “UL 41)=4, For3—6, 3 wire system or 3-4, 4-wire system with ungrounded neutral I= [1,=0] 3. Ifthe system is unbalanced then both positive and negative sequence components will exist Ifthe sum of voltage and current is nonezero then thee isan existence of zero sequence components. 2.2.6 Power in Symmetrical components 1. For a three phase system the power can be expressed as, SPV AV AV, 2. As we have derived the relation between actual quantities and sequence quantities [ro J= fall] ana [12"]=[a22"] se afer] Lay Lay [2 3. The disadvantage with these symmetrical components is that the transformation matrix A is not power invariant or is not orthogonal or unitary. wwwekreatryx.com282 | Fault Analysis Example 2.1: A delta connected balanced resistive load is connected across an unbalanced 3-6 supply as shown, With currents specified in lines A & B, Find symmetrical components of line cur- rents? 10230" Solution: In Delta Connection sum of line currents is always zero, Therefore, Tytl,+lo=0 Te ==( y+ ly) = ~(10230 +152 ~60) =18,02.153.69° A Positive Sequence Component of Line Current is given by, 1 al, +ale)= 0230" +1 120x152 ~60+12 -120x18.022153.69) 1) =14242°A Negative Sequence Component of Line Current is given by, 1023041. 212015 2-60 +12120«18.02153.69) yp =4.662-111,75°A Since, sum of line currents is zer0, L Example 2.2: The sequence voltages of an unbalanced 3 phase system are given as V,=0.87 pu. ; 4y=-0.57 pu; ¥,=-03 px, Calculate phase voltages V,, V,, V, on a voltage base of LIKV (L-L) Solution: V,= Voy 4 V+ Viy =0 pa V = Vyg +02 y + AV =1.3252—109,88" pa V, HV yg + Vy 4 Vg =1.3252109.84° pr, Phase voltages in kV u v,=0;% 13252-10988" KV 5 7,= “fend 3252109. kV ¥, VV, =0-13252~109,84"=1,325270.2" pu. wwwekreatryx.comPower Systems | 283 v, V,, =V,-V, =1.325109.84° /, -V, =1.3252-109,84" -1,3252109,84° = 2.492—90" pu, 1.325109.84° pu, vetbntaasc7aa! kv gry Seanc 08 kV gro Hhat25c10080 av B ue Example 2.3: An unbalance system is having sequence components as Apu. ;¥,=-04 pu; %=Olpu. ; ,=1=1,-3-/4 pa ‘What is the power consumed by phase a, on a base of 100MVA. Solution: Iyahah=3-jh=5Z $0 =3[Vl + Vala + Vola 3.13" pa 0.15. 253.13" 41.2%5253.13" —0.4x5253.13" }=10.5253.13" pu, go 100105258." MIA =350283.1" MYA phase P,=350¢08(53.13)= 210M and Q, =350sin(53.13)=280 MVAR @& Test Your Understanding - 1 1, Ina 3~6, 4 wire system, the current in R, Yand B lies under abnormal conditions of loading are as under 1, = 200230" 4,1, =100.2300" 4,1, = 60.180" Calculate the zero positive, and negative currents in ¥ line and return current in the neutral ‘The zero and positive sequence components of ‘a’ phase are as Vg=1Z-60'V, Vy =220°V Ifphase voltageV, =320°V , find voltage V_ and V- 2.3 Sequence Network Electrical equipment or components offer impedance to flow of current when potential is applied. The impedance offered to the flow of positive sequence is called positive sequence impedance Z,, The im- ppedance offered to the flow of negative sequence currents is called negative sequence impedance Z,. ‘When zero sequence flow through components of power system the impedance offered is called zero sequence impedance Z,, For currents and voltages we can use “Fortesque’s Theorem” to find the sequence components but for impedances we have to find the impedance offered to cach sequence conceptually. The objective of designing sequence network is to analyze each sequence separately or to remove the coupling between the equations of an unbalanced network. wwwekreatryx.com284 Fault Analysis 2.4 Star connected winding with neutral grounding 1. ‘The neutral grounding impedance is given by, 7 2. All three phase winding are symmetrical & identical which means each phase has same impedance. T= lyo* ha thes Talia last he Tl tly tle 3. fy I, are unbalanced currents V, V,, V, are unbalanced voltages 4, Neutral current, 1=1+1+1, Figure 25 : Star Connected Winding 1,=3ly 5. We wish to design the three sequence networks for star connected winding 2.3.1 Positive sequence network 1. Consider abe sequence, since positive sequence currents are balanced their sum is zero and hence by KCL the neutral current for positive sequence would be zero. 2. Otherwise, as derived earlier we ean remember that neutral only carries zero sequence current ‘and hence positive sequence and negative sequence current in neutral is always zero. 3. Positive sequence neutral voltage V, =I,Z, =0 4 5. Since, we are Figure 2.6: Star Connected winding carrying Positive Sequence Currents ly talking about Positive Sequence, the system is balanced, So per phase analysis is sufficient 6. Since, neutral voltage for positive sequence is 0, neutral terminal is used as reference bus for positive sequence network, wwwekreatryx.comPower Systems | 285 Figure 2.1 : Positive Sequence Network fr Star Connected Winding 2.4.2 Negative sequence network 1. Since negative sequence currents are balanced their sum is zero and hence by KCL the neutral ‘current for negative sequence would be zero, 2. Negative Sequence neutral voltage, =~1,Z, =0 3. By KVL, we can find negative sequence currents in the winding as, V. ata yy, Z, Figure 28 : Star Connected winding carrying Negative Sequence Currents 4. Since, we are only talking about Negative Sequence, the system is balanced, So per phase analy- sis is sufficient 5. Since, neutral voltage for negative sequence is 0, neutral terminal is used as reference bus for negative sequence network Figure 2.9 : Negative Sequence Network for Star Connected Winding wwwekreatryx.com286 | Fault Analysis 2.4.3 Zero sequence networks 1. Since zero sequence currents are co-phasal their sum is non-zero and hence by KCL the neutral ‘current for negative sequence would be non-zero, =Byp =0- 3p, =—ByZy 2. Since, the voltage of neutral terminal for zero sequence is non-zero, it cannot be used as reference bbus for zero sequence network. 3. By KVL, we can write pabeche Vag =V, Leola = Vig = Ma (Zs +3Z,) an (Z5 +32Z,) Vig = lug Zo +32,) Figure 2.10 : Star Connected winding carrying Zero Sequence Currents 4. Since, all three phases have same magnitude and phase for zero sequence, per phase analysis of the system is sullicient, Vg =~[o2a+3anZ] You = Loa [Zo +32 3Z, Figure 211 : Zero Sequence Network for Star Connected ling wwwekreatryx.comPower Systems| 287 2.4.4 Neutral Grounding 1. Ifncutral is isolated from ground i.c.open circuit or Z, 2. Positive & negative sequence network are constructed w.rt. neutral because V, = 0 for positive & negative sequence quantities. Zero sequence network is constructed wrt. ground because V, #0 for zero sequence quantities. 4, ‘The nature of neutral grounding will affect only zero sequence network. 5. For isolated neutral terminal, 1,» ~0 Figure 2.12: Zero Sequence Network for Star Connected Winding with isolated neutral 5. For solid grounding (Z, =0) which means the neutral is short circuited to ground. By changing ‘neutral impedance only zero sequence network will be affected. —— Figure 2.13: Zero Sequence Network for Star Connected Winding with solidly grounded neutral 2.5 Delta connected winding 1. The delta connected winding is shown in Figure 2.14, 2. By KCL we can wrte line currents as, 1, =Lg—ly Welle 3. The phase currents can be expressed as combination of sequence components as, Tay = Hoon Las Las Fre = Ire * Ther + hee Lg = lant hat Figure 2.14: Delta Connected Winding 4, Substituting the phase currents in KCL equation, Ly = Lag Las = (eso — Faso) + Leas Fans) + Ler — Lata) 1, = (LaLa) *(loua “Lara wwwekreatryx.comPower Systems| 341 Exercises Problem 1: For a given base voltage and base volt- amp, the per unit impedance value of an element is X. What will be the per unit impedance value of this element when the voltage and volt-amp bases are both doubled? (ax (@X (b) 2x (05x Problem 2: If the resistance in ohm is 5, Find the per unit value of resistance, Given base KVA = 10, Base KV= 11 Problem 3: Determine the per unit impedance of a ‘transmission having an impedance of (30+ /110)0 on 100 MVA and 132 KY base volt= line age Problem 4: Current reactors are used to (@) Improve the transmission efficiency (b) Improve the PF of the power system (©) Improve the voltage regulation (a) Bring down the fault level within the capacity of switch gear. Problem &: In a star connocted system without neutral grounding, zero sequence curent are (a) Phasor sum phase current (b) Zero (c) Same as RMS value of phase current (4) Same as peak value of phase currents Problem 6: Two identical elements each rated for 10 MVA, 11 kV having sub-transient reactance of '8% are working in parallel. The short current level atthe bus bar is (a) 500 MVA, (©) 250 MVA, (b) 400 MVA, (6) 125 MVA Problem 7: Ina power system, the 3 - phase fault MVA is always higher than the single line to ground fault MVA at generator terminal, (7/) Problem 8: When a line to ground fault occurs, the current in a faulted phase is 300A. The zero sequence current in this case will be Problem 9: The zero sequence impedance of high voltage transmission lines is about times as large as positive sequence impedanee. Problem 10: One conductor of a three phase line is open. The current flowing to the A~ connected load through line a is 20, With the current in line as reference and assuming that line ¢ is open. Find the negative sequence component of the eur- rent in line a Problem 11: A 3-Phase 20 MVA, 11 kV altemator hhas 20% sub-transient reactance. Ifa symmetrical fault occurs at its terminals, then what will be the value of fault current? (a) 0.5Pu (o)5Pu (b) 1Pu (@) 10Pa Problem 12: A 3-phase 20 MVA, 11 kV alterna- tor has a sub-transient reactance of 10% A 3-phase short circuit occurs at its terminals. The fault MVA, and fault current are (a) 125 MVA, 11.36 kA (b) 200 MVA, 11.36 kA (©) 200 MVA, 10.497 kA (@) 125 MVA, 10.497 kA Problem 13: The bus bars of each of the two al- temator of 15% reactance each are interconnected. through tie reactors of 15% each, The equivalent impedance to the fault current for a 3+ phase fault in any bus bar is, Problem 14: The positive sequence reactance and zero sequence reactance of a 3-phase balanced transmission line with mutual reactance between ‘wo lines are 1.Spu and 3pu. The self-reactance of line is wwwekreatryx.com342 | Fault Analysis (@ Ipu (©)2pu (6) 05pu (@ 15pa Problem 15: What isthe pu value of current limite ing reactor per phase to be connected to 020 MVA, 10 RV, 50 Hz, 3-@ synchronous gencrator which can limit the current on short cteuit 8 times of the fill load current? The reactance of gencraoris 0.05Pu Problem 16: Draw the zero sequence impedance circuit for the following network Xe Xn Xa Xn Xoo O-O-#-MD—Y) Cia aan Problem 17: For the system shown in the diagram given below, what is a line to ground fault on the line side of transformer equivalent to? OH Ay (@) A line to ground fault on the generator side of the transformer (b) A line to ine on the generator side of the trans- former (©) A double line to ground on the generator side of the transformer (a) A 3- phase fault on the generator side of the ‘wansformer Problem 18: A 3-phase, 15 MVA, 11 KV, 50 Hz generator with solidly earthed neutral has sub-tran- sient reactance X,"of 20% direct axis transient reactance X,'of 25% and synchronous reactance X, of 60%, 7 Negative sequence reactance X, =90% and zero sequence reactance X, = 8%. The generator is operated on open circuit when fault occurs, Take £,=Ipu . If a fault is 3-4 short circuit without impedance, compute the tran- sient and sustained pu values of line current under faulty conditions Problem 19: A single line to ground fault of 0.052 resistance occurs in a 3-phase system sup- plied by a synchronous generator with a generated EMF of L1KV between lines. The positive, nega- tive and zero sequence reactance of generators and nctwork up to the fault are 0.052, 0.20 and 0.19 respectively, Find the positive sequence current. Problem 20: A synchronous generator is rated 25 MVA, 11 KV it is star connected with the neutral point solidly ground. The generator is operating at ‘no load on rated voltage, Their reactances are X°=X,=02 pu and X,=0.08 pu, Caleulate the symmetrical sub-transient line current for dou- ble tine fault Problem 21: Two 3-phases, 25 MVA, 11 kV, 50 Hz altemator operate in parallel as shown in fig ‘The positive negative and zero sequence of cach being respectively j 0.2, j 0.15 and j 0.10 pu. The star point of one of the alternator is isolated and that of the other is grounded through an inductor of 0.415 pu. Find the equivalent positive, negative and zero sequence impedance / reactance. Problem 22: Find the type of transformer connec- tions based on its zero sequence network shown below? P. —s wwwekreatryx.comPower Systems | 343 (a) Y A hA o = @ = Problem 23: Ina three phase system for a line to line fault the positive, negative and zero sequence voltage V.¥iasVa. respectively, for phase voltage ¥, ae related as ()Fa=Von Vo (0) Ko (Vat ¥e2—Van =a () Van * Vay +B =O Problem 24: In a power system network, positive sequence current and zero sequence current are given for LLG 2085.35 A. Find fault current and negative sequence current for phase a Problem 25: A transformer is rated at 11 kV/0.4 KV , SOOKVA, 5% reactance. Determine the short circuit MVA of the transformer when connected to an infinite bus. Problem 1: The power system representation by @ single line diagram is shown below. oH ATS: a om 2 fs G,:75 MVA, 11 kV, X"=02 G,: SO MVA, 33 kV, X=0.1 100 MVA, 33 KV, X"=0.35 ‘Transformer:33 kV,133 KV, =0.1 Line:33 kV,X=20 Ofphase Draw the pu impedance diagram by choosing the base as 11 kV and 150 MVA at generator | Problem 2: The per unit impedance of a synchro- ‘nous machine is 0.242. If the base voltage is in- creased by 1.2 times and base MVA is increased. by 2 times then per unit impedance value will be (a) 0.226 (b) 0.320 (©) 0336 (02 Problem 3: A transmission line of inductance 0.1 H and resistance SQ. is suddenly short - circuited at the far end as shown in figure, Find approxi- mately the value of the maximum momentary short-circuit current, i, aH 50 V=100sin(100nt+15) Problem 4: The line current in a 3 - phase supply toanunbalancedloadarerespectively /, = 10+ j20 + Ay= 12-10 and Ic 5 A. The phase se- quence is abe. Determine the sequence compo- nents of currents, Problem 5: A 3-6 fault occurs at middle point F ‘on the transmission line as shown in figure, Deter ‘mine the transfer reactance between generator and infinite bus OH @ %=03 Problem 6: Find the sub-transient current in the fault if 3 - phase fault occurs at the point F in the figure, wwwekreatryx.com594 | Solutions Exercises 1. Ans: (@) 6.Ans: (€) Solutio Solution: Zy.,=X , Base voltage = V, base MVA = S ‘Now, Base voltage = 2V Base MVA = 2S Z, 2. Ans: 0.000413 Pu Solution: Resistance ~ SQ 1 x1000, Base resistance Ry = =121000. cr unit resistance => — = 0.000413 Pu Per unit resistance “7399 3. Ans: 0.172 + j 0.631 Pu Solutio Impedance of line, Z=(30+ 110) Base MVA~ 100 MVA Base voltage = 132 kV Zx{MVA), Per unit impedance Z,, =—~\* ¥e (KV, ) 10+ 110100 0172+ j0.631) Pu j 1 Fault current I, «¢— x So iff reactance increases, then fault current redue- ‘And fault level also decreases 05. Ans: (b) Solutio Without neutral grounding there is no path avail- able for the flow of zero sequence currents and hhence zero sequence currents are zero. ‘The arrangement of alternators is shown in the fig ure below, j0.03: j0.08 1 Short eireuit MVA=—1 x Base MVA x, 70.08 SC MVA, x10 =250 MVA 7.Ans: (True) Solution: In a power system the 3 phase fault MVA will al- ways be higher than LG fault but fault current of LG fault can be higher than 3 phase fault if the fault occurs at the generator terminals. 8. Ans: (100A) Solution: For line to ground fault 1,23, and Iyy = Ly, = 300=3/,. Tg =1004 9. Ans: @) Solution: For a transmission line Z,>Z,=Z, 2,232, wwwekreatryx.comPower Systems | 595 10, Ans: (11.6230") Solution: Since ¢ is open 1.20 Let us take line a as reference 1, =2020" BY KCL the incoming current should be equal to outgoing current and since in delta connection all the three line currents enter into the load, the out- going current is zero and hence the sum of three currents will be zero, T+ 1,+1,=0A 0180" TThen the negative sequence component of the cur- rent in line ais given Hence, I, Vr sat ty =M(U, +a al) =h2020+ 12-120%202180+0) =104j5.78 =11,56230" Solution: For 3-phase fault 12. Ans: (c) Solution: rau mva= “laa. - 29 290 sav no Fault current Fault MVA, Bak) 13, Ans: 0.1125 Pu Solutio a 15%, 15% @ 15% 1% At the fault point, the reactance of one generator is in parallel with the series combination of reac- tance of one generator and tic-bar. yy, 2015x045 0.1125 Pu fen positive sequence reactance of transmission s-X, =15 pu Zero sequence reactance of transmission line X,42X, =3 pu X,=2 pu line 15.Ans Solution: For 3-6 fault .075 Pu x8 Toa ous = PL And given that X, =0.05 Pu x, feo0s-oors ry 16. Ans: Solution: ono wwwekreatryx.com596 | Solutions 17. Ans: (b) sein x22 ons Due to delta connection of transformer on gen- crator side, there is no zero sequence current on FOr Zero sequence, only one generator is grounded generator side and thus it acts lke a LL fault on 14 the neutral of second altemator is isolated due erneraor side to which i's equivalent zero sequence impedance is infinite So, X, = /0.1+ /3x0413 = 1.34 Pu 18. Ans: 4.0, 1.667 Solutio Transient symmetrical rms value of current, Eo Zz 025 “J4.0 Pu ‘Since, the series switch is closed on primary side, the primary side is star connected and since shunt Sustained value of the symmetrical rms current switch is closed on secondary side the secondary 1 side is delta connected, tL -- 1.667 Pu jos 23. Ans Soh 19. Ans: 7802.6 A For line to ine fault there is no ground To fea gE, Zid+Z03, = % 1 1000 y _ Be xX Le ~FOS+0.2 50.) 32005 by 6350.853 1, = ESAS. - 1302.64 V0.8 +015" 20. Ans: S681A Solution: Line to line fault current, For LLG fault 1-31, ‘When two machines are connected in parallel then. y, —3,e1.516 = 4.549 kA all their sequence impedance are connected in par- allel And 2 Intl tle 0 x,-22- jo. Pu 2 1, = 2.0853 -1.516 kA= 0.5693 kA, wwwekreatryx.comPower Systems | $97 Per unit impedance to the fault point = 0.05Pu sc va = 2509 _1o mya 0.05 Given base values for G,: 150 MVA, 11 kV Based on the voltage ratio of the transformer, the Base values at G, and G, are 33 kV and 150 MVA, The pu reactances of different components on common base are, GX plgn) HOD TEX| hee 6% tS) ~03 * a 50 (33. 6.2% yan) 035448) 0505 = 100 \ 33, ‘Transformer: Xpny = Xpyay “0.1 (1s0 ont: 4p, =20%( 332] =2.75 Pa (33 Based on the data derived, the pu reactance dia- gram is shown below, joa 5275 { Foxw ices Ia ft] ly HWA, HV Arcot) Xess 336 3. Ans: 6A Solution: Applied voltage v= 100sin(100x+15") ¥,,=100V, @=100% rad /see z= (oly IS! +(100x 0.1) =31.81 2 108) _g0.96° 3 100 3181 he =3.1435 A Z Expression for short circuit current f= Iq Sin (Of +.4-4)+ Ing Si(@—)e* §=3.1435sin(100n1 +15~80.96) 43.1435sin(80.96-15)e™ =3.1438sin (100% —35.96) +2.871e"*" Maximum momentary current by ignoring expo- nential decay 1435+2.871= oda Given: 1, =104 j20A 12-fl0A — j5A ‘The positive sequence component ofthe current is 1 2 1,=y(Lea+a'?,) wwwekreatryx.com