8/13/2021 Water activity - Wikipedia

Water activity
Water activity (aw) is the partial vapor pressure of water in a solution divided by the standard state
partial vapor pressure of water. In the field of food science, the standard state is most often defined as
the partial vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature. Using this particular definition,
pure distilled water has a water activity of exactly one. As temperature increases, aw typically
increases, except in some products with crystalline salt or sugar.

Higher aw substances tend to support more microorganisms.

Water migrates from areas of high aw to areas of low aw. For example, if honey (aw ≈ 0.6) is exposed
to humid air (aw ≈ 0.7), the honey absorbs water from the air. If salami (aw ≈ 0.87) is exposed to dry
air (aw ≈ 0.5), the salami dries out, which could preserve it or spoil it.

Contents
Formula
Uses
Food product design
Food safety
Measurement
Resistive electrolytic hygrometers
Capacitance hygrometers
Dew point hygrometers
Equilibration
Moisture content
Use in humidity control
Selected aw values
Solar planets habitability
References
Further readings
External links

Formula
Definition of aw:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_activity 1/8
8/13/2021 Water activity - Wikipedia

where p is the partial water vapor pressure in equilibrium with the solution, and p* is the partial
vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature.

Alternate definition:

where lw is the activity coefficient of water and xw is the mole fraction of water in the aqueous
fraction.

Relationship to relative humidity:

The relative humidity (RH) of air in equilibrium with a sample is
also called the Equilibrium Relative Humidity (ERH).[1]

Estimated mold-free shelf life (MFSL) in days at 21° C:

[2]

Uses
Water activity is an important characteristic for food product design and food safety.

Food product design

Food designers use water activity to formulate shelf-stable food. If a product is kept below a certain
water activity, then mold growth is inhibited. This results in a longer shelf life.

Water activity values can also help limit moisture migration within a food product made with
different ingredients. If raisins of a higher water activity are packaged with bran flakes of a lower
water activity, the water from the raisins migrates to the bran flakes over time, making the raisins
hard and the bran flakes soggy. Food formulators use water activity to predict how much moisture
migration affects their product.

Food safety

Water activity is used in many cases as a critical control point for Hazard Analysis and Critical Control
Points (HACCP) programs. Samples of the food product are periodically taken from the production
area and tested to ensure water activity values are within a specified range for food quality and safety.
Measurements can be made in as little as five minutes, and are made regularly in most major food
production facilities.

For many years, researchers tried to equate bacterial growth potential with water content. They found
that the values were not universal, but specific to each food product. W. J. Scott first established that
bacterial growth correlated with water activity, not water content, in 1953. It is firmly established that
growth of bacteria is inhibited at specific water activity values. U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) regulations for intermediate moisture foods are based on these values.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_activity 2/8
8/13/2021 Water activity - Wikipedia

Lowering the water activity of a food product should not be seen as a kill step. Studies in powdered
milk show that viable cells can exist at much lower water activity values, but that they never grow.
Over time, bacterial levels decline.

Measurement
Water activity values are obtained by either a resistive electrolytic, a capacitance or a dew point
hygrometer.

Resistive electrolytic hygrometers

Resistive electrolytic hygrometers use a sensing element in the form of a liquid electrolyte held in
between of two small glass rods by capillary force. The electrolyte changes resistance if it absorbs or
loses water vapor. The resistance is directly proportional to relative air humidity, and also to water
activity of the sample (once vapor–liquid equilibrium is established). This relation can be checked by
either a verification or calibration using salt-water mixtures, which provide a well-defined and
reproducible air humidity in the measurement chamber.

The sensor does not have any physically given hysteresis as it is known from capacitance hygrometers
and sensors, and does not require regular cleaning as its surface is not the effectively sensing element.
Volatiles, in principle, influence the measurement performance—especially those that dissociate in
the electrolyte and thereby change its resistance. Such influences can easily be avoided by using
chemical protection filters that absorb the volatile compound before arriving at the sensor.

Capacitance hygrometers

Capacitance hygrometers consist of two charged plates separated by a polymer membrane dielectric.
As the membrane adsorbs water, its ability to hold a charge increases and the capacitance is
measured. This value is roughly proportional to the water activity as determined by a sensor-specific
calibration.

Capacitance hygrometers are not affected by most volatile chemicals and can be much smaller than
other alternative sensors. They do not require cleaning, but are less accurate than dew point
hygrometers (+/- 0.015 aw). They should have regular calibration checks and can be affected by
residual water in the polymer membrane (hysteresis).

Dew point hygrometers

The temperature at which dew forms on a clean surface is directly related to the vapor pressure of the
air. Dew point hygrometers work by placing a mirror over a closed sample chamber. The mirror is
cooled until the dew point temperature is measured by means of an optical sensor. This temperature
is then used to find the relative humidity of the chamber using psychrometrics charts.

This method is theoretically the most accurate (+/- 0.003 aw) and often the fastest. The sensor
requires cleaning if debris accumulates on the mirror.

Equilibration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_activity 3/8
8/13/2021 Water activity - Wikipedia

With either method, vapor–liquid

equilibrium must occur in the sample
chamber. This takes place over time or
can be aided by the addition of a fan in
the chamber. Thermal equilibrium must
also take place unless the sample
temperature is measured.

Moisture content
Water activity is related to water content
in a non-linear relationship known as a
moisture sorption isotherm curve. These
isotherms are substance- and
temperature-specific. Isotherms can be
used to help predict product stability over
time in different storage conditions.

Use in humidity control

Red line shows saturation
There is net evaporation from a solution
with a water activity greater than the
relative humidity of its surroundings. There is net absorption of water by a solution with a water
activity less than the relative humidity of its surroundings. Therefore, in an enclosed space, a solution
can be used to regulate humidity.[3]

Selected aw values
Food
Substance aw Source

Distilled Water 1.00 [4]

Tap water 0.99

Raw meats 0.99 [4]

Milk 0.97
Juice 0.97

Salami 0.87 [4]

Shelf-stable cooked bacon < 0.85 [5]

Saturated NaCl solution 0.75

Point at which cereal loses crunch 0.65

Dried fruit 0.60 [4]

Typical indoor air 0.5 - 0.7

Honey 0.5 - 0.7

Peanut Butter ≤ 0.35 [6]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_activity 4/8
8/13/2021 Water activity - Wikipedia

Microorganisms
Microorganism Inhibited aw Source

Clostridium botulinum E 0.97 [7]

Pseudomonas fluorescens 0.97 [7]

Clostridium perfringens 0.95 [7]

Escherichia coli 0.95 [7]

Clostridium botulinum A, B 0.94 [7]

Salmonella 0.93 [8]

Vibrio cholerae 0.95 [7]

Bacillus cereus 0.93 [7]

Listeria monocytogenes 0.92, (0.90 in 30% glycerol) [9]

Bacillus subtilis 0.91 [7]

Staphylococcus aureus 0.86 [10]

Most molds 0.80 [10]

No microbial proliferation <0.60 [7]

Solar planets habitability

Water is necessary for life under all its forms presently known on Earth. Without water, microbial
activity is not possible. Even if some micro-organisms can be preserved in the dry state (e.g., after
freeze-drying), their growth is not possible without water.

Micro-organisms also require sufficient space to develop. In highly compacted bentonite and deep
clay formations, microbial activity is limited by the lack of space and the transport of nutrients
towards bacteria and the elimination of toxins produced by their metabolism is controlled by
diffusion in the pore water. So, "space and water restrictions" are two limiting factors of the microbial
activity in deep sediments.[11] Early biotic diagenesis of sediments just below the ocean floor driven by
microbial activity (e.g., of sulfate reducing bacteria) end up when the degree of compaction becomes
too important to allow microbial life development.[12]

At the surface of planets and in their atmosphere, space restrictions do not apply, therefore, the
ultimate limiting factor is water availability and thus the water activity.

Most extremophile micro-organisms require sufficient water to be active. The threshold of water
activity for their development is around of 0.6. The same rule should also apply for other planets than
Earth. After the tantalizing detection of phosphine (PH3) in the atmosphere of the Venus planet, in
the absence of known and plausible chemical mechanism to explain the formation of this molecule,
the presence of micro-organisms in suspension in the Venus atmosphere has been suspected and the
hypothesis of the microbial formation of phosphine has been formulated by Greaves et al. (2020)
from Cardiff University envisaging the possibility of a liveable window in the Venusian clouds at a
certain altitude with an acceptable temperature range for microbial life.[13]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_activity 5/8
8/13/2021 Water activity - Wikipedia

Hallsworth et al. (2021) from the School of Biological Sciences at Queen's University Belfast have
studied the conditions required to support the life of extremophile micro-organisms in the clouds at
high altitude in the Venus atmosphere where favorable temperature conditions might prevail. Beside
the presence of sulfuric acid in the clouds which already represent a major challenge for the survival
of most of micro-organisms, they came to the conclusion that the Venus atmosphere is much to dry to
host microbial life. Indeed, Hallsworth et al. (2021) have determined a water activity ≤ 0.004, two
orders of magnitude below the 0.585 limit for known extremophiles.[14] So, with a water activity in
the Venus clouds 100 times lower that the threshold of 0.6 known in Earth conditions the hypothesis
envisaged by Greaves et al. (2020) to explain the biotic origin of phosphine in the Venus atmosphere
is ruled out.

The direct measurements of the Venus atmosphere by spatial probes point to very harsh conditions
making likely Venus an inhabitable world, even for the most extreme forms of life known on Earth.
The extremely low water activity of the desiccated Venusian atmosphere represents the very limiting
factor for life, much more severe than the infernal conditions of temperature and pressure, or the
presence of sulfuric acid.

Astrobiologists presently consider that more favorable conditions could be encountered in the clouds
of Jupiter where a sufficient water activity could prevail in the atmosphere provided that other
conditions necessary for life are also met in the same environment (sufficient supply of nutrients and
energy in a non-toxic medium).[15][16]

References
1. Young, Linda; Cauvain, Stanley P. (2000). Bakery food manufacture and quality: water control and
effects. Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 978-0-632-05327-8.
2. Man, C.M.D.; Jones, Adrian A. (2000). Shelf Life Evaluation of Foods. Springer. ISBN 978-0-834-
21782-9.
3. Demchick, P. H. (1984). "Taking control of chamber humidity". The Science Teacher. 51 (7):
29‑31.
4. Marianski, Stanley; Marianski, Adam (2008). The Art of Making Fermented Sausages. Denver,
Colorado: Outskirts Press. ISBN 978-1-4327-3257-8.
5. "Bacon and Food Safety" (https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/g
et-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/meat-preparation/bacon-and-food-safety/ct_index). United
States Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service. 2013-10-29. Retrieved
2017-06-18.
6. He, Y.; Li, Y.; Salazar, J. K.; Yang, J.; Tortorello, M. L.; Zhang, W. (2013). "Increased Water Activity
Reduces the Thermal Resistance of Salmonella enterica in Peanut Butter" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.n
ih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3719514). Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 79 (15): 4763–4767.
doi:10.1128/AEM.01028-13 (https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.01028-13). PMC 3719514 (https://w
ww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3719514). PMID 23728806 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/23728806).
7. Barbosa-Canovas, G.; Fontana, A.; Schmidt, S.; Labuza, T.P. (2007). "Appendix D: Minimum
Water Activity Limits for Growth of Microorganisms". Water Activity in Foods: Fundamentals and
Applications. FT Blackwell Press. pp. Appendix D. doi:10.1002/9780470376454.app4 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1002%2F9780470376454.app4). ISBN 9780470376454.
8. Shaw, Angela (2013). Salmonella: Create the most undesirable environment. Ames, IA: Iowa
State University.
9. Ryser, Elliot T.; Elmer, Marth H. (2007). Listeria, Listeriosis and Food Safety (3rd ed.). CRC Press.
pp. 173–174.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_activity 6/8
8/13/2021 Water activity - Wikipedia

10. Marianski, 7
11. Stroes-Gascoyne, S.; Schippers, A.; Schwyn, B.; Poulain, S.; Sergeant, C.; Simonoff, M.; Le
Marrec, C.; Altmann, S.; Nagaoka, T.; Mauclaire, L.; McKenzie, J.; Daumas, S.; Vinsot, A.;
Beaucaire, C.; Matray, J. -M. (2007). "Microbial Community Analysis of Opalinus Clay Drill Core
Samples from the Mont Terri Underground Research Laboratory, Switzerland". Geomicrobiology
Journal. 24 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1080/01490450601134275 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01490450601
134275). ISSN 0149-0451 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0149-0451).
12. Lerouge, C.; Grangeon, S.; Gaucher, E.C.; Tournassat, C.; Agrinier, P.; Guerrot, C.; Widory, D.;
Fléhoc, C.; Wille, G.; Ramboz, C.; Vinsot, A.; Buschaert, S. (2011). "Mineralogical and isotopic
record of biotic and abiotic diagenesis of the Callovian–Oxfordian clayey formation of Bure
(France)". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 75 (10): 2633–2663.
doi:10.1016/j.gca.2011.02.025 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gca.2011.02.025). ISSN 0016-7037 (h
ttps://www.worldcat.org/issn/0016-7037).
13. Greaves, Jane S.; Richards, Anita M. S.; Bains, William; Rimmer, Paul B.; Sagawa, Hideo;
Clements, David L.; Seager, Sara; Petkowski, Janusz J.; Sousa-Silva, Clara; Ranjan, Sukrit;
Drabek-Maunder, Emily; Fraser, Helen J.; Cartwright, Annabel; Mueller-Wodarg, Ingo; Zhan,
Zhuchang; Friberg, Per; Coulson, Iain; Lee, E’lisa; Hoge, Jim (2020). "Phosphine gas in the cloud
decks of Venus". Nature Astronomy. doi:10.1038/s41550-020-1174-4 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F
s41550-020-1174-4). ISSN 2397-3366 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2397-3366).
14. Hallsworth, John E.; Koop, Thomas; Dallas, Tiffany D.; Zorzano, María-Paz; Burkhardt, Juergen;
Golyshina, Olga V.; Martín-Torres, Javier; Dymond, Marcus K.; Ball, Philip; McKay, Christopher P.
(2021). "Water activity in Venus's uninhabitable clouds and other planetary atmospheres". Nature
Astronomy. doi:10.1038/s41550-021-01391-3 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41550-021-01391-3).
ISSN 2397-3366 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2397-3366).
15. Timmer, John (28 June 2021). "Venus' clouds too dry, acidic for life" (https://arstechnica.com/scien
ce/2021/06/venus-clouds-too-dry-acidic-for-life/). Ars Technica. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
16. Amos, Jonathan (29 June 2021). "Clouds of Venus 'simply too dry' to support life" (https://www.bb
c.com/news/science-environment-57641247). BBC News. Retrieved 1 July 2021.

Further readings
Reineccius, Gary (1998). Sourcebook of Flavors. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 978-0-8342-1307-4.
Fennema, O.R., ed. (1985). Food Chemistry (2nd ed.). New York: Marcell Dekker, Inc. pp. 46–50.
Bell, L.N.; Labuza, T.P. (2000). Practical Aspects of Moisture Sorption Isotherm Measurement and
Use (2nd ed.). Egan, MN: AACC Egan Press.

External links
Isotopic effect (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308814698002635)
Measurement (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0260877489900198)
http://ac.els-cdn.com/ (http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0308814605004590/1-s2.0-S0308814605004590-m
ain.pdf?_tid=b86fd5a2-4ce4-11e6-8b20-00000aacb35e&acdnat=1468845771_e8335a7b531a3b4
bc17a2548bfa236b7)
Why to measure water activity? (https://www.syntilab.fr/language/en/why-measure-water-activity),
Syntilab
How to measure water activity? (https://www.syntilab.fr/language/en/how-to-measure-water-activit
y), Syntilab

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_activity&oldid=1031427087"

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_activity 7/8
8/13/2021 Water activity - Wikipedia

This page was last edited on 1 July 2021, at 15:11 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;

additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_activity 8/8