Palaeogeography, PaIaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 70 (1989): 7-28 7

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - - Printed in The Netherlands

LACUSTRINE OIL-SHALE BASINS IN TERTIARY GRABENS FROM

NE SPAIN (WESTERN EUROPEAN RIFT SYSTEM)

P. A N A D O N 1, L. C A B R E R A 2, R. J U L I A 1, E. R O C A 2 a n d L. R O S E L L 2

l Institut "Jaume Almera", C.S.I.C., c~ Mart$ i Franquds s/n. 08028 Barcelona (Spain)
2Faculty of Geology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona (Spain)

(Received June 15, 1987; accepted October 1, 1987)

Abstract

Anad6n, P., Cabrera, L., Juli&, R., Roca, E. and Rosell, L., 1989. Lacustrine oil-shale basins in Tertiary grabens from
NE Spain (Western European rift system). Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol., 70: 7-28.

In the NE Iberian Plate, the convergent motion and collision of the European, Iberian and African plates resulted in
the development of Paleogene compressional features (strike-slip systems, thrust-fold belts) and late Oligocene to
mainly Neogene extensional structures which are superimposed on the former. These extensional structures are
represented by horsts, half grabens and tilted blocks, often developed in connection with preexisting, inherited faults.
From the late Oligocene and during the Neogene both strike-slip and extensional regimes alternated and coexisted,
giving rise to a number of fault-bounded basins. The deposition of organic-rich facies, and in particular oil-shales,
took place in the lacustrine complexes developed in some of these basins: Campins Basin (late Oligocene); Ribesalbes
and Rubielos de Mora basins (early middle Miocene); Libros Basin (late Miocene) and Cerdanya Basin (late
Miocene).
Deep lacustrine sequences ranging from 100 up to 250 m thick were deposited in all the above mentioned basins. The
organic-rich sequences are characterized by thin lamination, absence of bioturbation, rare benthonic fauna (if
present, it is supplied from other parts of the basin) and excellent preservation of "exotic" fossils (plant leaves,
insects, amphibians). The suitable depth conditions needed for permanent stratification in the water bodies and
anoxia in the deeper parts of the lakes, were due essentially to increasing subsidence outstripping deposition. Intense
tectonic activity is recorded by the occurrence of olisthostromes and slumps affecting the lacustrine deposits as well
as by the syntectonic structures recorded in the basin-fill successions.
The late Oligocene late Miocene paleoclimatic regimes, ranging from warm tropical to subtropical conditions,
were favourable for the development of permanently stratified lakes. Moreover chemical ectogenic meromixis may
have contributed in some cases to the establishment of permanent stratification.
The Eastern Iberian rift system, makes up the southernmost part of the larger Western European rift system. The
occurrence of lacustrine sediments ranging from the late Eocene to late Miocene, is frequent in the fault-bounded
basins of this complex rift system and lacustrine oil-shale deposits have been recorded in several of these basins. Thus
the Western European rift system presents an interesting model of intracontinental rifting in a foreland platform
setting, where favourable conditions for organic rich deposits often took place. The high potential of this kind of
tectonic settings for lacustrine oil-shale exploration must be stressed.

Introduction
A n y k i n d of r o c k able e i t h e r to provide
c o m m e r c i a l oil p r o d u c t s b y h e a t i n g ( S t a c h et
al., 1982) o r t o y i e l d o i l i n c o m m e r c i a l a m o u n t s
u p o n p y r o l y s i s ( T i s s o t a n d W e l t e , 1984) is o f t e n
n a m e d o i l - s h a l e . T h i s t e r m is n o t a p p l i e d t o a n y
specific k i n d o f s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k , so a w i d e
r a n g e of l i t h o l o g i e s a r e i n c l u d e d i n it. U s u a l l y
c o n s i d e r e d as a n early stage of the transfor-
mation from oil-prone organic matter into
m a t u r e oil, o i l - s h a l e d e p o s i t s h a v e b e e n re-
c o r d e d f r o m a v a r i e t y of p a l e o e n v i r o n m e n t s
r a n g i n g f r o m m a r i n e to n o n - m a r i n e . A s a

0031-0182/89/$03.50 © 1989 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

consequence of the discovery of large oil fields
which have yielded oil derived from lacustrine
source rocks (Powell, 1986), special attention
has been recently focused on oil-shales that
originated in lacustrine environments.
The Phanerozoic record of lacustrine oil-
shales is quite wide, and includes Paleozoic to
Cenozoic basins developed in diverse tectono-
sedimentary settings (i.e. Donovan, 1975; Eug-
ster and Hardie, 1975) although special empha-
sis is often put on the rift setting (Robbins,
1983).
This paper is concerned with the overall
description of some Tertiary oil-shale lacus-
trine basins from NE Spain. The common
general megasequential trends recorded in
these basins, as well as the setting of the
studied basins within the Western Europe
intracontinental rift system, are stressed.
Geological setting
During the Tertiary, tectonic evolution in
the Iberian Plate was largely influenced by its
intermediate location between the convergent
and colliding European and African plates
(Vegas and Banda, 1982). Two large thrust-fold
belts developed in relation to the active
margins of the Iberian Plate: The Pyrennees to
the North (mainly Paleogene in age) and the
Betic Ranges to the South (mainly Neogene).
Most of the tectonic structures observed in the
internal parts of Iberia record the development
of intraplate deformation linked to the evolu-
tion of the mentioned active margins (Vegas
and Banda, 1982).
In the NE Iberian Plate, continental colli-
sion between Iberia and Europe resulted in the
development of large Eocene-Oligocene com-
pressional features. The Pyrenean fold-thrust
belt and its late southern foreland basin (Ebro
Basin) are the most important structural
features in the area (Fig.l). Other important
structures which resulted from Paleogene com-
pression are the Iberian Range (a cover fold
and thrust system determined by major base-
ment faults) and the Catalan Coastal Range
strike-slip system (Guimer~, 1984; AnadSn et
al., 1985). Between the Iberian Range and the
Catalan Coastal Range (C.C.R.) an array of
E-W folds and thrusts developed. Extensive
cover folding and thrusting took place in this
unit (Linking Zone) during the Paleogene
(Guimer&, 1984).
At the end of the "compressive" evolution-
ary stage in NE Iberia, restricted late Oligo-
cene rift processes took place, probably linked
to local transtensional situations produced in
the NE part of the Catalan Coastal Range
strike-slip system. A small basin with a rela-
tively thick infill records this early rifting in
the Campins area (AnadSn, 1986). This episode
was followed by a later transpression which
resulted in the overthrusting of the alluvial
and lacustrine sequences by a basement slice.
More generalized rifting processes related to
either tensional or transtensional situations,
took place in NE Iberia mainly during the
Neogene and gave rise to structures superim-
posed on the earlier compressive ones. Thus
~ N AXIAL ZON"E
-'-"<l___a.__~ PYRI:^,- ~ Cerdanyaj.~j
~ . ~ 'Te /VE A N
Campini~ '
(~ e R o e A S \ ~
Barcelona
Penedes-Valles
~- Graben
lOOKm
J
Teruel
Graben
~ ~.~'--"~ Ribesalbes
~ ' " " Basin
I'~ Neogene Grabens
Fig.1. Rift basins developed in the Northeastern Iberian
Peninsula. Numbers refer to the studied lacustrine oil-
shale basins. Encircled letters correspond to the main
grabens mentioned in the text. E=L'Empord&. S = L a
Selva. V = Valls-Reus. B = Baix Ebre. M = Maestrat.
C = Calatayud-Daroca.
horsts, half-grabens and tilted blocks devel- particular, took place in some of these lacus-
oped extensively, often in relation to preexist- trine complexes. Thus organic-rich sediments
ing inherited faults (Fig.l). The Cerdanya, occur in the lacustrine systems whose evolution
Empord&, La Selva, Vall~s-Pened~s, Valls- was linked to the Campins (late Oligocene),
Reus, Baix Ebre, Maestrat, Teruel, Calatayud- Ribesalbes, Rubielos de Mora (early Miocene),
Daroca, Rubielos de Mora grabens and half- Libros and Cerdanya (late Miocene) basins.
grabens are some of the structures related with
the Neogene rifting. Neogene rifting in the NE Tertiary oil-shale basins in the NE
Iberian Plate was closely influenced by the Iberian P e n i n s u l a
preexisting basement faults and it developed
mainly in the Catalan Coastal Range and in Campins Basin (Paleogene strike-slip fault
the Iberian Range. During the early Miocene system of the Catalan Coastal Range)
(Aquitanian-Burdigalian), rift processes
spread along the present NE Iberian margin The late Oligocene deposits in Campins
and extended towards the Iberian Range. In consist of alluvial and lacustrine sequences, up
the mentioned areas the transition from the to 700m thick, which crop out in a small
Paleogene compressional to the Neogene (3 km 2) area close to the Vall~s fault (Fig.2).
mainly extensional regime was gradual (Gui- This N N E - S S W striking basement fault, be-
mere, 1984). Thus, all along the Neogene, longs to the Paleogene strike-slip fault system
tensional and transtensional conditions alter- of the C.C.R. Convergent wrenching along the
nated and coexisted with transpressive condi-
tions, depending upon the orientation of the
faults in relation with the tectonic stress field
and the evolutionary trends of the latter
(Guimer&, 1984). In some cases this fact is well
recorded by tectonic macrostructures (i.e.
Calatayud-Daroca Basin). In most of cases,
-o ox\ \ \ +1
however, this persistently changing, trans-
itional situation is just recorded by microstruc-
tures and is not so evident on a large scale
(Guimer&, 1984). The Catalan Coastal Range
and Iberian Range rift basins evolved with
diverse alternatives until the latest Pliocene.
Rift processes also developed in the Eastern
Pyrenees and neighbouring areas during the
late Oligocene-early Miocene (Calvet, 1986). A
later graben basin generation took place in the
Eastern Pyrenees during the late Miocene-
earliest Pliocene, in relation to the strike-
slip motion along large basement faults. Thus Quaternary CAMPINS BASIN
the Cerdanya basin developed as a half graben - ~ Miocene alluvial ~ Upper alluvial unit
deposits
linked to the SW horsetail end of the La Tet [~ Paleozoic
strike-slip fault (Roca, 1986; Cabrera et al., metasediments ~ Lacustrine unit
1988). [~ Granitoids [ ~ ~ Lower alluvial unit
Lacustrine complexes developed very often
Fig.2. Geological sketch of the upper Oligocene deposits of
in some of the fault bounded basins. Paleoenvi-
Campins. The Vall~s fault, which belongs to the Catalan
ronmental conditions favourable to the devel- Coastal Range Paleogene strike-slip system, acted as a
opment of organic-rich facies, and oil-shales in normal fault during the Neogene.
10

Vall~s fault resulted in the overthrusting of the

Oligocene deposits by a basement slice of •
Paleozoic metamorphic rocks (Anad6n, 1986). \ ~ ( C A . P I N ~ \

During the Neogene, the major faults of the

Paleogene strike-slip fault system of the C.C.R. ', X~ , -- Road

acted as normal faults which gave rise to

t~ } __ I - - - C r e e k
cT" ,5oom,
grabens. Upper Miocene alluvial deposits un-
conformably overlie both the Campins Oligo- _eo~', CG
cene deposits and the overthrusting basement
~:::::?
slice. In broad outline the Oligocene deposits of
Campins are the remnants of an earlier late lOOm ~ ::::ii
Oligocene basin of u n k n o w n areal extent, now
i ..... i
included in the later Neogene Vall~s-Pened~s
=:::
=:::::~ ::~ CQ
graben. i ..... i
i ..... i
The first description of the entire Oligocene CT
.......

sequence was made by Almera (1907). Later

studies (Anad6n, 1973, 1986; Anadbn and
Villalta, 1975) enabled one to establish the "'" ~ ---'~-I
main stratigraphic and sedimentological fea-
tures of the Oligocene sequence (Fig.3). On the Granitoids \
basis of these works three main stratigraphic
Arkosic sandstones I ~:'~'~J
units can be distinguished in the Campins I~.',,.~:l and conglomerates \ " " ' ~ '2
Basin: Lower alluvial unit, Intermediate lacus- /"
LACUSTRINE FACIES \ F? :~"=,¢'I F
trine unit and Upper alluvial unit. ~ Siltstones with
interbedded sandst.
//
- - Lower alluvial unit. This unit is mainly t
composed of variegated arkosic coarse sands ~ O i l - s h a l e s , d o l o s t o n e s I~
and limestones
with interbedded red mudstones and conglom- ~ Mudstones, limestones \ :.4~?
erates. These deposits overlie granitoids. Their minor sandstones F
thickness ranges from 40 m, in the southern- Coal \ .~::÷:-1
most outcrops, up to 400 m in the sector nearest T Travertine G Mollusks
to the Vall~s fault. This abrupt thickness g Charophytes ,-~ Ostracods
change is probably related to the burial of an fl~ Macrophytes ,1~ Vertebrates
earlier, preexisting active fault.
Fig.3. Simplified lithological sections of t h e upper Oligo-
- - Intermediate lacustrine unit. The lower
cene s e q u e n c e s in t h e C a m p i n s Basin.
part of this unit, up to 20 m thick is formed by
variegated sandstones, mudstones and lime-
stones. Coal beds, up to 0.25m thick and - - Upper alluvial unit. This is formed of red
travertines are also locally present. These arkosic sandstones and conglomerates, up to
lower deposits have been interpreted as shal- 120 m thick. They overlie the upper shallow
low fresh-water lacustrine deposits (Anad6n, lacustrine facies of the intermediate unit.
1986) and are overlain by a deeper lacustrine Two main facies assemblages can be differen-
sequence up to 150 m thick. During this "deep" tiated in the "deep" lacustrine sequence: clastic
lacustrine episode terrigenous and carbonate facies and carbonate facies. The clastic facies
facies developed. Oil-shales were deposited assemblage which crops out in the NE area, is
also during this evolutionary stage. Deep mainly formed by massive and laminated silt-
lacustrine facies are overlain by lacustrine stones up to 5 m thick which alternate with
marls and limestones, deposited during a later arkosic sandstones and microconglomerate
shallow lacustrine stage. beds up to 1.5m thick. The coarse-grained

sediments display massive or graded bedding.
Neither scours nor channels have been ob-
served. These deposits were formed by mass
flow processes (Anad6n, 1986). This clastic
facies passes laterally southwestward into a
mudstone-dominated sequence with minor
interbedded sandstones and carbonates which
in turn pass laterally into the carbonate facies.
The carbonate facies assemblage is formed
by a complex arrangement of carbonate mud-
stones (marls), massive and laminated mud-
stones, oil-shales, limestones and dolostones.
Limestones and dolostones make up thin beds,
up to 20 cm thick, which are interbedded in
the marl-dominated successions. Nevertheless,
intervals up to a few meters thick of thin-
bedded carbonates with mudstone intercala-
tions have been recorded. Limestones and
dolostones are formed mainly by micrite, and
sometimes are laminated. Peloid grainstones to
packstones, up to 1 cm thick are also recorded
in the carbonate facies.
Rhythmites (calcite-organic rich clay coup-
lets) are locally present. Abundant plant
leaves and minor insects and fish remains have
been recorded from the laminated mudstones
and marls (Almera, 1907; Anad6n, 1973).
The uppermost levels of the carbonate facies
consist of carbonate mudstones and thin lime-
stones with abundant mollusks, ostracods and
charophyte remains. This succession has been
interpreted as shallow lacustrine deposits
(Anad6n, 1986). Oil-shales from the carbonate
facies of the lacustrine unit comprise car-
bonate marls and mudstones. Laminated
mudstones (paper-shales) up to 30 cm thick
alternate with faintly laminated carbonate
mudstones and marls up to 2 m thick. The total
oil-shale unit thickness probably is ca. 150 m.
No extensive analyses have been made on the
oil-shales of this basin. Laminated mudstones
(paper-shales) have a high organic carbon
content (up to 11.5°//o TOC). Oil yield, recorded
from some samples of marls and mudstones are
respectively 62.1 1/MT (6% after, Almera, 1907)
and 50 1/MT (I.G.M.E., 1981a).
The overall described basin-fill megase-
quence records an early basin formation phase,
ll
with related alluvial deposits, followed by the
development of a shallow lacustrine environ-
ment which evolved into a deep lacustrine
environment. The sedimentary features indi-
cate that, in this phase, the lake was meromic-
tic and organic-rich sediments were formed.
Coarse-grained terrigenous deposits accumu-
lated in marginal zones. They were formed by
mass flow processes. The upper parts in the
studied sequence record a new shallow water
sedimentation phase and a later alluvial phase.
Ribesalbes-Alcora Basin (Iberian Chain)
The Miocene Ribesalbes-Alcora Basin
(Fig.4) is a complex graben belonging to the
Neogene rift system superimposed on the
preexisting structural features of the SE Iberia
Chain. The basin (up to 150 km 1) is bounded by
ENE-WSW to NNE-SSW normal faults. The
Mesozoic outcrops which surround the Ribes-
albes-Alcora basin are formed mainly by a
Jurassic-Cretaceous carbonate-dominated se-
quence up to 1000 m thick. Minor outcrops of
Triassic red beds, carbonates and evaporites
are also present. Several Mesozoic fault-
bounded blocks crop out within the graben.
Two main sequences can be distinguished in
the sedimentary infill of this basin (Agusti et
al., 1988). The lower sequence is formed by
alluvial and lacustrine deposits up to 600 m
thick which originated through the early-mid-
dle Miocene (Ribesalbes sequence; Fig.5). The
upper sequence consists of alluvial deposits up
to 200 m thick, probably formed during the
middle and late? Miocene (Alcora sequence). A
continuous transition without major unconfor-
mities has been observed between the two
Neogene sequences near Araya. In the
southern margin of the basin the basal levels of
the Ribesalbes sequence unconformably over-
lie Cretaceous limestones whereas in the
northern part of the graben, conglomerates of
the Alcora sequence overlie the Mesozoic
rocks. This means the present outcrop bounda-
ries do not record the original margins of the
sedimentary basin.
In the Ribesalbes sequence (outcrops near
 B) Dolostones,
la Mesozoic
mudstones sandstones

D) Olisthostrome E) Limestones Quaternary

Fig.4. Geological sketch of the Miocene Ribesalbes-Alcora Basin. A-E refer to the units of the lower Miocene Ribesalbes
sequence.

the village) five main units can be distin-
guished (Anadon, 1983a; Agusti et al., 1988).
This sequence (Fig.5) from base to top consists
Of:
Unit A. This consists of up to 300 m thick
pebble to large boulder breccias of Mesozoic
limestone clasts with minor interbedded red
sandstones and mudstones. Their poor sorting
and strongly disorganized fabric, lack of inter-
nal stratification and clear erosive basal con-
tacts justify its interpretation as mass flow
deposits. Minor channelised stream flow de-
posits have also been observed.
Unit B. Constituted by a succession, up to
100 m thick of laminated dolostones with
interbedded thin layers of massive or lami-
nated dark brown mudstones and sandstones.
The contact between A and B units is poorly
exposed. Dolostones are formed by Mg-poor
dolomite. Minor calcite and aragonite are
present in variable amounts. Early diagenetic
opal-CT has also been recorded. Organic-rich
horizons are present in the laminated dolo-
stones and in the mudstone beds. Olistholiths
of Cretaceous rocks and slumped horizons
have been recorded.
Well preserved abundant plant leaves, in-
sects and minor amphibian skeletons and bird
feathers are found in this unit. This fact, as
well as the fine lamination in the rocks, and
the absence of benthonic fauna and bioturba-
tion point to anoxic bottom conditions in a
meromictic lake phase.
Oil-shale facies from this unit includes two
rock types. Organic-rich laminated mudstones
have a mean oil yield value of 87 l/MT and a
maximum record of 250 l/MT. Other rocks
(mainly dolostones and dolomitic marls) show
mean values of 10.8 l/MT (IGME, 1981b). Dolo-
stones and dolomitic marls cropping-out near
 13

13,
n3

20 =~ Sand
m , , ,
1.8
O ~'J_-,:-~ i d rn

10

15
f 1 ~

10 0
~ Breccias ~ Macrophyte
leaves

-~ Laminated ~,' Insects

dolostones
P:::/ ~-" O s t r a c o d s
o o <:3 o ~
~ o ~ Laminated
mudstones
5 ../2 Slump
A ,o0 Massive
,~. [-~ mudstones ~ W a v e ripples

p~ Marls ~ Current r i p p l e s

~ Sandstones .--'~ g l a s e r str.

~ 0
Fig.5. Synthetic stratigraphic log of the Ribesalbes sequence and detailed sedimentological logs (b and c) of the main
lacustrine units.

Ribesalbes show a TOC c ont e nt ranging from 1
to 15%.
Unit C. Yellow to gray massive and lami-
nated mudstones with interbedded dolostones
and sandstones. Dolostones, locally displaying
slump folds, are similar to those from the
underlying unit and form packets up to 10 m
thick. Sandstone intervals, up to 1.5 m thick
with thin interbedded mudstones comprise
horizontally stratified and wave ripple cross-
laminated beds. This unit, up to 90 m thick, is
capped by a 3 m thick coarsening upward
sequence, grading from mudstones alternating
with thin sandstones in the base to cross-
bedded sandstones and conglomerates on top.
The C unit records a significant increase of
detrital inputs to the lake in comparison with
the underlying B unit. Shallow water sedimen-
tation stages are recorded by the wave-rippled
sandstones pointing to continuous or intermit-
tent agitation episodes in a shallow lake floor.
The coarsening upward sequence on top of this
unit must be interpreted as a deltaic mouth bar
sequence. Deeper sedimentation phases, alter-
nating with the shallow ones, are recorded by
the thick laminated mudstones and the inter-
bedded laminated dolostone intervals. The
latter point to a recurrence of the anoxic
bottom conditions which prevailed in the
underlying unit.
Unit D. Formed by an olisthostrome of
disorganized, heteromictic large blocks of Cre-
taceous limestones, up to 70 m thick. Blocks of
several m 3 in volume are abundant and several
large blocks have cross sections of 20 x 5 m.
Unit E. Thin bedded limestones with thin
interbedded mudstones, up to 25 m thick. The
limestones contain abundant ostracods and
14

charophytes and sometimes are laminated. emplacement of an olisthostromic unit 70 m

This mainly carbonate sequence has been thick followed by a shallow water-carbonate
interpreted as formed in a shallow open sedimentation phase.
offshore lacustrine environment.
In the Araya zone extensive outcrops of C Rubielos de Mora Basin (Iberian Chain)
unit are present, but the olisthostromic unit is
not found. There, the Alcora sequence overlies The Rubielos de Mora Basin is an e a r l y -
the C unit. middle Miocene half-graben developed in the
The overall described Ribesalbes megase- SE Iberian Chain. The basin is bounded by
quence indicates a basin (graben) formation E N E - W S W to N E - S W striking faults and
phase with related coarse mass-flow dominated shows a southern steep, fault bounded
alluvial fan deposits overlain by a thick margin related with E N E - W S W faults. The
lacustrine sequence formed in a meromictic Miocene deposits unconformably overlie the
lake where carbonate deposits were predomi- Cretaceous substratum along the n o r t h e r n
nant. Minor and episodic sandy underflows margin, but in some places the contact is
have been also recorded. Olisthostromes and faulted (Fig.6).
slumped horizons reflect tectonic activity in The Cretaceous outcrops which surround
the area during this deep lacustrine stage. the Rubielos de Mora Basin consist mainly of
Later the lacustrine system experienced water a lower thick red-bed sequence (sandstones
level fluctuations and detrital inputs in- and mudstones) overlain by thick marine
creased. Shallow and deep water conditions limestones with minor interbedded dolostones,
alternated. This phase ended with a deltaic carbonate mudstones and sandstones. The
episode. Renewed tectonic activity led to the Miocene basin-fill sequence is made up to over

o es)" 'r~

......t•...•
~ J ~-.~- ~ ',
• • / . . ,e ef /.
• • / k" • " /• I

0~__ -;,'. -.,.,~, . .' ~,

o " ' "~ ~':.2 .'- :,6; -: ~~ ~ ~ " a m Ru bielos.

o o °~'~,-, ~ ~ "~ ~
~_ z., -..%= _ ,I--Z-:_2.' u ,~
't-

o o o oo ;-n:l--fi o o o o o o,/,
o
0
o
0
o
0
~----T~--~ ,~-------'-7
'~ _ __~.~_..~w~. 0
o
. 0
o ¢.o.
O 0 O~
~~
o o ,' ,.
,•,•
0
Laminated and
C,3 massive mudstone
cycloa
o o o o
,;......,o ,~, o o I .
O ~ Sandstones and
o o o :o" o ,',, i,,o.,i ,.o .,o / "~L • • j C 2 conglomerates
OoO oo o pI
o o
o
o o'.|
/
,,;
1
I
2Km
I
I [~
[~
Quaternary

Upper Miocene
~

~
.,,
i

,
B
Laminated
C1 mudatonea
Limestones.
mudetonea end
sandstones
. ~ - Unconformity
~ Sendet°neS%ndmudatones
.~ Strike and dip /Major fault .~Syncllne Fl~'l Cretec'ou. O I'''l A
conglomerates

Fig.6. G e o l o g i c a l s k e t c h o f t h e M i o c e n e R u b i e l o s d e M o r a B a s i n .

800 m thick of terrigenous and minor carbon-
ate deposits of alluvial and lacustrine origin.
Three main depositional units have been
defined and they record three different, succes-
sive evolutionary stages of the basin infilling
(AnadSn, 1983a).
(A) Lower unit: Formed by up to 300 m of
sandstones with minor interbedded mudstones
and conglomerates. This unit records an early
evolutionary stage of the basin, largely domi-
nated by alluvial sedimentation.
(B) Middle unit: This unit, up to 70 m thick,
mainly consists of lacustrine limestones with
interbedded mudstones, sandstones and brown
coals (lignites). Limestones show a high con-
tent of bioclastic remains (gastropods, bi-
valves, ostracods and charophytes). This unit
records a shallow lacustrine stage.
(C) Upper unit: This unit (Fig.7) is up to
300 m thick and has been divided into three
major facies assemblages (AnadSn et al., 1988).
C1. This facies assemblage is up to 250 m
thick and consists mainly of laminated
mudstones (oil-shales) and interbedded
rhythmite beds showing a very scarce or
tAI
E alluvial (unit C2) to lacustrine (C1 and C3).
4on laminated
mudstone
'Laminated
mudstone
02 Limestone
Sandstone
;onglomerate
L tic lake, due to cyclical changes in lake water
Brown coal
( lignite )
lOOm
Fig.7. Synthetic stratigraphie logs of the lower Miocene
deposits from the Rubielos de Mora Basin.
15
absent bioturbation. The laminated mud-
stones have a high organic matter content
and delicately preserved fossil remains
(leaves, insects, amphibia, etc.) are often
recorded. The rhythmites consist of alternat-
ing laminae of carbonate (mainly aragonite)
and clays.
C2. This assemblage mainly consists of
sandstones, mudstones and conglomerates
up to 150 m thick. These terrigenous deposits
interfinger with the C1 and C3 minor units.
•C3. This facies assemblage is up to 200 m
thick and is mainly formed, in the western
part of the basin, by cyclical sequences.
These sequences consist of organic-poor,
non-laminated mudstones and marls cyclic-
ally alternating with thinly laminated facies:
sandy mudstones, bioclastic laminae, oil-
shales, rhythmites (carbonate-clay, varve-
like couplets) and marls.
Along the SE margin of the basin, slumps,
olistholiths and chaotic breccias occur inter-
fingering with the C1 facies assemblage. The
former record strong tectonic activity during
sedimentation of unit C.
The facies assemblages in unit C record
diverse paleoenvironmental conditions, from
When compared with unit B, the features of C1
and C3 deposits (oil-shales and thinly lami-
nated rhythmites) reflect the occurrence of
relatively "deeper" lacustrine conditions.
C1 facies record the development of se-
quences formed in open (offshore) lacustrine
areas in a meromictic lake, where anoxic
bottom water conditions were persistent and
laterally continuous. Cyclical sequences (C3
unit) record alternating oxic-anoxic bottom
conditions in marginal zones of this meromic-
volume. This feature is recorded in the cyclical
sequences by mineralogical changes and facies
transitions. Thus low-Mg calcite and non-
stoichiometric (Mg-poor) dolomite are the dom-
inant carbonate minerals in the non-laminated
facies, whereas variable amounts of low-Mg
calcite, high-Mg calcite, aragonite and non-
stoichiometric dolomite have been recorded in
16

most of the laminated facies. Low-Mg calcite is

the main carbonate mineral in sandy mud-
stones and bioclastic laminae which occur at
the lower part of laminated intervals in the
cycles.
Strong tectonic subsidence (not balanced by
sedimentation and taking place in an active
rift setting) and palaeoclimate were the most
important features favourable to the establish-
ment of a meromictic lake.
The oil-shale and rhythmite deposits show
the same general features in the C1 and C3
facies assemblages. The oil-shale deposits con-
sist of organic-rich, brown to dark grey shales.
These occur either as very thin laminae
alternating with clastic accumulations of os-
tracods and Potamogeton seeds (C3 unit) or as
individual beds up to 7 m thick. Carbonaceous
vegetal debris, including very well preserved
fossil leaves (which are often concentrated in
thin beds of laminae), are abundant. Occasion-
ally thin shelled ostracods, rare gastropod
shells, dropstones and Potamogeton seeds are
scattered in the mudstone. Articulated skele-
tons of Salamandrinae have been also recorded
(AnadSn et al., 1988). Fig.8. Geological sketch of the Neogene Teruel graben.
The average organic matter content in the The distribution of the Libros Gypsum is shown.
oil-shales ranges from 20 to 40 1/MT, with a
maximum content of 70 1/MT (IGME, 1980).
(Fig.9). Main lacustrine expansion phases took
Libros Basin (Teruel graben, Iberian Chain) place during the latest Miocene and early
Pliocene. Minor expansion phases have been
The N N E - S S W Teruel graben, dissects older recorded in Vallesian (early-late Miocene) and
N W - S E structural trends in the Iberian Chain, Aragonian (early-middle Miocene). In general
over at least 100 km, with a median width of the carbonate lacustrine deposits show shal-
about 20 km (Fig.8). Although the sedimentary low water and/or paludine features. Open
infill began in the early Miocene the main lacustrine carbonate facies are mainly formed
faulting and tilting phase took place from the by well bedded laminated limestones. The more
middle to the late Pliocene (Moissenet, 1980). frequent nearshore or paludal carbonate se-
The Neogene deposits in the Teruel graben quences are mainly formed by highly biotur-
consist mainly of alluvial red beds, and lacus- bated limestones showing frequent pedological
trine white limestones and gypsum (Gautier et features, with travertines or coal interbedded
al., 1972). The graben-fill sequence ranges from (AnadSn, 1983b). Gypsum units, except for
lower-middle Miocene to lower Pleistocene Vallesian gypsum of the Libros area, have been
(Adrover et al., 1978; Moissenet, 1982). The red deposited in shallow lakes and in the surround-
bed dominated successions in the basin mar- ing mud flats.
gins pass laterally to carbonate and gypsum In the Libros area (20 km SSW from Teruel),
lacustrine deposits in the axial graben zones a gypsum-dominated sequence of Vallesian
 17

;~
....
2oo^OoOoOOooO
o . o ooo oO
ooo
ooooo
oooooo
oO o oOoOooO
o o o o o oo oooo o o o'Oo
o oo .ooZo,o, o, oo o~. o
.o.O.o.o. O. O o o O Ooo.o ooo

$ ~ . . . . oo~o ° - - - - - - - - - - - ~ -- - - - - ~ o

; -- ~ .."::. ....... ~ 1 I / -- -- ~oQ2o_ • .... -- --

~ I<C-~--r~--1 --~ } I [ I I ...--------~^ ^ ^ ~ ~ - - ~

~- b - ~ _ - U - , . . . _ ~ . ~. '-- l I l i I { l I I I l~ A ^ ~ -- ~..~o-0°2
-:--I"~o'~-~. . . . . . _' <:>~ .L ~ { f ~ ....... ~ - - "---~_o-o

rr { { { { i I l l ~ I ~l, A A /% O O

~ li°-~ "~==::=:~ . . . . . . . ~i } { [ I [ } ~ , 1 , 'd-" ,~,---~X_A^ ,,, ,, ^ ,', ~ ~ _ _ t . ~ o - o o0 oo

[oo o o ~ ° ~ ~ I I l ~,^,,',(l~^~ "'" ~ o~ """ --~°°~ o o_

I-_oo ~OT~.~ - - ~ - = ~ - ~ [ [ I ~,k,,^kL2^-~__ _ -~.:.~;._ /^oog., ~X o o o

-T~]~oo o':~ = - - ~
- ~
- - --
- -- -- . ~ ~ =A~- --A -l-- ~ : f .: . ..... -. . . .- ~ c o o o oooo
• ? . .
:S- .
= ~ ~-- O0 0 Oo
:oo ooo 0 0

-~{D} o ~ o o o^ ~ ~ o ~ . . . . . . . < ~ -- / o o o 0 o go ~ ^ OOl

.:lOl ~ o~=oo ^r~"~-.~ :_,_.~.~^ ,, ~ I I I l / - - ~ooOOoO~o°~ooo oo°~oo ol

~1£3i~ ~o o Oo ~- o o ~".....~ __ ~-?, A ^ ~ I I I [ ~ = .... ~---~. o ~ o ~,.,~ _0o O ~o 0 I
~l~l%,-~°oo oo.0o oo~°~. .... ~-z~^~l ~ ~ " 1 7 -- --~....C"~_~-,., ? ~o ° o ~ o °o0o OoO{
ooO~o - - ~ - - ° 0 % 0 ° ° ° 0 ° 0 o o °° g o o o °o o O {
E ~=_~_~_..
-- --
~
o Oo
o o ° ° ° ° 0 o
oOO Ooo o o
O
o
0 0
o
oo°o
o o
°
o
o
o
0°00
o o {
I~lbo~6"oo o~o "° o°-goVo:Z_ ?
~ ' ~ ? ~ °°o~"o°o°o%17-;,-.;'.. .... "-"~.',.~l
~ R e d mudstones, ~Cono{omerates,~ Libros
Mar{s. 8ke{eta{ ~ Gypsum [-='~_~.{sandstones a n d ~oo~g{sandstones a n d ~ Gypsum
[=~ Limestones ~ limestones conglomerates mudst0nes

Fig.9. Synthetic stratigraphic framework of the Teruel Graben infill showing the successive evolutionary lacustrine stages.

(early late Miocene) age contains oil-shales. (c) Libros-Minas Gypsum (Vallesian, upper
The basin fill sequence in the Libros area Miocene). The lower part of the sequence, up to
(Fig.10) is formed by the following units: 50 m thick, is formed of limestones and mud-
(a) Lower detrital unit (lower Miocene). This stones with interbedded gypsum layers up to
unit consists of more t han 150 m of alluvial 1 m thick. The upper part of the sequence, up to
conglomerates, red sandstones and mudstones. 70 m thick, is mainly composed of laminated
Conglomerates are more a b u n d a n t at the base gypsum with some interbedded limestones and
of the succession. The upper part of this unit is mudstones. Limestone beds, up to 1.5 m thick,
made up of red mudstones, white marls and consist mainly of wackestones with charo-
thin limestones and gypsum. This part of the phyte stems, gastropods and ostracods. Cross
sequence originated in shallow water lacus- and convolute bedding are present in some
trine environments and in their surrounding limestone beds. Large scale, irregular replace-
mudflats. ments of the skeletal limestone by anhedral
(b) Bolage Limestones (Aragonian, middle gypsum have been observed. Laminated mud-
Miocene). This unit is made up of 50-80 m of stones up to 10 m thick are frequently found
thin-bedded limestones and marls. Limestones alternating with limestones and interbedded
are frequently laminated and bear abundant between gypsum beds in the upper part of the
gastropods, charophytes and o s t r a c o d s (wacke- sequence.
stones). Burrowing is rare. In some southern The laminated mudstones are organic-rich,
basin areas coals are also present. Northward, containing a b u n d a n t diatoms and sponge spi-
this unit is formed of thick bedded limestones cules. Well preserved remains of amphibians,
showing abundant bioturbation traces. This birds, snakes and leaves have been also re-
unit was deposited in a fresh water lacustrine corded. Diatoms found in the laminated mud-
environment. Open lacustrine facies, character- stones suggest alkaline, fresh to slightly saline
ized by finely laminated wackestones and biomi- water (Margalef, 1947).
crites (mudstones) are found in the Libros- Gypsum successions consist of thin bedded,
Minas area, whereas in the surrounding zones, laminated gypsum. The laminae are formed by
paludal and shallow lacustrine facies occur. microlenticular gypsum associated with dia-
18

I I ]
formed by dark brown to black laminated
I I
I
I
J
I
I mudstones up to 10 m thick. The mean oil yield
Laminated of the oil-shales from well samples ranges from
gypsum
- A - - ^--
20 to 70 1/MT, although maximum, isolated
Skeletal values up to 180 1/MT have been recorded
-J~rUI- limestones (IGME, 1981a,c) TOC from oil-shale outcrops
• " l
h I. h i . ^ range from 1 to 2.6%.
A .~' A .f~ A
A' A' A
Calcisiltites (d) Upper detrital unit (Vallesian-?Turolian,
^
A
^
A
.a
('Marls') upper Miocene). Formed by skeletal limestones
A _ A _ -~ which are overlain by red mudstones with
Mudstones.
interbedded sandstones. This sequence, up to
Laminated 50 m thick may be interpreted as shallow water
mudstones
lacustrine deposits overlain by alluvial de-
J'Z posits, recording a major retreat of the lacus-
^ A n
*Slump"
..L = =
trine systems in the Teruel graben.
"Oil-shales" (e) Santa Barbara Limestone (Turolian,
• J 1 I , s uppermost Miocene). It consists of up to 50 m
I I Native
I I 1
sulphur thick of shallow water lacustrine limestones
with abundant fresh water gastropods. Traver-
tines also occur.
I I
The overall basin fill sequence from the
--A
--A --A--A-
--A~
Libros area indicates a basin formation phase,
with related alluvial deposits followed by the
development of a shallow lacustrine system
which evolved to deeper lacustrine conditions
(Libros-Minas unit). The Neogene sequence in
the Libros area ends with shallow water
lacustrine and alluvial deposits.
Some remarks concerning the deep lacus-
trine deposits must be stressed: The laminated
Fig.10. Synthetic stratigraphic log in the Libros sequence mudstones (oil-shales) have a high organic-
and detailed log of the oil-shale bearing facies. carbon content, bear well preserved "exotic
fossils" and show lack of bioturbation. These
toms and sponge spicules and anhedral, micro- features suggest they originated under anoxic
crystalline gypsum. The latter usually occur as bottom conditions in a meromictic lake. The
disrupted bands. In some places diagenetic crossbedding in the limestones that alternate
gypsum with a variety of textures replaces the with the oil-shales suggests resedimentation of
finely laminated facies. Slumps affecting gyp- skeletal carbonates from littoral zones. In
sum and limestones packets are common. addition they do not show bioturbation struc-
Irregular nodules and bands of native sul- tures. Gypsum beds have been deposited in a
phur are frequently found in gypsum beds and subaqueous (lacustrine) environment as is
more frequently in limestones interbedded in proved by the lithological characteristics and
mudstone and gypsum rich intervals. In this fossil content (diatoms, sponges, etc.). Slumps
case carbonate replacements of gypsum have and bioclast reworking suggest that both
been observed. They are probably related to limestones and gypsum have been deposited in
the reactions leading to the formation of native an open lacustrine environment although clear
sulphur. evidences of meromixis cannot be deduced
Oil-shales from the Libros-Minas unit are from these lithofacies.
 19

The gypsum sedimentation probably corre- dance of slumped horizons in the Libros-Minas
sponds to high-sulphate (despite low total- sequence. On the other hand stratification of
salinity) lake water phases. High-sulphate the lake waters could have been reinforced by
content in the lake water probably was ob- ectogenic meromixis.
tained by incoming surface and subsurface
waters from neighbouring Keuper gypsum Cerdanya Basin (Eastern Pyrenees)
outcrops. Neither a high evaporation rate nor
high-salinity are needed to explain gypsum The Cerdanya Basin is an ENE-WSW ori-
precipitation in lakes, since gypsum solubility ented half-graben which lies over Paleozoic
in pure water is 2.41%o. Thus high-sulphate rocks in the Eastern Pyrenees (Fig.ll). The
water phases would have alternated with low- Cerdanya Basin is a horsetail structure located
sulphate water ones. In the latter, laminated in the northwestern block of the La Tet fault at
mudstones were deposited in the open lacus- its southern termination (Roca, 1986; Cabrera
trine areas under meromictic, low sedimenta- et al., 1988).
tion-rate conditions. These phases alternate The basin shows a clear asymmetry between
with stages of resedimentation of the skeletal the S and SE, and N margins. Subvertical fault
carbonates originated in littoral zones. scarps bound the half-graben at the southern
The meromictic conditions suggested for and southeastern margins while Neogene sedi-
explaining the Libros gypsum lacustrine se- ments directly overlap Paleozoic rocks along
quence could be attained by a relative deepen- the northern margin.
ing of the lake due to subsidence outstripping The Neogene infill in the Cerdanya Basin is
deposition. This subsidence was probably tec- essentially siliciclastic and consists of 1000 m
tonic in origin, as is suggested by the abun- thick (Pous et al., 1986) muddy, sandy and

0 0

..o ..T'..':':'~..:.- . " . . ~ o

.:~-...~::.~..... o o
[~] N.S. [ ~ P.F.
~ o ' ~'~ " " ' " " " ~ ° ° ~ o
o o _~'=m~
o o o o " ~" " ~ '""' " " i - ' - ' " " ' "•" ". • ." . : . . " ' . = • -- o O ~

0" " •
LACUSTRINE DEPOSITS

.. -. : ~_.. ~_ . . . . -- ~ DEPTH ~ +

ALLUVIAL FAN DEPOSITS

/ io:.:....::¢:o
. . . .
.
.
"
I Granitic source a r e a

L~~co~oo ~ L = -o; . " ~ ~ o ° Non granitic s o u r c e a r e a

0 2 4 6Kin
PROXIMAL DISTAL

Fig.11. Geological setting of the Cerdanya Basin (Eastern Pyrenees). N . B . = Neogene basins. P . F . = Paleogene foreland basin
infill. P . T . = M e s o z o i c - P a l e o g e n e thrust-sheets. P . B . = P a l e o z o i c basement. Paleocurrent trends and paleoenvironmental
distribution during deposition of the lower Neogene unit.
20
conglomeratic alluvial fan to fluvial se-
quences. Diatomites and thin lignite seams
linked respectively to open and marginal
lacustrine paleoenvironments are also re-
corded.
Two main stratigraphic units have been
identified in the Cerdanya Basin (Roca, 1986;
Cabrera et al., 1988) (Fig.12). The lower Neo-
gene unit dated as middle-late Miocene (Valle-
sian) and the upper Neogene unit dated as
earliest Pliocene. Alluvial fan, lacustrine fan
delta, and deep lacustrine facies are widely
developed in the lower unit. The upper unit
records the final evolutionary stages in the
LLI
Arkosic
sandstones
Conglomerates
Mudstones and
diatomites
Fig.12. Synthetic stratigraphic log of the late Neogene
Cerdanya Basin.
basin. Thick alluvial fan red beds and minor
shallow lacustrine deposits make up the sedi-
mentary record of this stage, which took place
under a tensional regime (Roca, 1986).
The open lacustrine facies of the lower
Neogene unit crop out mainly in the western
Cerdanya Basin. In this basin sector three
main lithological assemblages are recorded
(Fig.12) (Julia, 1984):
(A) Lower terrigenous assemblage: It con-
sists of pale-brown, yellowish and greyish
gravels, arkosic sands and mudstones, up to
100 m thick. Thin lignite seams occur locally.
(B) Middle diatomitic assemblage: It is
composed of up to 250 m thick fine blue-grey to
pale-gray organic mudstones and diatomites.
Interbedded sand and ostracod laminae occur
in this unit. Scattered C a - F e phosphate rich
beds or isolated nodules are present at several
levels. Diatomitic facies show a fine lamination
which may be related to seasonal varve sedi-
mentation reported by Margalef (1983).
(C) Upper terrigenous assemblage: This is
formed of grey to brown mudstones, sandstones
and conglomerates about 100 m thick. Lignite
beds have been also recorded in this unit.
The three above-mentioned assemblages may
grade laterally one into the other and their
spatial distribution as well as their lithological
features are closely linked to the source areas
(Roca, 1986). The lower assemblage records the
development of early alluvial fan and shallow
lacustrine conditions, which evolved into
the deep lacustrine conditions recorded by the
Middle diatomitic assemblage. At the top of
the "deep" lacustrine sequence a sharp gener-
alized fan delta progradation, which infilled
the basin, has been recorded.
The widespread occurrence of diatomites in
the open deep lacustrine deposits suggest high
pH, silica and sodium-rich surface water condi-
tions. Seasonal fluctuations in surface water
temperature may be recorded by the diatomitic
laminae couplets defined by Melosira morphol-
ogy changes (Margalef and Marras~, 1985).
The absence of widespread bioturbation, the
very well preserved plant and insect remains
and the high organic carbon content (up to 5%
 21

TOC) in the shales and diatomites, show poorly netic phosphates (anapaite and fairfieldite) are
oxygenated to rather anoxic bottom water consistent with reducing anoxic conditions,
conditions. and also indicate low calcium concentrations
The oil-shales consist mainly of grey mud- in the sediment interstitial waters (Nriagu and
stones and finely laminated (varved) diatom- Dell, 1974).
ites. These facies have yielded a very rich fossil
assemblage which includes plant leaves, paly- General characteristic features of the
nomorphs, ostracods, insects, and rare, poorly studied basins
preserved fish skeletons. Major carbonate de-
posits are absent but minor, varying amounts The tectonosedimentary evolutionary trends
of calcite and scarce siderite have been re- recorded in the studied basin-fill sequences are
corded in the mudstone facies. Early diage- quite similar. In all cases, the graben fill
netic phosphates (widespread single or amalga- commences with an alluvial unit recording an
mated nodules and very scarce thin veins) early stage of rift basin generation (Fig.13).
occur at several levels in the organic-rich The dominant lithology in this unit (breccias,
mudstones and diatomites. The early diage- conglomerates or sandstones) depends on the

Rubielos
Campins Ribesalbes de Mora Libros Cerdan ,a

L2, -12
"%-r~T i

-_-_:

l j I I I G

~1 ~,'^,~
I 5YY4 ,,,,.,,, _/'Z_ I
. ~
J ^L ^ ^ ,GjT_O I

I
L:.<,~
I

I I
I A t _t_ ~
'Ci-i- ,~
7-~z-7-j ~ T ,--_, U_, ~ m JI
/ / _~1
i I
-L-- [ --I-I
I
I

I
J I i tl ~ #t
±A_ i_
I
)o<3o I I I

-±~- ^ - - ±', I
I

",..'~,
~|100 ',~ 100
--- - m

Charophytes ~ Macrophyte G' M o l l u s k s ~ Ostracods ¢~o"Exotic" fossils

leaves ,, ( i n s e c t s , amphibians,..)
m Brown coals ( l i g n i t e s ) • Oil-shales ~ Travertine JZSlump (~ Olisthostrome

Fig. 13. Overall comparison of the synthetic basin fill sequences recorded in the oil-shale basins. See legends in Figs.5 and 10
for lithologies. Further explanation in the text.
22
nature and rock-types of the surrounding
source areas. The basal alluvial units are
overlain by lacustrine sequences which in
general show shallow lacustrine features in
their lowermost portions. In some basins, coals
are found in these shallow lacustrine se-
quences (i.e. Campins, Rubielos de Mora,
Libros).
After the stage of rift basin generation,
increasing subsidence without a compensatory
increase in sediment accumulation rate, re-
sulted in a deepening of the lacustrine systems.
Widespread deposition of organic-rich sedi-
ments leading to oil shales is recorded in all
the basins during the ~'deep" lacustrine stage
(Fig.13). Intense tectonic activity throughout
this evolutionary stage is recorded in most of
the studied oil-shale sequences by olistho-
stromes (Ribesalbes, Rubielos de Mora) and
slumps (Campins, Ribesalbes, Rubielos de
Mora, Libros).
Clay, mudstones, marls and carbonates are
the dominant rock-types in the oil-shale units
in Campins, Ribesalbes and Rubielos de Mora.
Gypsum is an important deposit in the Libros
basin together with laminated mudstones and
limestones. In Cerdanya, where carbonate
rocks are very scarce, the oil-shale unit is
formed by laminated mudstones and diatom-
ites.
The lithology of the oil-shales ranges from
clays or mudstones to carbonate rocks. In the
Campins and Ribesalbes basins, although lami-
nated mudstones have the highest oil yield,
carbonate rocks (dolostones in Ribesalbes and
dolostones and limestones in Campins) also
display a high organic matter content. Cerdan-
ya Basin organic-rich deposits (up to 5%
TOC) consist of mudstones and diatomites.
Carbonate minerals from rocks of the oil-
shale units show a complex variety. Primary
and/or diagenetic carbonates such as calcite,
aragonite, Mg-calcite, dolomite and siderite
have been recorded from the different basins.
Native sulphur in Libros, C a - F e phosphates in
Cerdanya and opal-CT in Ribesalbes are non-
carbonate diagenetic minerals which occur in
noticeable amounts.
The hydrochemical characteristics of the
lake water (i.e. salinity, ionic composition)
were different in each case. Two examples of
extreme hydrochemical conditions are the
Libros and Cerdanya basins. In Libros, a high
Ca and sulphate content of the lake waters is
inferred from the gypsum dominated sequence,
whereas in Cerdanya a very low sulphate
content in the waters can be deduced from the
absence of pyrite and the presence of siderite
and iron oxi-hydroxides in the lake sediments.
A typical characteristic of the described oil-
shales is a well preserved, very fine lamination.
In some cases it is formed by thin alternating
layers of organic matter or organic-rich clays
and carbonate minerals. These rhythmites
(present in Campins, Ribesalbes and Rubielos)
suggest the succession of seasonal and or other
periodic events. Varves, recording seasonal
changes of diatom morphs have been recorded
from the Cerdanya Basin (Margalef and Mar-
ras6, 1985).
The preservation of lamination and thin
rhythmites also indicates the absence of ben-
thos. Although in some cases benthic organ-
isms have been found in the laminated oil-
shale facies, they have been reworked from
littoral zones. The excellent preservation of
'~exotic" (delicate) fossils (amphibians, birds,
etc.) and abundance of leaves, also points to an
absence of benthic organisms living in the
bottom of the lake where oil-shales originated.
The above mentioned features, prove the
origin of the oil-shales in lacustrine basins
with anoxic bottom conditions. Here organic
matter is protected from reworking by benthic
fauna and from aerobic bacterial degradation.
In addition, the high organic matter content
has also allowed "unstable" minerals like
aragonite or Mg-calcite to be preserved
(Lippmann, 1973).
In the studied cases anoxic bottom condi-
tions arose from stratification of water bodies.
Meromictic conditions were attained in the
lacustrine systems at least during the oil shale-
formation phases. The meromictic conditions,
in the studied cases, were favoured by a
relative deepening of the lake basins. It is

assumed that the suitable depth conditions
needed for meromixis in the water bodies, and
anoxia in the deeper parts of the lakes, were
essentially due to subsidence outstripping
deposition.
Stratification of the lacustrine waters would
be also linked to the climatic conditions. Thus,
despite some strong oscillations which led to
warm temperate conditions, warmer than pres-
ent, subtropical to tropical regimes were
dominant during most of the late Oligocene
late Miocene time span in the northwestern
Mediterranean area (Sainz de Siria, 1978;
Bessedik, 1985). Changes in precipitation rates
(which in some cases were parallel to the
temperature changes) also took place, result-
ing probably in alternating wet, semiarid and
even arid episodes. However, local paleo-
geographic conditions (continentality, rain
shadow effect, altitude ...) also played a major
role in determining the final precipitation-
evaporation balance.
The NE Spain Tertiary lacustrine oil-
shale basins in the W e s t e r n Europe rift
basin s y s t e m
The rift basins of the NE Iberian Plate are
part of a larger complex of horsts and grabens
which extends as far as SE Iberia. There a
number of basins, some of which display
features in common with those described here
(i.e. Cenajo Basin, Calvo and Elizaga, 1985),
developed under the influence of the late
evolutionary stages of the Betic thrust belt.
Moreover, the whole Eastern Iberian Plate rift
system makes up the southernmost part of the
large n o r t h - s o u t h rift basin system which
stretches across Western Europe from the
North Sea to the Western Mediterranean
margins (Julivert et al., 1974). The large scale
graben and half-graben complexes included in
this rift system (Lower and Upper Rhine
grabens, Rhone Valley grabens and half gra-
bens, Sardinian graben, Eastern Iberian Plate
rift basins, Fig.14) record the development of
diverse local to regional extensional regimes.
The first rift processes may have developed
23
during the Eocene in the Rhine graben system
(Illies, 1977; Villemin and Bergerat, 1987).
Later, a spreading towards the south took
place (Fig.15); late Eocene-Oligocene grabens
in the Rhone Valley system (Bergerat, 1982);
late Oligocene and mainly Neogene grabens in
the Eastern Iberian rift basins (Vegas and
Banda, 1982).
Extensional conditions which resulted in
graben formation along the Western Europe
Rift system developed after a gradual transi-
tion from a compressional to extensional
regime, and in several cases a strike-slip
regime has been recorded as synchronous or
developed as an intermediate stage (Angelier
and Bergerat, 1983; Guimer~, 1984; Letouzey,
1986). This fact has been related to variations
in the magnitude of the compressive stress,
which could be caused by the changes in the
relative motion of the colliding European and
African plates. Moreover in relation with this
fact, a spatial change in the tectonic regime,
from clearly compressive tectonic conditions
(with generation of thrusts and folds) into a
strike-slip compressive regime (with develop-
ment of strike-slip processes) and finally into
an extensional regime (with graben genera-
tion), has been emphasized by several authors
as a common feature in the foreland platform
regions located in front of the zones which
undergo a global large scale compression
(Taponnier and Molnar, 1976; Letouzey, 1986).
This feature must be considered for the whole
rift basin system evolution. However, it must
be stressed that the extensional situations
along the diverse rift segments have resulted
from more than one regional geotectonic
process. Thus generation of some of the more
marginal basins in the Eastern Iberian rift and
in the Rhone and Provence graben systems
may have been at least partially influenced by
rifting processes linked to the opening of the
NW Mediterranean Basin as a back-arc basin
(Rehault et al., 1984). Anyway, evolution of the
system as a whole has been strongly influenced
by the same global geotectonic process: the
convergent motion and collision of the Euro-
pean and African plates.
24

J
//J"

200 300Kin

F7~ Alpine thrust belts ~ Rift basins /<<~" Faults (~) Oil-shale deposits

Fig.14. Location of Tertiary oil-shale basins in the Western Europe intraplate rift system. 1 = Messel (Rhine graben).
2= Mormoiron and 3 = Al~s (Rhone valley graben system). 4 = Campins. 5 = Cerdanya. 6 = Rubielos de Mora. 7 = Ribesalbes.
8= Libros. 9 = Cenajo (Eastern Iberia rift system). The generation of the diverse rift segments resulted from more than one
geotectonic process. See Fig.15 for explanation of the evolutionary trends.

It is interesting to emphasize that sedimen-
tary and paleoenvironmental conditions suit-
able for the development of stratified water
lacustrine systems often took place along the
Western Europe Rift system during its evolu-
tion. The foreland platform grabens (generated
from the Eocene until present by intraplate
deformation) experienced in several cases evo-
lutionary trends which allowed the deposition
of organic-rich sediments (coals and oil shales)
as well as of other deposits of economic
interest (diatomites, evaporites, sulphur ...).
Coal deposits and lacustrine oil-shales have
been recorded in the Rhine Graben (late
Eocene Messel sequences, Matthes, 1968; Sitt-
ler, 1968), in the Rhone Valley basin system
(latest Eocene-early Oligocene sequences in
Al~s, Mormoiron; Triat and Truc, 1974; Truc,
 25

1978; Bergerat, 1982) and also in the Eastern

Iberian plate rift lacustrine basins described
here. Organic rich deposits occur too in some
of the Prebetic late Miocene lacustrine basins
(I.G.M.E., 1981a; Calvo and Elizaga, 1985).
From this point of view must be stressed the
importance of studying foreland platform gra-
ben systems related to intraplate deformation
in order to explore the economic potential of
these tectonosedimentary settings as zones of
production of economic resources. Large scale
intraplate rift systems linked to continental
convergence and collision are also known to
the north of the Himalayan thrust belt (Molnar
OE and Taponnier, 1975; Ye et al., 1987).
AO
EARLY MIOCENE - - _ ...... :~ ___.\
/ Concluding remarks

A number of graben and half graben basins

occur in the NE Iberian Peninsula, related to
transtensional and extensional processes
which took place in the area from the late
Oligocene (Campins Basin) until the late
Miocene (Ribesalbes, Rubielos de Mora, Libros
and Cerdanya basins).
Alluvial fan-fluvial and lacustrine systems
were closely interrelated in the above men-
tioned basins. Sometimes the latter evolved
into deeper waterbodies prone to the develop-
ment of oil-shale deposits. Where the whole
sedimentary record of the basin evolution is
preserved, the same overall evolutionary and
megasequential trend has been recorded:
(1) Early rift stage with basin generation and
development of alluvial and shallow lacustrine
environments.
(2) Intense activity along the fractures which
bound the basins resulting in a "deepening" of
the lacustrine systems which became perma-
nently stratified.
(3) Lessening of tectonic activity with the

~ Oil-shale deposits --dLb-Thrusts

Fig.15. Evolutionary stages of the Western Europe intra-
Oceanic crust ,~-Oceanic subduction continental rift systemwhichresulted from graben genera-
,,~llllllE, Metamorphism f / / " Faults tion in the foreland platform of the Alpine system. Note
* Volcanism (i...~ Rift basins that back-arc rift processes probably occurred in the
Western Mediterranean during the late Oligocene-early
Miocene time span. See Fig.14 for a more detailed location
of the oil-shale basins.
26
subsequent infilling of the lacustrine system
and the development of a shallowing upward
sequential trend. Alluvial and shallow lacus-
trine deposits occur at the top of the sequence.
It is assumed here that the suitable depth
conditions for permanent stratification (mero-
mixis) to develop and anoxia to occur in the
deeper parts of the lakes were linked to a
increasing tectonic subsidence that was not
balanced by an increase in depositional rate.
Tectonic activity is recorded in the studied
lacustrine sequences by the occurrence
of olisthostromes and slumps. However, in
some cases, chemical ectogenic meromixis,
may have contributed to the permanent strati-
fication.
No exclusive relationships between oil-shale
deposition and lake water hydrochemistry can
be established from the studied basins, as a
wide range of conditions in the water column
can be deduced from the sedimentary record.
The occurrence in some of the basins of well
developed cycles (Rubielos de Mora Basin)
and the overall presence of diverse types of
rhythmites (clay-carbonate couplets, diatom
morphs variations) suggest that a detailed
study of these lacustrine sequences may con-
tribute to the knowledge of the Miocene
paleoclimatic conditions in the NW Mediter-
ranean area (i.e. seasonality, middle to long
term paleoclimatic trends, etc.).
The rift basins in the NE Iberian Peninsula
are included in the Eastern Iberian rift sys-
tem. This, in turn, makes up the southernmost
part of the Western Europe intraplate rift
system, which stretches from the North Sea as
far as the Mediterranean Sea (Fig.14). From
the late Eocene until the late Miocene, lacus-
trine complexes often developed in the fault
bounded basins included in this large rift
system (Fig.15). During some of the evolution-
ary stages of these lacustrine systems, oil-
shale deposits developed. From this point of
view, large scale old intracontinental rift
systems, developed in a foreland platform
setting, can be envisaged as .zones of high
potential interest for lacustrine oil-shale
exploration.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank M. R. Talbot for
critically reading a first draft of the manu-
script and made helpful suggestions.
This work is a contribution to the project
"Modelos de sedimentaci6n lacustre en fosas
neSgenas de la zona meridional de la Cordil-
lera Ib~rica" financed by the Comisi6n Asesora
de Investigaci6n Cientifica y T~cnica and
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientifi-
cas (CAICYT-CSIC, ID: 851). One of the
authors (E. R.) benefitted from financial sup-
port by the CAICYT project 3170/83.
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