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t a
tarkam-Saastriiya vidhaanam (Logic and Scientific Method)
English original-Telugu Translation : Sri M. Rajagopal Rao
Scrutiniser : Prof. N. Yadagiri Reddy, First Edition 1986,

PP viii-f 156.

Dr. S. P. Gupta, English Version

TELUGU AKADEMI, Hyderabad, Tefugu Version

First Edition, 1986

Copies : 1000

All rightswhatsoever in this book are strictly reserved and

no portion of it may be reproduced by any process for any
purpose without the written permission of the copyright
owners.

This book is the Telugu Translation of the original English

book entitled "Logic and Scientific Method" The Transla-
tion Rights were obtained by the Telugu Akadmi from the
original author.

Price : Rs. 4-50

Printed in India
atVani Press, Lakdikapool, Hyderabad-500 004.
Andhra Pradesh
 &j* SoS"

65
& (p

^ 55Si

(j)

(text-books) s$i;>c& |rto$eo (reading material)

3 N^ 0x3 Co.

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 11

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reading material)

.n ii
ol ^,

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3. "S v^-off'olj^ sSTSs ^ aSj'eo (monographs)

12

Sjc3SSbo. ^CP q58so-&

21 vofir* ^CP^J 300

iQenetl atucly) r? l
&a*o^ac> saOD^dfio (optional or elective)
 Ill

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2> & a "

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SS SeaciSo^o^o
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iv

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2. sScyeo, 13-30

3. 31-48

4962

6S.-69

70-90

91-106

107-121

122-138

10. 189-155
 (J

?Soao$S$?$;\ &*$ o.

5o), ^P

(implications)

(property), 250"^

(intelligenice)

Qotf
n
o<S

S3w5B ^)gQCdjD CCD. Sf

.
[ofi

8
Sfif a.S'

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SS^^- (bed)
S'Q t) s>^fe-^ sSS'jj-'i &e&Vc&k rtba
 (follows)

&aarS &^6o^D w^
(function) es^sS^^

(Logos) es^ ^Al~ sS^o ,(i)gsSt

^^o (Semantics|
>Qc8$ r,&o
^^
i^sSpo t
i
(substance), ^p^ (worcjl
a)
ig
(ii) 3^S^ tftf\ (reasoned discourse), ,&

(method)
(Selentific method)
(method of Secentific inference),

3)S)rv ^S

60
J
SS
oJ
CO C3 U. oj

'

esS) Stf<?aot3&>. i^^c&'o^ (Concepts

Q.

(range)

. ^3 S^cri e^S ^'o^o^^ (sensedata "

 (symbols)

&otoo>. iSS
^
B

?i

&o^cco.

(isolated)

'C'eao (classification). 53

aodj^.
eoKPA dbao

'XSisoa
 (formation sciences)

(positive science)

4s

. &aJ$*o'685b sScytf

"

. )

(W.H.O)

'
O '

Wi
 (conclusive)

o ^}to^oS

(
L 9' c & Language)

doDO
L
i

(arithmatic) ^
(diagrams) ^gpSeoCdrawingsJ^cr' &odp>cco. V

(circuit diagram)

(Symbolism)
 ()

6
co L L 6

tf?Sex>, ^tfpo&*s>to sJo"St

es a) a

"y es

X ^> Y.

^i
(J>

(Functions of Language)

. a.S' Sj
Q

s
1

&v 'and/ 'some/ 'not/'every

 (phrases)

sp

(assrtions) lxtf rf&&v<o Sfrdrr

^QOj?
a-S",
8
;S)2Sa'r3 S) ^<K2Do^doo^ TK> a.S' isS^ocSScpo) (theorem)

(relevent)

(George Boole
1815-64)

Q
,.J e>^
a, "I

(Patrick Suppes)

(general set theory),

(exiomatic method)

^806' S) oSe"o3

(John God frey Saxe)

10

There were six men of Hindustan

To learning much inclined,

Who went to see the elephant

(Though all of them were blind)

That each by observation

Might satisfy his mind

The first approached the elephant
And, happening to fall

Against his broad and sturdy side

At once began to bawl :

"God bless me I but the elephant

Is very like a wall".

The second, feeling at the tusk

Cried : ''Ho ! what have we here

So very round and smooth and sharp ?

To me 'tis mighty clear

This wonder of an elephant

Is very like a spear !"

The third approached the animal
And happening to take
The squirming trunk within his hands
Thus boldly up and spoke :

"I see", quotes he, "the elephant

Is very like a snake?"

The fourth reached out his eager hand

And felt about the knee

"That most this wonderous beast is like

Is miahtv olain " mintes hiv

 "Tis clear enough that the elephant

Is very like a tree I"

The fifth, who chanced to touch the ear

Said : 'E' en the blindest man

Can tell what this resembles

Deny the fact who can,

This marvel of an elephant

Is very like a fan !"

The sixth no sooner had begun

About the beast to grope,

Than seizing on the swinging tail

That fell within his scope

"I see", quotes he, "the elephant

Is very like a rope !"

And so these men of Hindustan
Disputed long and long,
Each in his opinion

Exceeding stiff and strong

For each was partly in the right
And all were in the wrong !

(Exercises)

2.
 (iii)

4.

5.

ioifi?
 g'o
=

8
s^

efc&oS, es&Sfctf & otectiCo, tftfoootf.'

co o o

(sense-data) ^odpocx). es

& (pictorial language)^

SCPCP ?So'lfeg'5o^^ e& 'S' es^

tf;S^. escoi^ 63

. es Stforr

(basic block)

(other terms) a^S)o^^G o sSroDoa. -^e S)^cn ^)^o s!os sjos

^53 Sj 'j^o'^^sS^o' (primitive term)

a Q
(denotation) ^ea^To
o -
(connotation)
asoA
A-cfcr-oca.
^o^fil ^23
|SS#gdtfpe^aS
(stetemnent)

) Q cp gj.

SpSSj^

'os
Q

lido "^&6o (names)

(variables) & lid's*

CO
3 3
 15
J
g}

CD
x
O )

(geometry) ^ 'Oodb^
1

(Point) ^ (line)

,
^50^0

. fi9a

(Postultes)

(&o&ycco^-i &\ d'c^sx)' (variables) ^ fSon ^^ spt^s ^ (Proper

names) &o*eo (Comprise constauts)

Tq^ f6o^
16

^>57>^soD (Common nouns),<bW&r>eo (Pronouns)

zeon rt>_8^>&.
& (equation)

fySK Y =
O ^D fi(& d.

^|J^^e ^af ss^tf^o^

SOCT>^. sp.S^^p^ a. b, c
(es)
. a -

20;$
O

dofi.

a =

x. y, Z' S^oof63 ^pcr sSn ^. (Do&^GiSoeb Fy^) H7>e3's

il
e,

B
(intensiew)
'

(essential)
 17'

Jo^S (Distribution of a
)

term)

1
I
s$8fi spS'eotf*
e
'S^P^ex) 69^ sS
L. g a

(propositions)

^o^e^oo
r

T>
iSSS^ 53o 5'?eood3ii ca).
L gf .
o

(Hama is an Indian)
^ 8
<Dto

'

(it is

raining)
18

^ spggo3
t>
&. a, "I .

^go53sco5 <9
fl
. e^ SPSioS* s5<?
,
S.o&SosS&y
J> IJ
3

. sr <0 ol

03-0 is

L j

L.

8
5yS"i?o 53es15 ^d'ESoff
&
isSci&'s^o^
v_
^oo
as Stfon* .

B ^* .
& B
$ E8

l)eoo^di. |Sj^ P c6o, ' 53 ^o,

(symbolism) wtfee

(if |
were a king)
(Go ahead)
*^^*-BD eB ^odao C ^^
 ) .
19

L s

1
Q-^Dtfc&o (Proposition and judgment)
S3 .
59

D-
(1)

(2)
^s "SO^CPO
q>
oi!3& 5^ iSSSs' syS'^o.
L s^ a L
|
sSs 53^ ?o
n3

si*
'
(

(conclusion) ^s5r6>. SSCOD^ esa >tfdo CTQ

tJ 3 oJ

(Project)'

5<>tf("(Lewis Carrol)"Alice in wonder

(Cury)
o .
.

". (Normal form)

 20

(1).
S)8e$ja &tfo _ wotffib (all J
g^otf&
(some
\

(no )_9cS
&P&CO ad
(esoeb
\

S^.C^S'^^D (Name of the subject)

(2).

(copule) c&, a^c8jg S"1) 'are' 'is'

(Name of the predicate)

yoD^o 3DSg"o33Co (some boys are intefli

gent) sj^^ s$a^es J^P^O ro^eo (some), a^dfioo SJ=OD

(boys) . ^ocSj^s^ 'are', s^cdi^ SO^OHP^ (intelligent).

e
^^ 5J^|o
^^03 es^SS^ Acfi. Boys
intelligent

"
Some existing things are honest

0(3 atforp sSeg o

(i) . Honest people exist.

(ii). Some 'honest people' exists

(Hi). The class 'honest people' exists.

(fv). There are honest people.

(v). There are some honest people.

of discourse)
"Some apples are not ripe" r>xreo esS^.
"some
apples/are/ not ripe fruit". aJ ';
J _S'^-^ 8 S&d&xpsSr'Kh

ac&^a.sS\Goa^-;&y &a6'es& "No one needs paper

" "
unless he is well educated &! SP^O SP&POD esS^ No/
persons who are not well -educated/ are/ persons reading a
"
a paper 0^ ctfK> Some farmers always grumble at
:

the weather, whatever it may be"^

sys^SI sS^sSxPco es^.
"
(i) some/farmers/are/persons who always grumble at the
wheather, watever it may be"efo= (ii) some/persons/are/far-
mers who always grumble at the weather, whatever it may be.

e; ^g'5' S o(Classificationof propositions)

"
i^. [jS
0^^,^ S)^d6^, S^d6o, to be

All people are honest:- <SwS *A'

: No people are honest.

6ooa. ssfi 'I '

J__0

: Some people are honest.

 : Some people are not honest.

,
Sqpp^S'
& j
|&s*
l_ gjl
SPS'^CO.
J
p<*3tfso&>

Affirmo es3 ^pdo^j '

A '
'I' &

"
N E G e3 ^pdoar
8
^ ^o^ es^oS* '' 'O'

(Modern classification) :

0(3

1.
[j^s 53oo (categorical proposition)
11
, iOCospSS' :

. 'If/ 'unless'

: Rama is a student. Honesty is the best

policy. Commerce is a noble profession. There is no question

of getting a degree without exams.

(Hypohetical or conditional or

implicative proposition). ^ ^^a ?6Sp^ ,a^

U
^^6
1

sf
.

.Ac3si o ^jE8 : If the supply of an article increases the

price decreases.

^^a s^o^o^ (antecedent)

f
'S)
(consequent) ^od^dS. 'A' jpoorf&ooo 'B

N
a cL
A t- B
.
g
If A then B ^
 ap )

5T>5ipn>
&ocl A >-B

If A then B
.

A -
B &so"3 'A'

'A'

'A' fSotfal^ B KSo^SotfeSa w^o. A

^co:^ B
A does not yield - B f ^ O a -B $So^e^V - A
-A B >

.
f
\
A, B ^j^o ^odSbo'S <a^A^
a K)^ (not)
a <acco^ 'B' jSo^So^g"^
.) (e&o"&
'A' ,

c^)).
'B' fGo^^Q s6'ra'S r
*
e->^^ e3ccoSi A ^O^CP^. 550^1
/ CO 2)

._ B .-+_ A. ^-cyoY^oSbfoot) A - B ?5soa -B -+ _ 'A

m'-A'-*-- B

3. c$o53j"B 83' (canjuvative proposition)

[SSSfiJ* SP^gO

rvfj 'and'

A '
B

.
s) a .

gj>
a o
AC B
A A B TY
24

4. 2}o3j83^ [J$&J3J SPS'go (Disjunctive proposition)

*

ai(3 3oi& isSB D

L 6<$r"\d5c> (alternative)' i^
ex-

. Asa 'A or B' A v B rr> j

(Either it will rain or not).

ftfcfc}

(Ram or Mohan may do

dBb^^.
the work).

(inclusive).

(Either Rama or Mohan or both may do the work) 3 &c&$

8
eo'ofir 'either' 'or'

5. (equivalent proposition)

Sf

. A and B es^ "30^0

iS5as.^a?<>o
L SDsidSooer
8
A KB eso"& If A then B
B)^'- E)

. . B *A ^o^) If -B .
then-A fo&*. o$$o
A, B eo
SJQ'^O'O eso^o^orSsSs (implied)
'A if and only if B'

A is necessary and sufficient foj B' (A f B

^

o. ) .A-*-. K.B & &1

-64 IS
L.
 sSSs 19
SPS^CO 25
L
I

&

6. S^SPtfs loS&sr 9

SPgo (General proposition)

(sets) >#<> &ocl p=^fe' oc?5

Kr'c5: r$p
3 cJ
Jooeoctfo >

men are honest)

sp e:

to^ &xia> (All scholars are honest). ^aisS "

A ' E, 1, i^S
L

x, (Flu i s curable)

es

^o
 o a

(e) [S^bs'o^sSi ^>^ bj*eo&*co}.(AII triangles have three

sides)

(w)
2+ 8 =6
(B) 2+X -6.
fe t>^'ao6 "(what is your name)
(^e)

(&) ^[Xj^! (Be careful)

^>er>^b (I shall land on the moon)

is happy indeed)

(no, you are happy)

.
( l.am happy) ;

>
o'|br?

(a,) ^BR^ 3 ^

(what a tragedy)
 27

(S?)

"> tffS
(wo)

a,"i

2.

(i).

&o> sS^
 (ii)

.69026^ eo^>s^Li.

( Lewis Carrol, Alice in wonderland)

(iv) $$$

S ? ( Lewis Carrol, Alice in.

wonder/and)
(v) 5

8. sS^Ss' ST'S'??}^ 53^po ?5boa,

7 8j
8 ol E) E8

4. pa isS^^oS*
V_
?6o^Sot)^ ^
'
isSSa
SP '0 ^J

^^ !
(Beware of the dogs)

& (you should behave)

(s}.Y ^0^ f6oj^o.<3* cDoc^^) iSo'sj) ( why don't you join the

cjebating, society? )

efl^oi^S' !
(May God protect you )

, CoQn ( crisp and delicious)

5. d<

(i) ^ea ^O..(H)

'
.'
^f6ou"} a^o (iii)
6.

7.

8. o<2>

(i) Men .50 feet high do not exist.

(ii) No men 50 feet high exist. ;

.,

(iii) 'The classmen 50 feet high does not exist.

(iv) There are not any men 50 feet high.

(v) There are no men 50 feet high.

:

(Answer : No existing things are men 50 feet high.)

9, .
)

(i) Some men are not honest.

(ii) All but children are admitted.

(iii) No lawyer is artist.

(iv) God helps those who help themselves.

" "
10. T' Today is clear 'R' It is r^iniAg today,"
" J
'S' It is snowing today" and Y' Yes,tferday it was
cloudy" &so^ oi

T (RAS) (Ans. If it is clear today, then it is

neither raining nor snowing.)

y A (C v R)
'

y -*-c
vc
30

11.
'

oS ^odfo V_ Ef

(&\ Either it is raining or some has left the shower on.

(Answer RvS) :

(t!3\ Iwill go either by bus or by train.

(si) Jay will work. Shyam or Ram will wait.

( Ans : J A (S v R ).

(&\ It is raining tonight, then either Jay must stay home

or he must take a taxi.
( Ans: R ( H v T ).

(&} If I am either tired or hungry, then I cannot study.

(&B\ Ram will sit and wait or he take a taxi and go.

I don't understand how he can ever finish, if hedoes'nt

(aa)
begin.
 3o. (0

&?5o(Deduction)(ii)iistf&?$o (Induction) ^tfg 0*5^

^ (theorem)
2

(Facts) e) p ol

S$!d&

(generalisation)
5d'o^f6o
<I>

(shorter)

SoS'o'S

fr& (infers). fi^

fib
OL

83e

es Le^S^ cps2(ooSSo

53

^9
-
o

spD (comprehensive),
 99
vv

(Inference)

&od>.

(Immediate inference) (2)

(Mediate inference).

8.2

f6Sj\)ifo es
oj

Aodaoofi
 4

(Time)
\ /
J5 8ot^d
_i

ss
(Man is mortal)

j$g&" (Ram is mortal)

s$j<6|&" (Ram is mortal)

b"(Ram is man)

(Relation between

proportions)
 36

(Ram is related to Shyam)

iS
L

. esodb^o L.
CD si*

|J ^osje SJ'S'gOO (Independent

propositions)

(The sky is blue).

(Ram is an adult).

"30^0 i^Ss^ 5^5=00^ ^ r6^Q5

o?5D

eX) (Equivalent propositions)

P and Q
30

ff P is true, Q is true
If P is false, Q is false

O (Contradictory

propositions)

P and Q & ~3o&> loSSs^

If P is true Q is false

If P is false Q is true

The grass is green

The grass is not green
esoo^ "The grass is green (P)

The grass is yellow(Q) 3

(green) ^oife ^^ sSrfyp (yellow)

(If P is true, then Q is false)

(jf p | s false then

 97
<

Q is
undetermined)

yellow, brown, yellow-green

Scpj.
es<3
(yellow) s'S&fcj,
s D -a^
8
sii3o
J
. es S^on Q 8

a ^ ^ L
53sD ^ex> (Contrary propositions) escdjCa.

green J^ <^^ yellow n rvro

L
S e53s B aPexr 8
sf

fi* a.^'dS ?O^ P ^)ODD &o

a
'

oL

_ (Karol Poppa r)'-3&>

"

v^o y
S^o^ofir
8
^a 69o*S |^j?o^a>
L a ^ ^-s SqpF3D ^^
o-
"
(empirical falsification)
eor&

(J,5s=P ST'^^eJO
*
(Sub-altern propositions)

iS

If P is true Q is true

If P is false Q is undetermined

(sub-altenation)
^. Q P &sb*|?fcS&$. Jj'S jjo^2o)^
D
|SjSSJpo ?6oK>o5 ^iI
8
(SSji&o^ ^cp.^o /Ksi)K)o^Sjt5b;\. laSQ^pQ^oaowo^r If p is true then

Q is false. ^spe^oSr 8
V^CDD^ |f p is true then Q is alse trUe.
38

5
"Soft
S"gi?6 r$oe>o&io_e3o"& If p is false then Q is undeter
S
mined ~3O&<5 &J &~ S^ory &OO>O<5.

(Conversion)

a
eo? e>
i

"No student is conservative in social

matters" t)
Si

"Nobody conservative in social matters is a

student" oS
^0(3. jS^B Soi^^C^ 69^.. SP

oLsye T-S/
)eo^eSb. &Dj*tfe3o 8,3" 'A'

S&*oO&>'_ "AH students are progressive",

o are stu-
cy^o* "All progressive
dents" e>&&:><3. sjfi
^eSgorv^i. ^DiSb^o^oi^ progressive set
students set ^o"^ ^tf5>. eso^s"^ i^o^e^ Sc^o^eo
progressive
F3
'some progressives are students' e3?6doo

&&roB"a- "Some students are

 89

progressive" rtb>oi?6dx>rY> "Some progressives

are students"

-0' D &&*OO O "Some B

students are
not progressive" "Some progressives are not
students'' ?$#<?& . 5><*3

Some mortals are not men' 1

5^ |_sSSe'

? "Some men are not mortals"

(Obversion)

L All students are

progressive" ter"ocT'sS, "No students

are unprogressive

ESI a g S'

(negating) (contradicting)

e> e)

"students all

students"
 eb

s
: "|\|o students are progressive"

Students e^53^aar Progressive stf$j es5"o. Ib^S S)^

All students are unprogressive"

'all' ^eSjoo) (Srotoofi. gsSdlb 'g'

"Some students are progressive

go "some are not unprogressive"

c^o^fiooe"
8

'Progressive"
"Unprogressive''
not' J^SoSj drotooS. Sb^Sb^^ '0' o'S'o
i

&{lbroDo. a-S-S- "Some students are not progre-

0-50. Some students are unprogre-

ssive" ^
'not'

A, E

'all' 'no' o& '9' tfSofir* '

not
'

^oiTo'crr'aoEj'oSi
-not'

(Opposition of propositions)
 41

eo
53= 5 ^98 ^

I So 8^*53 oVoeso Soj^elboiS- 65^ ;

S5lsS 13
53D a' ?O
l

A - All teachers are honest.

E - No teachers are honest.
I
- Some teachers are honest.
0- Some teachers are not honest.

A-0 spg&^oft tf&S^o. ^o&gb"& |f A is true

is false, and if A is false, is true. ^ )$or\ f6<os5)ex) oXb

A-E ^ [aj8Sbere^ (contraries) ^

A I As^l^&o, E O

8
^oST 'all'
'some' aSp^^so^^. &n&'d'e3o 'Some like it

hot' 3 SSs-op^oer* 'some a^

1

'all' rtp&

'it is possible all like it hot'

Some teachers are honest

"All teachers are honest"
l&'ao^sS^^b. ^ fS^gsSacso^ Son
teachers are not honest
'Some'
 53^0
y
fS es

. "Either.. .or" "both"^

'Some', 'all'

1-0

a.S'dS

'

(traditional

square of opposition

you are six feet

tall "and" you are five feet tall" e &^oe
a o

'six feet' 'five feet' 8 &6o<,.

 (Equivalence of

compound propositions) :

" &3 $*&$

"If there is a will there is way \&<jf
535g^ &&gooas>. jfr^'SS'oS* 3r*o"gort
jStfiete* (If there

is a will) ^S^o/K ?5^e^ (there is a way)

S'o. ''there Is a will and there is not away is not

true" 'there is a will and there is a way^

^)co^e5b. ^o5bs'o"^
65^^.^ 'will' r?& 'way'

If there was a will then there was a way

'There is a will and there is not a way is not true'

f^o ,'there ... not true'

- J
Either

there is not a will or there is a way" "Either there is a

a lb.eae<Sb. ^oiSb^o'Si
will or there is way" ea^^SiS
^&^ (Component) ]&&
"if there is a will"
e)g
esa
'there is a way', fo^go 5^^.

'If there is not a way, there is not a will'

44

io<3
L
ftsodft&ccDfj S5tfc>o&o> i^as
L
cps<>e) rt> 6 o>
a tg 2)

"If a man falls in love, there are 2 possibilites

Either she loves him, or she does'nt
There are 2 possibilities
Either he continues to love her, or
He begins to hate her,
If he continues to love her
All the better.
Ifhe begins to hate her,
There are 2 possibilities
Either he falls ill

Or he commits suicide
If he falls ill, all the better.
If he commits suicide
There are 2 possibilities
Either he goes to heaven, or
He goes to hell

If he goes to heaven,
All the better.
If he goes to hell then
that is still better-
Because he'll find

Most of his friends there I

 45

Either I shall go home or stay and read. I shall

not go home. Therefore I shall stay and read [H.S]

If I
stay up late tonight, I will be dull tomorrow.
If don't stay late then she will curse me. Therefore
I

either will be dull tomorrow or she will not

I

curse me (S.D.C.)

Wages will increase only if there is inflation. If there

is then the cost of living will increase.
inflation

Therefore, the cost of living will increase [W.I.C].

If I take the bus, then if the bus is late, I will miss

my appointment and start to then feel down cast,
I should not go home. dont get that job, then
If I

I'll start to feel downcast and should go home.

Therefore, if I take the bus, then if the bus is late,
I will get that job (B,L,M,D,H,J).

3.
L
i

"Well, I 've often seen a cat without a smile/

thought Alice', but a smile without a cat? It's
the strangest thing lever saw in my life."

4.

'Then you should say what you mean* said the March
Hare.

"I do" Alice replied quickly "Well, I mean what

I
say that's the same thina von
46

"It Is not the same thing at all" said the Hatter.

"If it is true, then' 1 see what I eat" is the same
as, I eat.

"Or you might say' added the Mouse, who seemed

to be taking in his sleep/' that 'I breathe when
I
sleep' is the same thing as' sleep when breathe" I I

''It is the some thing with you" said the Hatter

5.

fStf|S>eo3S T

[tantology]

[formula] [53*s5r>s9sS. &oS5*o'68& "If P, then P"

eicy "Pis [-P]

* A^Sy Oj

"Where shall I
begin please" the White Rabbit asked.
"Begin at the "begining" the king said seriously,
"and go on until you come to the end then stop!" :

6. oj

'P' tftfoSS)eDc$ ^sSboiara-oS^ "P and-P

"If there is no meaning in it" said the king.

"we needn't try to find any. And yet, I seem to

some meaning in it"

S^ "There is no meaning in it. yet I see

in it" 3'a ^o'lsg'ori MA M (M <so"& meaning)

 47

7.
[_c<3

'f a number is divisible by 2, it is even

It is even

Hence it is divisible by 2

If a number is divisible by 4, it is even

It is even
Hence, it is divisible by 4.

e
so

Either he works or sleeps.

He is not working
Hence, he is sleeping.

"Some animals die young" r$#g&ox>cl \go&

(es)
Most animals do not die young

ys)
Most animals die old.

All animals die young

(eg)

(^s)
All animals die old

[&]
Some of those dying young are animals.

[a*]
Most of those dying old are not animals.
of animals die young.
[am] Thirty percent

9. I 0(3
L

[11
 [21

8
10. SSfiT s^^peftoosF 1

&OCT 5
2
?;

/y
The king died, Long live the king i"?

11. 5f 6"
^>_3^ "Being and Nothingness" ^)_g
8
S'o^T Sidi' 'zn^<^o :
CD L

J
'\ have even lost the clear un d e rstanding of what
I am seeking, and yet I am engaged in the search for it.

I take and discover myself in the course of taking. But

what I take in my hands is something else than what I

wanted to take. I sense it and suffer, but without being

I

capable of saying what I wanted to take for troubled as;

I
am, the very comprehension of my desire escapes me ;

I am dreamer 'who, waking, finds himself engaged

like a
in clenching his hands on the edge of the bed without
recalling the nightmare that induced his gesture"

C3*
 (syllogism). o<3
|eD [

T*>

Soaex>
(es)

(premises)

(conclusion)

1. All theories are probable

2. Science is a theory
3. Science is probable,

'theories',

'probable', 'science', >oex>. j, jj

?6SD
Sa^ox^. jjj
50

All soldiers are strong.

All soldiers are brave.
Some strong men are brave.

' /
"Soldiers/ jj"strong;" "brave"

"soldiers

d>
'theory' 'science' & s^g/theory'S
'science'sb'probable'
ftso 'science,
;
'theory'

^ss|o ^oS5^ 'strong/ brave,

.
'soldiers' sS5*sStfo. s s^^ s:^o S3b^g&s:(^o (middle
term). ^S '
^ cSprJ orpoSj) ^"SS^^^o. S?5^^^o?T &
"^^^^" (mjnor term)/
(major term)

A is older than B;
B is older than C; Hence
A is older than C.
 51

(1) 'A- (2) 'older than B' (3)

'B' (4) older than'C'. 'aatf

uco _^ (necessary-
sufficient) Sjc5coo&doo

^O. 650^) SjS

All x are m
All m are y
Hence, Some x are y.

, m, y,

Qd

"All x are y"

some x are y".' &
 if all x are y ecuo^ some x must be y-

(Rules of validity) :

edo:)(rrp\
L L
i

a oi>

(Rules of Quantity)

2.

(Rules of Quality)

3.

4.

5.

G ^*' "*"^) ,
 raSr '^ll soldiers
7 '
SSKteitf &c&.

soldiers" ^3
p sSc5o S

No worker is a capitalist.

No capitalist is poor.

"no worker is poor" 29^3

'no worker is a capitalist'

capitalist s^o'S -

-^^<^?i) worker go

No worker is a capitalist ;

A capitalist owns a factory ;

Hence, no worker owns a factory .

r'
L

(1) No worker is a capitalist

A capitalist suffers from hyper-tension

Hence, No worker suffers from hyper-tSfltfeion.
54 tftf^-o

(2) All soldiers can march ;

Some babies are not soldiers ;

Hence, some babies cannot march.

(General theor%
of syllogism),

1.
9

?6o?) a.S'^.&iccc?! ^Sb^^o^O. ^ep^i (proof)

sne

&s
O
 55

3)
3.

'

S$d3rrpor?

es
 57.

8og"d3

f'2l
L J

[1]

[2]
. es

^dSb. eoa*>S: ^s.

S^cJJo SSc3ay ^^jp

58

esfi

1. All theories are probable;

Science is a theory;

Science is probable.

2. Some books are interesting.

Some books are bore.
No conclusion.

3. All booke are meant for reading.

Some books are bore.
Some (books) meant for reading are bore.

4. Some persons are brave.

No person is ten feet tall.
No conclusion.

^8

ooelb

j SSDofi
^_
. ScSr ^ oti>d^ 039 ^
 59

2=?$

(Perception)/ S9&^?5o (inference),

(analogy), ^^ (verbal testimony).

o
oqioo
. 06

(The hill has fire).

(K^6^
(Because the hill is smoky)
(wherever there is smoke)
a s5odoaoa) er<K (there is fire as
op

in the ktichen).

"Devadatta is mortal.
Because Devad atta is a man.
All men are mortal."
6.0

a
'

&O&DO&.
8? S>

^sp^p

*To

1.

2.

3. sSpc^eocSdJ ^bj^eo ^o :
A, B, C
4. ,

5,
 61

L Sf
-'

O 83"

es

N
8) L
rT'eatsorfeo eso eb

2. e9&sii'f5sSbo.!,. (inferernce)

4. ''Alice in the wonderland"

The cat was sitting near the fire and smiling from
one ear to the other.

'Please tell me/ said Alice, a little shyly 'why your

cat smiles like that ?

'It's a Cheshire cat/ said the Duchess, 'and that

is why pig".

She said the last word so angrily that Alice jum-

ped with fright. But she saw that the Duchess was
 --ff* AcEo

talking to the baby, so she went on again. 'I didn't

know that Cheshire cats smiled like that. I
didn't
know cats could smile."
1

They all can , said the Duchess, 'and most of

'them do'

'Idon't know any that do/ Alice said very politely.

Then you don't know very much,' said the Duchess.

'We're all mad here. I 'm mad, you're mad,' said

the cat.

'How do you know I' m mad ?' said Alice

you must be/ said the cat / or you would'nt have
come here/
5.

All birds can sing

()
Hence, some birds can sing a song.

All those who understand English are educated.

(es)
Some amimals understand English,
Hence, some animals are educated.

(si)
All the clever boys got prizes
No foreigner got a prize
Hence, no foreigner is clever.
(laws qf

(thinking), QO&&O& (thoughts)

i&o

|SS|cS3b

s&ex> 5^). S

s$ob)5oa

(The law of identity)

 64

5jg& ac&s&o (The law of contradiction)

(2)

(3) &QVJJ d&6o (The law of excluded middle)

"to be" ^ |d&Sb

P
_. ^
^&2S)^oa. ^e 53sc!0^
B esL

:
"The grass is green".
grass"; S^c6sS^^ "green". es^^do "grass" "green''
^ 'Is'

-grass'-'green' ^as
i s^tr-fib. ^e 6is5jcer fl
'is'

(copula)

"Rama is the son of Dasaratha

"son of Dasaratha" o sScs

&^g BFOI ? wo"S "Rama
v
'son of Dasaratha ? .

Sojao^t3^; O'^^S aJ
'^^e5i(^^l "R ama
/

'-Dasaratha" '6

New Delhi is the capital of India" es>3

.
-New Delhi", capital of lndia"o
 "capital of India" So rtrzy _a&>oa.
B
C3 55
>

r
Cia
>peo. >c& S^ctfpeo )

c!
o
tfocSo^.exjo&sSt&Y &nsSJ tf'8s>go a, s So too

ol

-
"|f x is anything whatsoever, then x x"

^^oa?y= ^e^o^o. & ef>g^rj

B
$ i)
goS"
8
(assumption)
1

^ (symmetric relation) ^^CO^^D: If x is y

then y = x es-^otftf u
^ |>xSoeDo^^o (Transitive relation) :

If x = y and y = z then x = z

cyG. SjShofii x = ssSj'v^o y

y.

(possible states)
either y ^ x $& y ^ not x. y = not x
x s y y = not
j
f x< Hence x = not x. s

D( vy = x
a
 > 6oo. A-B,
o aQ

A-B = CD

05

"All are equal in the society" ^Scfo "All are equa|

in the society but some are more equal than others."

d'o
ijo^

53"n

65coif3 ^So^nS^or
><
es?6o( >tj'e
(inconsistant)

(proof by contradicion) eb
(reductio ad absurdum) ^o
(method of indirect proof) e9o&r=o. '^pSo o3rcoS)t3a&3ff'
 67

. sj<3

. 65
2J C'- oJ 8J

SS' ^COD^PC. ^cicco^

tJ - a.g'dS

oidBo&iS:cdjCa.

:P & P.

C3

es.^doo

co

(Rama is tall)

'3ji? esf

(specify)

3.
 A 5 s3>Dotoofi<3_"
T>

Anything must be either

An/thng must be itself or its negation"

(domain)
(complement)

PV (-P)rv ^_^
.
A-B
&Kb'oc3 SS. A

J
^odJ'cxo. A-B

'AB ; 'A

o
'
6
(A is not older than his brother B)^ .
'A is

older than B'3 ^><5<S

[SSSs'53
8
5
i>

ga)l
'A is younger than his

brother B'
 6

.
(symbolic logic)

(Propositional logic)

.
'Not"

7
'and', 'or', 'if.. .then , 'if and only if-

e
1. S7
S^g^j*^ IjSSsf S'gex)(Contradictory
propositions)

B
'not' ftf^&O CJ^D*S
l'
^00<^) 'it
l
(jSSS'53 g'gO

is not the case that' ^tfS&o

t-j
C?OCPS'^)
j
ST'C?^^
&
-sr>^3^^ 'The wind is blowing'
J&oO 0^ 53^?^
o \&*oy=s<>&-\
u E^ a <=L
S5:?6o
71

"The wind is not blowing' 'It is not the case

e|p
that the wind is blowing'. The wind is blowing'
?OI wb

^o p

(viceversa)
True (T) & False
i

(table)

2. (Conjunction)

'and'

'but'

yo : 'The wind is blowing', 'it is hot outside

e>

'the wind is blowing and it is hot outside' &&

6ci. P and O
P &Q rr P and Q

oi

3. (Disjunction)

'or'

s53odjdo. The wind is blowing, 'It is hot outside'

o Saj'fflS'o 'The wind is blowing', 'or it is

hot outside' 3^>o<3. P,Qe c3o& jjoSa^sy

Q^ f6o^^a^ab. &&&* P rrfe Q

,
S<3jesS'^E ?3^SfrS3)dbo(3. P. Qoo
73

P,Q CO

4. (Conditional)

jf ...... then

(antecedent)'

(consequent) :- ''if the wind is blowing

it is hot outside" ^ io5Se io

53
t
'3'eor
s
"if the wind is blow-

ing" 'o "it is hot outside"

P, Q "If P

then Q"

P only if Q
P is a sufficient condition for Q
Q is a necessary condition for P.
 74

eos5?5o .
p Q co

p >-Q Q

B
535 T)
"If and only if
jj6Ssr ge>si)

-Q

P, ,Q 0(3

If P then Q and if Q then P

Q, p

p, Q
75

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T

2)
.
P, Q 03

{6#<j&S&&oa. p, Q eo

o5

-, A, V, ~+,

(parenthesis),
V

p AQ
Q j-R R,

V ' -- ..
P, Q, R
T, F, T
 76'

P A Q (< >) -RV (Q-+-R)

F T
T

T S )'8

o. p, Q, R, S

V
F T
T F F
T T
T
T

iss
o L

(-PAQ) v (PV-Q)
P, Q

(Implication)

PA (P-^-Q) implies Q
i. e. PA (P-*Q) -^Q

(equivalence)

A,
 78

2j l uw4 on (cases)

n
2

E) U.

(Consequence)

B
L-S'^3
iSidfi'sa'S'eo A., A,, A,... A

A | = B *

06
79

Q is the consequence of P,R,QAP >-R

PAQ->R -do- P,P_>R,R
-do- QAP~-R,-QP-R
<& (Derivation of consequence)

L a?

p, t oc^

p : BI a,o' is a prenube)
t

a ^Sac. (These are formulae C|C 2 ...

esi
;DO&*^ &ojo#5j|
preceding BI which is a consequence of the preceding
formula).

AVB cpSe^oSx) CVD ^^ LojrSo

A-+C, B-+D
[1] (1) A->C
[1] (2) AVB-*CVB '
(D->2)
[3] (3) B-^D
[3] (4) CVB->CVD (3) -(4)
[1,3] (5) AVB->CVD ;(2)A(4)-^5)

[6] (6) AVB >

[1,3,6] (7) CVD ;

( 5)V(6)-^7)

(designates)

(brackets)

(correspond)
 aoc (i), (3), (e)7v

(Indirect proof)

jic ip:

A,, A2 , ...

Ai,A2 , ... A meo Sdi^no ono ^riB B

(The formula B is justified in

a derivation having 'Ai, A2 , ... Am as premises if for some
formula C we have, CA C is the consequence of Ai,A 3/ A m ).
0(3

(theorem) A ^B, B^ >C, CVD, A->D

[1] (1) A >B p

[2] (2) B->C p
[3] (3) -CVD p
[4] (4) -A-^p p
[5] (5) -D p
"
D r

[4,5] (6) A t 4 5
-

[1,2] (7) A-^C t, 1,2

[1,2,4,5] (8) f
., ,C t, 6,7
[3,5] (9) -C t, 3,5
[1.2,3.4,5] (10) CA-C t 89
[1,2.34,5] (11) D ip5,'lO
81

(Consistency)

(denial) as^o^^ (inconsistency)

F teo

^'<'S3ix! (theorem}:
'
&>sF fon^o^spS'qo
O
'C'

Ai, A2 ... Am /
= CA-C wcoD^sSj.^ S&P^ Ai, A2 . ... Am

, CVD,~A-D, Dl =

(Rule of Syllogism)

From A^-B
and B->C
we get A >C

A (B->C)->A->C

(Rules of contraposition)

(1) A->B, B->-A

 z ...... Am I
= B
33^7^5 gci &o
B F 2)03^5 &oc5& Ai, A2 ......... -#*
(oD^l T

O
J6^c6o^ T
B

Sofl ^c
5J"G5K>^

esccodi) ^odora

L, G, C, S, H
^ (Italics) O*

>G) A (C-
S A G->H
H

-LV C
LV C F Seo^5

(L->G), C->S)
T ex> &otoo<3. 3<^5 G T
ijStSprvoKo (^Ss^o
S T Sea> &O&POM. &:03r5 B & 'SosSCTtn'iVo^o H T

LV C

1. P-^(PVQ)
2. PAQ-^-P
3. P-^(P->Q)
4. P~>(Q-*P)
-
5.
6.
(

[(P
-
P-xQ)^ ^(-Q-^P)
>-Q) A (-Q-^P)]->(P->
7. (P->Q)^ *-(PA-Q)
8. (P--Q) 9-(Q~>~P)
9. (PA-(QVR)^ >(PAQ) A (PVR)
10, (PVCQAR)< >(PVQ) A (PVR)
I, I->CVS, S-^U,-CA~

a
zT'^oar
.
26=64
63

A-j-B, C->D, AVCl = BAD

 (Predicate logic)

&Do5Fr\ (Theory of inference)

"Every citizen has certain rights and duties. Rama

is a citizen, therefore he has certain rights and duties"

(terms) (predicates),

(quantifiers) cpoov

. 3
Co.

o
S^ec^fioo ssQAofl. e*a e.

rob i&odxoa. ^o"ls^ ^tf^-oS* x 2 1 = ''"

(X x2 X= 12 <^3 SSSfeS'^ES'o^ X^oiJ'

(individual variables) ^ogp^spaVoSo (proper*

names) 3 cx5;>_^
fecp^
(individual constants)

fe'oci
85

(supplement) _S (function)

. &nr >
tfesigo :
x is a real numbers^ x S)s$.ci&xo.

number' S$c&o. R n*
.
'real 3&s&S^
x go
^SorfsS^.
SjSjNi^o X
cSag'^. (jS

iSSSafs^^o oS)^xio<3. X
L g> i -

2,9,101. , 101

(property)

(x c3x>S/_")
Pxy n
. 53
(binary relation)

(universal quantifiers"
lo^KS 13
^ (existential

quantifiers). 'all' 'every' 'each'

'Same' 'one',

all x

Every one is a student"

For every x, x is a Student"

yx (x
is.a student
\' I ej L

(jjj
t3jfo;5orr> "There are some students"

"Every man is strong

1
'
sT^
yo&SjoSr'fiGfi essys ^^^ Sj^rT'dJ1'!) .- "For evry x

if x is a man then x is strong", e^&y&i

&>
(MX >Sx) es^^ofi. "Some men are storng''
s,4i^Sou>i,o^sSj:
cs ^^ ^SD^C "For same x, x is a man and
x is stong"rp S^fT^o. esa ^o'lSS'on 3x (MxASx) w^abofi.

gS'^ f6^Qotfo&o<3sbdx>lsb for same xgS, if x is a man

then x is strong'^S j$zi$&. 'jf x is a man then x is strong'

c)

x is a man as well as strong

(iii) All men are strong yx (Mx >S X )

(iv) Some men are strong BX (MxASx
c> o's'o S)Qso3 B 5 1>
oe3?S> ^Kx>r
>- .ep

(v) Everything has property A = yxAx

(vi) Something has property A = Ax gx A x
(vii) Nothirvg-has property A c vx (-Ax)
(viii) Something does not have A c g x (-Ax)
viii spg'(?^o v go iJSSSs'o&Si vii c^i"(?iSxi vi
), L. j

eo^ 3x Ax
'
Vx (-Vx) ?6o^_g oj-sS&^'ixp&i. eso^j "it is not the
case that nothfng has property A' i-e sometning does have
the property A'
87

A,E,J,0

(ix) Allmen are intelligent Vx (Mx x

) l

(x) No men are intelligent vx (Mx>--l x )

(xi) Some men are intelligent 3* (MxA x ) l

(xii) Some men are not intelligent 3* (Mx A-lx)

(modify) ^ 5s
j^&oSf* sS^cCb^a &}pgo.
o^tfesgo 'x is real'

Rx &sjdir'AoO V xR x' ^
'
es3 cy^S es^sSati ''It is not the
case that everything is real" e3jy= something is not real
w^daoS. e5ca^ 'VX (-Rx)' e^ o^) 55^53=^^0 'Everything is
unreal'

"In the set of real numbers addition is an associative

operation & yx Ay yz (X+y) = X + (Y +Z) n-

^|_^o
2
For every x there is a y such that x^-y =3-
y -x"

G&J6: Sj

3
I
dii
B
a

(first order)!

(scope)

o
(bound)
 "
(individuals
"

domain) ^odjCo. so&e> ^sSS E^-l 5 #tf^ D

A & 8o"

T c^SS &sfcaooa
ftsaorSsSjlS jj^sSje8S's5bo&p03.

(TA) If A is tantologus then 1 = A

If 1 = A-^B and ... A then 1 = B
(DT)
(FS) 1 = A and A is free for substitution of x by x then ...

A (x/y)

(GA) If 1 = A->B then ... yx (A-^B)

(GC) If 1 = A >B and x is not free in A, then 1 = A >v* B
If 1
- A *B and x is not free in B,then - B
(PA) 1 gx-^-A
(PC) If1 = A->B then 1 A->3x B.

_AxA

1. 1 = _A->-A ................................................... T A
2. 1 = _A->Ex-A PC, 1

3. 1 = (_A-Ex A)-K-3X-A->A TA
4. 1 = _ 3X_A_>A DT, 2,3.
5. 1
_ _3x_A->vxA G C, v; x is not free in gx-A
6. 1 =
( A-vyx A)->(
ax Ax A->3X-A) TA
7. 1 = vxA->3X A DT, 5,6.
8. 1 = A->A TA
9. 1 = Ax A->A GA 8
' -
10. 1 =
(AxA->A)->(-A-*-Ax A) TA
11. 1 = A-> Ax A DT, 9,1 0.
12. - Ex
1 A->vxA PA,11,xisnot free
in-AxA
13. = C
1 (vx A->ax-A)-(C Ex-A-vx A)->
(-AxA ^Ex-A) TA
14. = >Ex-A DT, 7,13.
1 (3 x-A-*-vx A)->(-Ax A-<

15. 1 = AxA >-Ex A DT,12,14.

p, t, cp ss>

U
_

1. Giverv Px : x is a prime

Ex : x is even
Ox : x is odd.
Dxy : x divides y ie y is divisible by x.

(a) P7
(b) E2AP2
(C)
(D) 3x(Ex A Dxb)
(e) Ex -
Vx(
(f) yx(Ex y-
2. o
All judges are lawyers (Jx Lx)
Some lawyers are shy (Sx)
Some lawyers who are politicians are congressmen (Px Cx)
;

Not lawyers are judges

all

All women who are lawyers admire some judge (wy, Axy)
Some women are both lawyers and congressmen.
3x

VxJx >xLx)
v* (Lx K/X)
Vx (Wx ALx)-*3y (Jy
g. Bca SSaSral^tf iS$s$tfc3o& ^

Parents love their children

Everyone is indebted to sameone
Everyone who is healthly can do all kinds of work.
There are triangles which are not similar.
Everyone should help his neighbours, or his neighbours
will not help him.

Some people are not admired by everyone.

Thereis some one who protects every person in this.
organisation.
There is someone who dislikes no one.
8
4. SoSa-fiff
^Qaa tfo'&f
tf&gzF^szr? $3&>&oo& :

In the universe of all people, let

Ixy : x invites y
Fxy : x and y are friends
Lxy : x has y with whom he shares his laisure hours.
Axy : x agrees with y.
Bxy : x and y may become friends.
(a) 3Wx(lxx)
(b) Vx (3y CFxy-^Lxy)
(c) Vy 3x (Axy) A 3X Ay (Axy)
(d) gx 3 Y (Axy A-Fxy)
(e) V x VY (C Lyy A AxyH-Bxy)
 ro

(dilemma)

2.
^- O CX

&&fs&o<3 (affirms)

(denies),

(Constructive dilemma) eso^Co. 5SQsorr'RK

S^^^sS^ [destructive dilemma]
3.

1.

POJ

If you tell the truth, man will hate you; if you tell lies,
the gods will hate you
But you must either tell the truth or tell lies
Hence either man or gods will hate you.

&PQO&O S^^b S g$
(>)
(rfthuthina dilemma^
 92 ^tf-o **

If I tell the truth, the gods will love me; If I tell lies

men will love me.

But must either tell the truth or tell lies
I

Hence either men or the gods will love me.

(puzzling) ^tf

(material truth) &

fSee>>^
iita$r>E83'rf
L 8

2.

:
If you work hard, you are not intelligent ;

Ifyou were hard, you will be successful

Either you are intelligent or not successful.
Hence you shall not work hard.

(fallacy)

Aoioofi.

the question es

^
logical

ver bal sfa-oSjrfwjss-tf material

. oa

(i America is a rich country. America is a great country,

Hence a rich country is a great country.
 93

ii A is older than B. A is older than C. Hence B is older

than C.

83

x). esoe! 5*0

3j

a, "I

B
?'a3 35 f6s$&o<S.
o

(I) "That is a Chinese restaurant" >

"3o^> /*&ea.

. es "^^BoiS" 3^6* &fS-\3

0^'
si>8cJ5o

"Dr x is a jain scholar".

(II) "Soldiers are strong" l\?3Sb<s>

sooorv

o
<&*sSt)o es

"The parliament is supreme" ssc'S '

L
s5S

"supreme" e5^ es

(Ill) "You eat what you brought from the market you
brought raw vegetables. So you must eat raw vegetables."
8
<|& 650DDF3 SSrt&^CxST &j6>i ftSfe^.Qg"

"raw vegetebles"
94

B, A

i' SPC^^CO (arguing in a circle):

(infallible) Ooep^ ^dao&r>K)

eas^fib

j&l es

S5? 'o
L oL >

65

ss
 Lewis carrolls "Alice in wonderland"

"After a few minutes, Alice found herself talking to

everybody just as if they were old friends, She even had
a long argument with the Lory, who became a little angry.
'

He sai d to Alice
r
am older than you and so
I must know I

more than you."

"Well how old are you?" asked Alice, The Lory would
not say, so there was nothing more to be said.

"Well, I've often seen a cat without a smile'', thought

Alice, "but a smile without a cat .'it's the strongest thing
I ever saw in my life."

Let C stand for 'cat' and S for 'Smile'

Then cat without a smile = C-S ...... (a)

and smile without a cat = S-C ...... (b)
... Contradiction of (C) = -(C-S)
-C+S
S-C
(b)

55 Stfcn* 3J B <>.&'&0 ifCSpotfdoo esQAoS.

 C/ smile

51

'without' e5o"^) minus ^^ wtfofl*

[paradoxes]

1. "All Romans are liars" eaassb a.g'

"All Romans are liars"

^s
?6e^&?6c>*^ [j5^^?5

(II)
All Romans are liars

2. "This sentence is false

v/
(1)
 97

(2}
V,/

[zeno's paradox]
S
;
r ^ d'or 65,

[puzzle]

,
a,S'

do&o3. 55 ^cr ^bo^eo

53

E3e5csr* ^ o'-

c6 w^cdorv
 ; o

[Russell's paradox]

"o. ?oc
"J
3

. [it is about the

set of all sets which are not members of themselves].

&0 ^po^g'orf P(x) &$ iSSSs'Aj's'pon

L a- &
J5^
a
^o ^C3o. $5
o
''x does not contain itself as an element" $ CF)

.
P(x) f6o^% 5 S5a^ c6^bco5*
a
Scp^?5 ?6&8 y

P(x) Ao&ooS. $3 &&S y = [x: P(x)]

yEy sscco^
essSjifc P(y) es^^boa. (if yEy then
p(y) holds) esooi^ ^a yy &! fe&er&g
o. yEy 8* o"o$o> y

93 a^orr es&D^o^ f6S^a ^-o^&o

1
SsVij^go C36

j6gdBoon

sj8 &*"& KoAd^p 55^ as

 is
a L

'
"oi Q
. 63

: 3

s.^
L _e^rv

-^8 Su^CxS

&&&*& Aodaaofi. 0(5

(1) "For we assumed that the world had no beginn-

ing in time then an eternity must have elapsed upto every
and therefore an infinite series of given point of time.
successive states of things must have passed in the world.
The infinity of series, however, consists in this, that i

never can be completed by means of successive synthes

'
Hence an infinite past seriss of worlds is impossible,
the beginning of the world is a necessary condition c
existnee" (Kant).
 100

[time] ss^ sStf&ioa. 'ajfl a,g" s&o$fc6 [premitive]

&cS Sie^^^^.
&ofl. S&co)^ time &
zs-o* oSsSot^^ ^^a.g' time^

(prima facie)
53 sS^ofi* &
B'oiS"

s*

(II) "The party system has a double effect. If encourages

and almost demands that each party should
misrepresent
the other. But the mere fact of debate is a check on
misrepresentation. If it goes too far, it exposes itself and
discredits its authors. The
dictator on the other hand can
lie almost without
limit; he lies to a silent people; no voice
is raised in
protest or criticism, he is free to delude his nation
and in the end may delude himself.
Politics would not
probably agree with Socrates that the uncriticised life is not
worth living, but
parliamentary government saves them
from that life, and they and we are
better fit for it."
 101

S'sSr' sS
(curb)? ^|

(antithesis)

(delusion)

(III) "There is only one universal passion fear Of !

all the thousand qualities a man may have, the only one

you will find as certainly in the youugest drummer boy in

my. army as in me is fear. It is fear that makes men fight : it

is difference thatmakes them run away fear is the main-

:

spring of war. ..well what of that Has fear even held back
:

a man from anything he really wanted ? Never/'

eS>
_

.-es^ c&o.

69cdi2fo.
 (hunger) s&3 (sex) &

^s^s" 530^0 e

I., O oJ

(IV) "One Sophist who charged a fee for teaching

his pupils "how to make the worse cause appear better,'
brought a pupil into Court for non-payment of fees. The
pupil argued that he need not pay whichever way the
verdict went for if he won, that was that But if he lost, he
:

clearly had not been properly taught. The Sophist replied

that he ought anyhow to receive his fee for if he won, that ;

was that but if he lost, he clearly taught his pupil what he

;

professed to teach. The judge found a decision

impossible."
-\2i
,S/cj
s S'tfow &&' Se^gp^p fe)

A
A

(semiparadox) cs^o
esoeb
 es 108

53 5P?6 6-0 a.

1. ''There is no living culture without a living tradition.

If India is beloved and cherished among the 'elite' of

the west, it is on account of her traditional culture.
And this culture is embedded above all in the trea-
sures of Sanskrit. Sanskrit and lnda are inseparably
connected in spite of all the transitary, harangness
of the politicians."

2. "What a funny watch." she said, "It tells the day of

the month, and doesn't what time it is !''
tell

"why should it ? Does your watch tell you what year

it is ? The Hatter quickly replied.
"Ofcourse not" said Alice.
"Well, that is jusr the same with mine," said the Hatter.
Alice didn't understand at all.

3 "Have some more tea," the March Hare said to Alice,

very seriously. have had nothing yet," Alice replied
"I

in a rather loud voice," So can't take any more."

I

"You mean you can't take less," said the Hatter. "If is

very easy to take more than nothing"

4. "Take off your hat," the King said to the Hatter.
"It isn't mine," said the Hatter.
"Then it must be stolen" shouted the King The Jury
men immediately wrote it down in their books.
 104

"I keep them to sell," The Hatter added as an expla-

nation.

''I've none of my own. I'm a Hatter"

(Alice in wonderland)
5. You say you don't believe in miracles? Why there is ;

evidence of them around us every day. Wireless and

television are miracles, the way that a magnificent
flower is produced from a tiny seed is a mircle. The

functioning of the intricate mechanism of the human

body is a miracle, and for that matter life is a miracle.
6. It would also be easy enough to attack the fallacy upon

the facts. Everybody who has any real experience

knows that good writing should not necessarily come
from people with many experiences. Some of the art
which Is closest to life has been produced under
marked limitations of living. Its prestige has generally
lasted longer than the splash made by sensational
social Jane Austen has already survived
figures.
Georges Sand, the French woman novelist. Even the
most modern critic, if he is really a critic, will admit
that Jan Austen is really realistic in a sense in which

Georges Sand is only romantic.

7. Everyone has a right to his own opinions. But woman
has a right to wrong opinions. There cannot be any
right in wrong opinions. You have no right to an
opinion unless it is founded upon that which is
universal in man, his reason. You cannot claim this
right on behalf of your subjective impressions, and
irrational whims. To do so is to make the mistake of
the Sophists. (W. T. Stace)
8. There are some metaphysical ideas so abstract, so
abstruse, that it is almost
imposible to express them
at all without the use of figures of. speech. Language
was mode by common men for common purposes, and
 105

this fact often forces the philosopher to use terms

which he knows only figure forth his meaning without
accurately expressing, it. Perhaps every philosophy in
the world finds itself sometimes under this necessity,
and, if Aristotle and was thereby technically
did so
inconsistant with it is no wonder, and
himself,
involves no serious blame upon him (W.T,
jStace).
9. Man and woman are of equal rank but they are not
identical. They are a peerless pair being supple-
mentary to one another; each helps the other, so that
without the one the existence of the other cannot be
conceived, and therefore, it follows as a necessary
corollary from these facts that anything that will
impair the status of either of them will involve the
equal ruin of both. In framing any scheme of
women's education this cardinal truth must be
constantly kept in mind (Mahatma Gandhi )

10. On the whole, scientific methods are at least as

important as any other result of research : for it is

upon the insight into method that the scientific spirit

depends and if these methods were lost, then all the
:

results of science could not prevent a renewed triumph

of superstition and nonsense. Telever people may learn
as much as they wish of the results of science-still
one will always notice in their conversation, and

especially in their hypotheses, that they lack the

scientific spirit... They are content to find any
hypothesis at all concerning some matter; then they

are all fire and flame for it and think that is enongh.
To have an opinion means for them to fanatacize for
it and thenceforth to press it to their hearts as a
conviction... reason everyone should now
For that
study at least one science from the bottom up then :

he will know what method means and how importan

is the utmost circumspection (Nietzsche).
 106

11. The schools have no more important task than to

teach rigorous thinking, cautious judgement and
consistent inference; therefore, they should have alone
whatever is not suitable for these operations: religion,
forexample, of course, they cannot be sure that latter
on man s fogginess, habit, and need will not slacken
the hold of rigorus thinking. But as far as the
Influence of the schools reaches, they should enforce
what is essential and distinctive in man "reason and
:

science, man's very highest power" - so Goethe, at

least, judges (Nietzsche)

1 2. The more you argue, the farther you may get from the
point; hence, better
stop here.
 8

fibea*^

CT^O* ea
(empirical method)

CO cO

>i *83?aj
108

*
<o

^. (concrete)
8
_d (abstract) S&oosxxST ^e drod^aa.

sr?S&) (methodology)

9*

(evaluating)

-S3og

(technology) es^^_8 ^^go (applied science)

of physics)rv

.^
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So'Sb ^0^9 S
S'
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(economics)
.

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v
nature of science)

ES*

'S

0^^0:0^000.

(technoligical)

(predictive)
110

1
SJ C3

^
ij
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s5D?6o Sco^^odj'^c v&-^fco cyna ,
S^too c^^
*"*
C!? oJ

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eso~e!>
(percepts) SS^S'COD.

(sense data)

|jlolic6efe' S^^^ o.
(sensitive) n S^^foo^o eS ^^oon 53g^o (wide-
ranging)

. )^^D (white
V
hot
L oJ ES

iron) &. fe^^^brpfe (s^a

sbfi'Sitfo fats*

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o co

.
WOMB'S'
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tfs<D ^dipu)^ $^3^0"^ (photographic plates)

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<

(natural phenomena) ?*

Bf

(cognition).

Si SsSo'eao

O
o ^To^doo

(closed watch) ^o<3a. <KScSfr'o''o

 (Observation and facts)

,
2oKs

(demarcated)

(rfumbered) ^

(figures)'

(pre-cenceived notions)

(uniquely)-
 118

COD;

I^SS \Sbocp
E9 O J

flips'
^go^o (counterpart)

(one to one)

vAdfc Szy^c^6 e.S'

114

.
.
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n*!
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(periodic table)

CD

(high energy) otf 3^?6 ^^o^ & *?&>

(theory)
 115

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0;\ suS'u f6?Si

a,"! a.S'

OS)"
&&(*oe1bo<2>

38^
 (John Dewey)

g.

(Analytical nature)

65^
V

^ asoesS ~B&>oS
DsStoo Sfcfe <Doe5oSb es^ i sS
V L_

d-4
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 117

(Development of Scientific

Method) :

sSO^ofl.
65dx) &&&&

O ol

(random) SS

sfo/ e^^
j (circle)

SoC3cn>o(p

(astrology), s$bepiasS*e! (superstitions)

118

a^&dfia
^

as6 S'e^ (over stress)

. 3 fifQ^i

SJCPCO

wfi estf&^o

[Modern scientific method]

SQ&tif* a^^^^oS*
[theory of relativity]-
[propounded] .

^tf s
&croGiO^ ^S^gbrs ^a/ot3
>3 wsSKS^^ ^e:^^^. 5)5*. a. ^

SSj^S<5*^ ss^^sSogj

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Gedanken

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a8
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11
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(right equation)

(pictures) ES^CQO.

(mathematical transformation)

Stfor?

. 9 "Bo&oiS

sQnccD.
 (cineraria maritime) atfeoA tfSeroS* as

(S> o (0

(causal treatment)

(ocular region) j^aoSj^o^a &$

(cornea) ^dos'^ (lens)
'
o n *

(vitreous body)

(Dr. William Schwabe).

O. 693$ 65
&^ ^^^.SSxi-eS^^^Syc^O
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(Hypothesis)

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124

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(screen)

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(propostional) ^ C 5*
 125

&> &tfeao rti>8

p^too53 i

es^S"

e^ e3e

1760 6 s
es&spgb Soi5?6 e?6ri (Le Sage)

. 1887

(kelvin) SspaEai^)03 (vortex atoms)

^s (Ency-

ctopaedie Britanica) flTSb^sS f6oS&ko* cpSi^ esew^ (atom)

Maxwell)

o- <6& sSB^fio^sSoS)o3c6a e3*6 "iOS" 5J'ot3'&. 1889

.
(karl pearson) -etf5" OsSba^ ^Ether squirts)

, (presence of antiworld) &$

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(centrifugal force) x> (inertia)

(coordinates)

p rOn

dfo.

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* 8
Sifi

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isS
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(practical test).
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(chemical self) rtb_5o3

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sy
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es'fe

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128

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(resistence)

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 129

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130

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(design)

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()), ^SS'tfeiSSM (classification)

bs* &
-

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 s5.es 181

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(Camparison)

(Concomitant variation)

(Analysis and reasoning)

 s^ES'o_So.

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 138

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sSb<^psS>sS (mean), a.tftfeas$- (Variance-),

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134

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 186-

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,

average) (standard deviation)

^oSS^?ye

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(calculations)

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136

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lo

65

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 10

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 140

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mental inquiry)
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J

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o
5iJ'esis rSoffloqs w^
ti

'
'

(empiricists)

) (Method of Residues)
5co (Method of Agreement)
(Method of difference)
-S)g^sS ^
(Method of- agreement and difference)
Method of x>pncomit^nt variation)
 142

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flsS|dJsS^aSo (celestial bodies)

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