CHAPTER I

MEANING AND SCOPE OF ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

REPORTERS:
Simon Julius M. Gozum
Crisanta I. Cañete
Dona Marie E. Tiamzon

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 Edith Kayanan
Introduction

Both, educational supervision and administration are part of the educational

system and they complement each other. Although it is commonly understood that
administration encompasses supervision, they have different purposes. In order to
evaluate the differences between them, it is necessary to clear up what they are. But first,
it is important to understand that at any level are organization.

Organizations are functional structures established to achieve goals. To be able to

achieve them, they must rely on several people who are part of it. Administrators and
supervisors are some of them. Through their activities, duties and tasks they achieve the
goals and quality work determines quality results. It is also well known that organizations
have an undeniable impact in human life.

Principals play a vital role in setting the direction for successful schools but
productive leadership depends heavily on its fit with the social and organizational context
in which it is exercised. They (the principals) are the primary catalysts for creating a
lasting foundation for learning, for driving school and student performance, and for
shaping the long term impact of schools’ improvement efforts.

In this chapter you will be encounter different meaning of administration and

supervision from various authors and well known writers. Also, this chapter talks about
the importance of administration and supervision in any school or organization.
Additional topics would be about leadership and the functions and responsibilities of a
supervisor.

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MEANING AND SCOPE OF ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION

What is Administration?

• The activities that relate to running a company, school, or other organization.

(Merriam Webster Dictionary)

• A group of people who manage the way a company, school, or other organization
functions. (Merriam Webster Dictionary)

What is administration from different authors?

• Administration is determined action taken in pursuit of conscious purpose. It is

the systematic ordering of affairs and the calculated use of resources aimed at
making those happen which one wants to happen. (F.M Marx)

• Frederick K. Lane defines administration as organizing and maintaining human

and fiscal resources to attain a group’s goals.

• Administration is a long and slightly pompous word, but it has a humble meaning,
for it means, to care for or look after people, to manage affairs… is determined
action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose. (E.N Gladden)

• Administration is the organism and use of men and materials to accomplish a

purpose. (Felix A. Nigro)

• In its broadest sense, administration can be defined as the activities of groups

cooperating to accomplish common goals. (Herbert A. Simon)

• Administration is a process involving human beings jointly engaged in working

towards common goals. (George E. Berkley)

• The art of administration is direction, co-ordination and control of many persons

to achieve some purpose or objectives. (L.D. White)

Administration is based on two fundamental premises –

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1. A purpose to be achieved 2. by the collective effort of all those involved in it.

ADMINISTRATION

• It is a set of co-operative activities undertaken by an organization to accomplish

the common goals.

Key words are:

ACTIVITIES CO-OPERATION, ORGANIZATION GOALS.

Relationship between Administration and Organization

• Organization and administration exist together; they are not separable.

• Organization is the structure and administration is the process.

• Organization is the formal entity and administration is the course of action carried
on within an organizational setting.

Administration in different categories-

a) Public Administration – Administration that is basically performed and acted

upon by Government of various countries.

b) Private Administration – Administration that is basically performed by and

acted by business organization and entities.

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 c) Educational Administration - is regarded as the process of integrating the
appropriate human and material resources that are made available and made
effective for achieving the purposes of a program of an educational institution.

Let’s Sum It Up

• The term “Administration” doesn’t refer to any single process or act. The graph
below shows the entire components of an administration.

SUPERVISION

What is Supervision?

• The action or process of watching and directing what does or how something is
done: the action or process of supervising someone or something.

• An improvement of the total teaching-learning situation and condition that affect

them (1966)

Definition of Supervision from different authors

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 • Supervision is an intervention that is provided by senior member of a profession
to a junior member or member of the same profession. (Bernard and Goodyear,
1998)

• A process of scanning a text for errors or deviations from the original material
(Smith and Glanz 2000)

• An active technical service primarily concerned with studying and improving

conditions that surround learning and pupils’ growth. (Barr, Burton and
Brueckner)

• To supervise, criticize, to evaluate, to appraise or to praise. (Crow and Crow)

In short Supervision is…

• It is a process of proper monitoring and observing to give proper intervention,

guidance, feedback and direction to maintain and attain the track of any persons
involved for the accomplishment of the ultimate vision of an organization or
administration in a bigger perspective.

Emphasis or focus of supervision on specific dimensions.

Emphasis on Administration

Supervision is what school personnel do with adults and things to maintain or

change the operation of the school in order to directly influence the attainment of major
instruction goals. (Harris and Bessent, 1996)

Emphasis on Curriculum

General supervision denotes activities like the writing and revisions of

curriculum, the preparation of units and materials of instruction, the development of
processes and instruments for reporting to parents, and such broad concerns as evaluation
of the total education program (Cogan, 1973)

Emphasis on Instruction

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 Supervision of instruction is directed toward both maintaining and improving the
teaching-learning process of the school (Harris,1975).

Emphasis on Human Relations

Instructional supervisory behavior is assumed to be an additional behavior system

formally provided by the organization for the purpose of interacting with the teaching
behavior system in such a way as to maintain, change, and improve the provision and
actualization of learning opportunities for the students (Wiles and Lovell, 1975).

Emphasis on Leadership

Supervision is teaching the teachers how to teach and the professional leadership
how to reformulate public education, more specifically, its curriculum, its teaching, and
its forms (Mosher and Purpel, 1972).

Emphasis on Evaluation

Supervisors are regularly involved in evaluation through assessment of programs,

processes, and people (Wiles and Bondi, 1991).

Scope of Supervision

1. Survey of the school system

2. The direct improvement of Classroom Teaching

3. The General Improvement of Teachers – in Service

4. Organizing Programs of Cooperative activity

5. The Development of Maintenance of Morale, or de Corps

6. 6. The Selection and Organization of the materials of instruction

7. 7. Experimental Study of the problems of Teaching

8. 8. Determine the desirable Physical Conditions of Learning

9. 9. Performance of Professional and Semi-Administrative Duties.

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 “Supervision is an opportunity to bring someone back to their own mind, to show
them how good they can be”

- Nancy Kline

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND

SUPERVISION

Educational supervision and administration differ in many ways and may vary for
different educational systems; in the same way, there are some common features and goal
they both share. Both of them try to deliver and improve the education in general with the
best conditions.

Administration and Supervision considered functionally cannot be separated a set off

from each other. The two are coordinate, co-relative, complementary, mutually shared
functions in the operation of educational systems. (A.S. Barr)

Although the purpose of both school administration and school supervision in an

efficient functioning of the school system, yet the two differ from each other.

More differences…

1. Educational administration provides and manages these various elements of the

teaching-learning situation and the business of educational supervision is to assess
continuously their adequacy and to bring about necessary improvement.

BASIS OF ADMINISTRATION SUPERVISION

COMPARISON
What does it represents? Represents the whole of the Represents a portion of the
educational system. educational system.
What it does in an Provides favorable Carries out better
organization? conditions for effective operation and improving
teaching and learning. it.
What is its function? Decides, directs, and orders Assist, advises, and leads
the execution of the the operation and
educational program. improvement of the
educational system.

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 What is its focus? Focuses on the school Focuses on the students
system as a whole. and the teaching-learning
process.

2. Administration executes, directs and supervision advises, stimulates, explains, leads

and guides. Administration decides and orders execution, while supervision helps to
decide and order execution and asst. in improving instruction.

3. Supervision should be functionally related to administration. Administration provides

the physical and material conditions for education, such as building, equipment and the
like. These are part of the education setting or the teaching-learning situation.
Supervision is concerned with improving this situation.

4. The basic purpose of administration is to organize and operate the educational

institution, so that instruction may take place. The purpose of supervision is to bring
about a continuing improvement in the instructional program. Administration represents
the whole enterprise of educational management and supervision represents a portion of
it.

5. Administration precedes supervision. It means that some form of organization and

some supervision for management of the institution are essential before any program of
instruction is instituted. Many of the activities in administration have definite supervisory
implications.

How must administration and supervision work together?

Educational administration and supervision are regarded as total processes

inclusive of all responsibilities and functions necessary for running the schools.

Good inter-personal relationships between the administrator and supervisor:

supervisors to teachers: teachers to pupils and also inter-institutional relationships
between the school and the state, the school and the community is very integral.

Specific Administrative and Supervision Functions in School Setting

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 What make unique educational administration are its objectives, which are aimed to
learning and teaching activities. Although everyone involved with schools is aware of
needs and difficulties from their own point of views, only administrators have a wider
perspective. This perspective allows them to organize and align people, resources and
actions to achieve the goals. Despite of this wide spectrum of functions, it is only a
supportive role and many times they do not deal directly with students or teachers. Its
main skill is related to put together pieces and resources in the most advantageous way.
Some of their most particular functions are:

 Influence the shared vision of the institute

 Involve others in setting objectives and strategies
 Establish structures and programs
 Set and administrate school budget
 Coordinate classes curricula
In the other hand, although educational supervision has the same origins as
administration, it also has its own goals and framework. A basic definition implies that it
is the set of activities aimed to ensure that educational services are rendered by teachers
to the students, according to the programs and with the best quality. Supervision can be
done by a group specially designed and trained to do so, or it can be a shared
responsibility among other members of the educative community. Its main goal is to
achieve improvement of educational services and it covers all the aspects and levels that
influence them. Administrators are also subject to supervision. Some of the most
important functions are:

 Evaluate performance of teachers at schools

 Provide assistance to teachers regarding teaching methods
 Discover and promote teachers with special skills and qualities
 Organize and deliver induction and development programs to teachers and staff
 Identify needs of the schools
 Survey of the school system
 The direct improvement of Classroom Teaching
 The General Improvement of Teachers – in Service
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  Organizing Programs of Cooperative activity
 The Development of Maintenance of Morale, or de Corps
 The Selection and Organization of the materials of instruction
 Experimental Study of the problems of Teaching
 Determine the desirable Physical Conditions of Learning
 Performance of Professional and Semi-Administrative Duties.

THE FUNCTION AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF A SUPERVISOR

Introduction

The overall responsibility for the efficient and high quality operation of
elementary, middle or high schools falls to the school supervisor.

What is a School Supervisor?

School supervisors are in charge of the daily operations of schools. They are
responsible for managing teachers, students, and all other school faculty members in a
school.

To be a successful supervisor, Taylor (in Lunenberg and Ornstein, 2000) believed in

putting emphasis on time study for setting standards, separation of managerial and
employee duties, and incentive systems in the workplace. He also maintained that
supervisors should be provided with clear guidelines based on empirical data, thereby
improving production management, and avoiding what he called soldiering (working
well below capacities) by workers.

School supervisors are managers in charge of the day-to-day operations of

kindergarten through 12th grade schools. They must manage teachers, coaches, librarians,
counselors, support staff and other employees.

Function and Responsibilities of a Supervisor

 DO 2, s. 2008 - Responsibilities of Public Schools District Supervisors Relative to

CSCA Programs and Projects at the Elementary Level

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  DO 24, s. 2005 - Rationalizing the Roles and Functions of District Supervisors

Leadership
 Provides direction for the development of schools in keeping with the
strategic plan of the Ministry of Education.
 Ensures quality standards by supervising, inspecting and evaluating
the operation of schools.
 Leads in professional development for principals and teachers through
program proposals, training seminars and workshops.
 Ensures the development of school-based management.
 Provides a rich resource of exemplary coaching, training and
apprenticeship for teachers and school administrators.

Teaching/Learning
 Visits schools on a regular basis to monitor the implementation of the
curriculum.
 Organizes team visits to schools to assess the delivery of the curriculum.
 Examines the Principals’ records on clinical supervision and curricular
checks.
 Observes teachers’ classroom practices and provides feedback, when
requested by principals.
 Monitors the teaching/learning environment in schools.
 Supervises school improvement programs.
 Shares/disseminates information with principals on current trends in
teaching and learning.
 Monitors the relevance of the curriculum with respect to the special needs
and interests of students.

Physical/Financial
 Supervises the effective management and use of physical and financial
resources in schools.

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  Monitors school security systems to ensure effectiveness.
 Supervises effective health and safety standards in schools.
 Corrects and reports on anomalies, irregularities or environmental threats
to safety at schools.
 Approves non-routine activities at schools, including field trips or school
outings.
 Requisitions, stores and distributes materials/consumables to support
curriculum delivery and janitorial services in all primary schools.
 Recommends and supervises repairs, renovations and refurbishments at
schools.
 Recommends/approves requisitions for furniture and equipment for
schools.
 The general role of supervisors is to guide and assist students during their
period of registered study. The roles of supervisor and Examiner are quite
distinct and it is not one of the roles of the supervisor to assess the thesis.
The specific roles of supervisors may differ depending on the academic
discipline, departmental practice and whether the member of staff is acting
as main, second, temporary or permanent supervisor.  The main supervisor
(or delegate) will also consider requests for annual leave in line with
School/Departmental policy.

1. Policy 

 Supervisors will provide guidance and assistance to students so that they may
carry out their research and present their results to the best advantage. Every
supervisor and every research student will be provided with guidance on their
respective roles and responsibilities.

2. Role of the supervisor

 The general role of supervisors is to guide and assist students during their period
of registered study. The roles of supervisor and Examiner are quite distinct and it
is not one of the roles of the supervisor to assess the thesis. The specific roles of

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 supervisors may differ depending on the academic discipline, departmental
practice and whether the member of staff is acting as main, second, temporary or
permanent supervisor.  The main supervisor (or delegate) will also consider
requests for annual leave in line with School/Departmental policy.

7.     Advising on services and facilities

 Supervisors should have a reasonable knowledge of and be able to advise their

research students on the availability of the University's academic services and
facilities (for example library and computing facilities) and how to make use of
them.
 The supervisor should keep under review with the student the facilities which the
student requires in order to carry out his/her research and make these needs
known to the Head of School.

Conclusion

 School supervision services exist in nearly countries; they have played a key role
in the development of the public education system, by monitoring the quality of
schools and by supporting their improvement. However, in many countries, these
services are under increasingly heavy critique, because of their failure to have a
positive impact on quality of teaching and learning. This failure to have a positive
impact on the mandate of the service outweighs by far its resources, and is also
caused by a series of poor management and planning decisions.

THE 5 LEVELS OF LEADERSHIP

A business executive. A softball coach. A classroom teacher. A volunteer

coordinator. A parent.

Whether you’re one of these things or all of these things, one thing remains true:
You are a leader.

But where are you on your leadership journey, and where do you go from here?
Over my years of teaching about leadership, that question exists at the heart of so many

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leaders. Everyone wants to know where they stand and how to get to the next level. And
you are probably no different!

That’s why I developed the 5 Levels of Leadership paradigm in my

book, Developing the Leader Within You, and then expanded it in my book, The 5 Levels
of Leadership. I wanted to help leaders understand and increase their effectiveness. And
while there is more to this teaching than space in this blog, today I want to offer a general
overview of the 5 Levels as a reminder that you are still on your way as a leader – and so
am I! So feel free to bookmark this page or print it out as a quick guide for your journey
as a leader.

LEVEL 1 — POSITION

The lowest level of leadership—the entry level, if you will—is Position. It’s the
only level that requires no ability or effort to achieve. After all, anyone can be appointed
to a position! While nothing is wrong with having a leadership position, everything is
wrong with relying only on that position to get people to follow. That’s because it only
works if you have leverage (such as job security or a paycheck) over your followers. At
Level 1, people only follow if they believe that they have to.

People who remain on the position level may find it difficult to work with
volunteers. Why? Because position does not automatically result in influence, and
volunteers are aware that they don’t have to follow anyone. They truly only follow if they
want to.

But the news is not all bad about this level. It is a prime place for you to begin
investing in your growth and potential as a leader. Use your time at this level learning to
lead yourself – through priorities and self-discipline – and you’ll be ready to move to the
next level.

LEVEL 2 — PERMISSION

Level 2 is based on relationship. At this level, people choose to follow because

they want to. In other words, they give the leader Permission to lead them. To grow at
this level, leaders work on getting to know their people and connecting with them. You

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can’t lead without people, which means you need to learn to like people if you want to
lead well!

When you like people and treat them as individuals who have value, you begin to
develop positive influence with them. Trust grows, which usually leads to respect. And
the environment becomes much more positive—whether at home, on the job, at play, or
while volunteering. Level 2 is where solid, lasting relationships are built that create the
foundation for the next level.

LEVEL 3 — PRODUCTION

The best leaders know how to motivate their people to GTD – get things done!
And getting things done is what Level 3 is all about. On this level, leaders who
produce results build their influence and credibility. People still follow because they want
to, but they do it because of more than the relationship. People follow Level 3 leaders
because of their track record.

The Production level is where leaders can become change agents. Work gets
done, morale improves, profits go up, turnover goes down, and goals are achieved. The
more you produce, the more you’re able to tackle tough problems and face thorny issues.
Leading and influencing others becomes fun, because when everyone is moving forward
together, the team rises to another level of effectiveness.

It’s important to note here that the goal with the 5 Levels is not to move away
from one level to grow at a new level. Instead, these 5 levels of leadership build upon
each other. In other words, Level 3 leaders still need to do the things that make Level 2
happen. They just add Level 3 strategies to the mix. And as they become effective at
Level 3, they are ready to layer on the goals of the next levels.

LEVEL 4 — PEOPLE DEVELOPMENT

Level 4 can be summed up in one word: reproduction. Your goal at this level is to

identify and develop as many leaders as you can by investing in them and helping them
grow.

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` The reason is simple: When there are more leaders, more of the organization’s
mission can be accomplished. The people you choose to develop may show great
potential for leadership, or they may be diamonds in the rough, but the main idea is the
same: When you invest in them, you can reproduce yourself.

The more you raise up new leaders, the more you will change the lives of all
members of the team. As a result, people will follow you because of what you’ve done
for them personally. And as an added bonus, some of those mentoring relationships are
likely to last a lifetime.

So to grow at the people development level, you need to make investing in leaders
a priority, and take intentional steps every day to help them grow. Do that consistently,
for long enough, and you may begin to reap the rewards of the next level.

LEVEL 5 — PINNACLE

The highest level of leadership is also the most challenging to attain. It requires
longevity as well as intentionality. You simply can’t reach Level 5 unless you are willing
to invest your life into the lives of others for the long haul. But if you stick with it, if you
continually focus on both growing yourself at every level, and developing leaders who
are willing and able to develop other leaders, you may find yourself at the Pinnacle.

The commitment to becoming a Pinnacle leader is sizeable, but so are the payoffs.
Level 5 leaders develop Level 5 organizations. They create opportunities other leaders
don’t. They create a legacy in what they do. People follow them because of who they are
and what they represent. In other words, their leadership gains a positive reputation. As a
result, Level 5 leaders often transcend their position, their organization, and sometimes
their industry.

  There’s so much more I’d love to tell you, but let me leave you with this.
Leadership is about growth – for yourself, your relationships, your productivity, and your
people. To lead well, you must embrace your need for continual improvement, and the 5
Levels provide a leadership GPS to help you with your journey. You must know where
you are, to know where you’re going. Otherwise, as the Cheshire Cat told Alice, when
you don’t know where you’re going, any road will get you there.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
(The Authors)

Anton de Grauwe is a Programme specialist at the IIEP. Gacbriel Carron was until 1999
Senior Programme Coordinator in the same institute. Both coordinated between 1996 and
20014 an extensive research and training program on “Reforming school supervision and
support for quality improvement.”

www. Slideshare.net

www.managementstudyguide.com/what-is-public-administration.htm

publicadministrationtheone.blogspot.com/2012/07/wilsons-view-of-public.html?m=1

www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/administration

managementhelp.org/blogs/supervision/2011/03/02/a-definition-of-supervision

network.bepress.com/explore/education/educational-administration-and-supervision/?

www.yourarticlelibrary.com/educational-managament/meaning-and-scope-of-
supervision-in education/63738

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 CHAPTER II
DIMENSIONS OF SUPERVISION

DIMENSIONS
of
SUPERVISION

Reporters:

Christine Joy M. Quiocho

Princess P. Caray
Ruby T. Santos
Arlyn Joy A. Joves

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 Mylene R. Dupitas
INTRODUCTION

Glickman, Gordon, and Ross-Gordon (2001:56) describe the term Supervision as

a common vision “that is developed collaboratively and brought into reality together. It
forms connections that focus organizational and individual goals, objectives and efforts
into an overarching strategy”. Capacity is built into the system as the supervisor
encourages employees to reach their full potential, and helps to develop interpersonal
relationships and a productive organizational culture. The supervisor, by definition, is
someone who assists, guides, directs, and oversees the people that he/she is managing,
however there is much more to being a supervisor than simply overseeing the jobs that
people are doing (Langton, Robbins & Judge, 2011). In order to be a successful
supervisor, it is important that one understands not only their own beliefs towards
education and approaches towards individuals and groups, but that they also understand
the beliefs and approaches of their supervisees.
The way teachers view the supervision that they are undergoing and think about it
is very important in the outcomes of the supervision process. Supervision is an interactive
process that depends on the source of supervision, the supervisor, and the teacher.
Therefore, knowing their opinions and expectations about the supervisory practices is
important to implementing successful supervision.
A renewed interest in clarifying and delineating the work of school supervisors
has emerged in light of the decentralization and restructuring of schools. Researchers and
practitioners have attempted to shed light on the functional areas of supervisors by either
defining supervisory competencies or supervisory task areas. One extensive research
effort to delineate the job of the school supervisor is found in Pajak's study (1989) to
identify and prioritize "dimensions" of supervisory practice.
Dimension of Supervision shows the different supervisory roles of a head teacher
and a school head. It will give us understanding to the responsibilities and duties of the
two people. This will also emphasize what are the characteristics of an effective school.

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INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERSHIP AND EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS

What is supervision?
It is the action or process of watching and directing what someone does or how
something is done.

Who are the responsible in supervising teachers?

Principal
Subject coordinator

What is a school principal?

The principal is the administrative and professional leader of the school, and as
such, he is directly responsible to the Superintendent for its successful operation.

Duties of a school principal:

Shaping a vision of academic success for all students
Creating a hospitable climate to education
Cultivating leadership in others
A profile in leadership
Managing people, data and processes

What is a subject coordinator?

It is the one who is expected to ensure high quality for ensuring the high quality
education for all students in their specialist area.

Duties of a subject coordinator:

Coordinate all subject area programs
Work cooperatively with the school principal
Help the teachers
Observe classroom and provide feedback

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 Compile, maintain, and file physical and computerized reports, records, and other
documents
The discussion of the roles and functions of supervision revolves around SITE-BASED

MANAGEMENT MODEL.
What is a site-based management?
It is a form of decentralization empowering principals and other lower-level
administrators to carry out tasks for the smooth operation of their particular schools in
coordination with teachers and other stakeholders.
Site Management Leader
It is the one who is able to share the authority of making decisions on critical
issues like budget, personnel, and programs with major stakeholders of the school such as
teachers, parents, students, and other community members.

Republic Act 9155 (Governance Education Act)

R.A. 9155 provides overall framework for school head empowerment within the context
of accountability.
It involves the school heads’ training to develop and enhance their skills and
competencies needed for school-based management.

Benefits of Site-Based Management:

It allows competent individuals in the school to make decisions that will improve
learning
It gives entire school community a voice in key decisions
It focuses accountability on decisions
It re-direct resources to support the goals developed in each school
It leads realistic budgeting as parents and teachers become more aware of the
school’s financial status, spending limitations, and program’s cost.
Effective Instruction is the primary aim of an effective school.

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Seven important correlates of effective schools which are aspects of school
supervision:
Instructional Leadership
Safe and orderly environment
Climate of high expectation of success
Clear and focussed mission-vision
Opportunity to learn and student time-on-task
Frequent monitoring of student progress
Home-school relations

A COMPREHENSIVE VIEW OF SUPERVISION

CURRICULAR DIMENSIONS OF SUPERVISION

1. Develops an orientation program for a new teacher
2. Develops a clear set of school goals and objectives
3. Involves individual departments in curriculum development
4. Encourages curriculum communications with the school and those concerned in
the district
5. Handles controversial issues that involve the curriculum
6. Spends time visiting teachers in the classroom
7. Plans Staff Development Program
8. Rewards curriculum innovation
9. Encourages use of library and media services by teacher
10. Modifies school plant (environment) to improve instruction
11. Organizes staff for curriculum development
12. Involves teachers in curriculum development
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 13. Works with curriculum consultants in improving the curriculum
14. Serves as a resource for instructional methodology and techniques
15. Plans the curriculum
16. Develops curriculum matters for the classroom
17. Involves the community in curriculum development

PHILIPPINE PRACTICES
1. ORIENTATION
 It is a standard operating procedure to conduct orientation programs for new
teachers at the beginning of the school year.
 Goals are broader than objectives in the sense that goals are general intentions
and are not specific enough to be measured while Objectives are narrow and
are set for certain tasks in particular.
2. REVIEW OF GOAL AND OBJECTIVES
 Whenever necessary, goals and objectives are reviewed in order to revise
and develop new one in response to changes in the environment.
3. CURRICULUM REVISION
 As curriculum leaders, many school principals initiate the planning of
curricular revision at the end of each school year based on the experiences
and information gathered during the year.
4. CURRICULUM IMPROVEMENT
 Improvement in the curriculum becomes possible through a year-end
review since the process reveals the strengths and weaknesses of a written
curriculum via vis-à-vis the taught curriculum

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 5. CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES
 Principals handle controversial issues that concern the curriculumn . These
are arguments that usually spring from parents’ complaints regarding
curriculum instruction.
6. RESOURCE PERSON
 School head also exhibit their curricular leadership by serving as a
resource in such activities as lesson planning, developing innovative
strategies and audiovisual materials, and test construction
7. RECOGNITION OF ACHIVEMENT
 Principals also set programs in connection with the curriculum that impact
effective instruction
8. BETTER COMMUNICATION
 Principals promote better communication between the school and the
community regarding the curriculum through newsletters, circulars,
dialogues, and meetings.

ISSUES REGARDING THE CURRICULUM

Curriculum guides the implementation of instructional activities in the classroom.
It also indicates the plan of instruction and evaluation strategy. In other terms,
curriculum is considered as the work plan in education. When work plan is implemented,
curriculum is then transformed into instruction.
In the Philippine settings, the basic Education Curriculum was prescribed by the
Department of Education as the governing body in the implementation of Basic
Education in the Philippine Educational System. The curriculum was designed and
developed by pool of expert based on the minimum learning competencies that the
learners need to acquire.

Issues on How Much Content to Teach.

Since the curriculum was designed and developed based on the minimum learning
competencies, the books (textbook) that are used as guide to teaching were also created
based on the competencies that are indicated in the curriculum. These books are then

25
used by the teachers to come up with their lesson plan for the delivery of learning in their
classes. With this regard, the following issues arise on how much content we need to
teach our learners:
 Textbook content is usually more than what can be taken within a year
 Teacher attempt to finish the entire content by rushing the discussion
 Due to lack of time, students are sometimes instructed to have self-studies on the
remaining topics.
 Inclusion of teacher’s made instructional materials

Types of Curriculum
 Recommended Curriculum - Recommended by individual scholars, professional
associations, and reform commissions; encompasses the curriculum requirements
of policymaking groups.
 Written Curriculum - The Written Curriculum takes the Recommended
Curriculum and explains the general goals, specific objectives, the sequence, and
the suggested learning experiences to meet those goals and objectives. This is
usually called a Curriculum Map or Curriculum Guide.
 Taught Curriculum - The delivered curriculum, a curriculum that an observer
sees in action as the teacher teaches.
 Tested Curriculum - The set of learning that is assessed in teacher-made
classroom tests; and in standardized tests
 Supported Curriculum - The Supported Curriculum is how we use the resources
at our disposal (including time, personnel, and materials) to support the written
and delivered curriculum.
 Learned Curriculum - Is the outcome of the other curricula. This is what
students actually know and are able to do as a result of the implementation of all
the other types of curriculum.
 Hidden Curriculum - The Hidden Curriculum is typically not thought about as
much, but includes anything else that happens in our schools that influences
students’ values, perceptions, and behaviors. The most common areas are an
emphasis of our schools on particular ideologies common in our society, such as

26
 democracy or capitalism; the values common in our society, such as an emphasis
on punctuality or sharing; and the way that we organize our schools (such as our
beliefs about tracking, class sizes, or treatment of students with special needs).

Issue in the Written, Taught and Tested Curriculum

The issue that arises on the curriculum itself is the alignment among the three
interlocking curricular concerns:
- Written Curriculum
- Taught Curriculum
- Tested Curriculum
Design and Delivery Issues
 Design issues refer to the structure of curriculum with regard to the objectives,
content, organization and evaluation
 Delivery issues refer to the quality of instruction which should be monitored by
the school head or supervisor.
 Curriculum Coordination refers to the horizontal focus and connectivity

 Curriculum Articulation refers to the Vertical focus and connectivity

27
Interdisciplinary Curriculum Planning
 Promotes the development of integrated learning experiences
 Integration provides opportunities to students to explores the interconnection of
different learning areas
The New Education Basic Curriculum
The Enhanced Basic Education curriculum also known as the K-12 Curriculum
was implemented using the legal basis of RA 10533. This comprises of Kindergarten, 6
years Elementary Education, 4 years Junior High School and 2 years Senior High School.

Curriculum Mapping
 It is the process indexing or diagraming a curriculum to identify and address
academic gaps, redundancies, and misalignments for purposes of improving the
overall coherence of a course of study.
 Refers to the curricular decision-making and actions related to learning,
assessments, and teaching within a class, school or the entire educational system.

“Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all” - Aristotle

28
HUMAN RELATIONS DIMENSION OF SUPERVISION – LEARNING
ORGANIZATIONS

What is learning organization?

 Was first used in the 1980’s by Richard Pascal. However, it was the publication of
Peter Senge’s best seller, The Fifth Discipline, in 1990 that Popularized the phrase
 are committed to a cycle of continuous learning and improvement
 promote culture that enables and accelerates individual and a group learning
 are continually testing their assumptions and transforming new knowledge into
action

Learning how to learn

 by engaging in meta learning, looking at learning from variety of perspectives and

practicing ways of learning, employees can increase their own learning
capabilities
 Individually, group-wise, and organization-wise, learning how learn better and
faster is the essence of learning organization

SENGE FIVE DISCIPLINES

1. TEAM LEARNING
2. PERSONAL MASTERY
3. MENTAL MODEL
4. SHARED VISION
5. SYSTEM THINKING

29
1. TEAM LEARNING
 “The process of aligning and developing the capacity of a team to create
the results its members truly desire. It builds on the discipline of
developing shared vision. It also builds on personal mastery, for talented
teams are made up of talented individuals”
---- PETER SENGE
 “Requires individuals to engage in dialogue and discussion”
---- Wikipedia
 “Team learning is the practice of developing the ability of the entire
organization to develop a shared view of a “big” picture as well as the
details which comprise it”.
---- Michael
Friesen
 People can learn and think of more things collectively than they can
individually --- Robert Hurley
2. PERSONAL MASTERY
 This concept refers to individual learning. Organization learns because
individuals’ members continuously learn.
 “The commitment by an individual to the process of learning is known as
Personal Mastery” ---- Wikipedia
 “Personal mastery is something that we all want to achieve, whether we
know it or not. It is about our journey towards continuous improvement
and seeing life from a different perspective. 
---- Brendan Baker
 “No organization can truly be a learning organization without its
individual members being free to learn”
--- Robert Hurley
3. MENTAL MODEL
 A mental model is one’s personal view of the world that determines how
one thinks and acts

30
  “A mental model is an explanation of how something works. The phrase
“mental model” is an overarching term for any sort of concept,
framework, or worldview that you carry around in your mind”

---- James Clear

 “Mental models are images, assumptions, and beliefs that everyone carries
around in their heads”
--- Robert Hurley
4. SHARED VISION
 In a learning organization, the organizational vision is not created by the
leader alone; but through interaction with individual members
 “A shared vision is essential to building a successful learning
organization.” --- Peter Senge
 “A shared vision is a vision to which people are committed because it
reflects their personal vision.”
--- Dick Osborne
 In a learning organization all workers, regardless of their position, are
invited and provided with opportunities to create, test, communicate, and
promote the company’s mission
---- Robert Hurley
5. SYSTEM THINKING
 This concept emphasizes the primacy of the whole, rather than the parts
that constitute the whole

----- Dimension of Supervision

 looking at the whole picture rather than the individual problem

BASED ON THE SENGE MODEL THE IMPORTANT CONCERNS ABOUT

LEARNING ORGANIZATION ARE:

 the adaptability of the system to response to both the internal and external
environment to maintain balance

31
  the effort members exert to continuously enhance their capability to
change
 the importance of collective and individual learning
 the use of results of learning to improve and achieve better results
 and the commitment of the members to pursue a common goal or vision

ADMINISTRATIVE DIMENSION OF SUPERVISION

For an educational institution to have a smooth day-to-day school operation, it
needs a good administrator. Thus, administrators have to perform many tasks on a daily
routine as follows, to wit:
o Administer processes, programs and services, and personnel
o These tasks include
- PLANNING,
- SETTING AND PRIORITIZING OF GOALS
- ESTABLISHING STANDARDS AND POLICIES
- BUDGETING,
- ALLOCATING RESOURCES
- STAFFING
- COORDINATING AND MONITORING PERFORMANCE
- CONDUCTING MEETINGS and
- REPORTING, AMONG OTHERS.
- In addition, they interact with faculty, students, parents and other members of
the community and communicate information to various stakeholders, as well
as report to higher authorities.
- Provide effective instructions to clientele.
All the aforementioned administrative and operational tasks would require
administrative skills and long hour of work. It is for these reasons that many school heads
work more than 40 hours a week. Among these works that need their extra attention from
the administrators are:
 Year-end review which require them to report to school during summer
 Faculty development activities

32
  In some cases, the offering of summer courses for students with failures. (Where
in most cases, to carry out their tasks, they need to draw from their inner reserves.
That is the reason why is it important that the school administrator must have the
necessary qualification and experience).

ADMINISTRATION OF PROCESSES
It needs a good administrator to initiate planning of programs and strategies;
organizes committees to set and prioritize goals; establishes educational standards, as
well as policies and procedures to carry them out; takes charge of staffing of the
organization; coordinates programs and projects; and prepares reports and budgets.
o Types of Plans
1. Long-range plan
a. It is based on in-depth needs assessment.
b. It should be based on clear goals and objectives.
c. They are comprehensive.
d. It includes such concerns as major program revision, implementation and
evaluation, manpower projections and long-range staff development
programs, and new facilities needed including building improvements.
e. It involves the participation of the important stakeholders of the schools.
2. Short-term plans
a. It is based on the immediate needs of the school for the incoming year.
b. Minor revisions in the curriculum.
c. Faculty development activities.
d. Preparation of the school calendar.
e. Assignment of loads.
f. Purchases
g. And other needs for the new school year.
Under the administration of processes are collective efforts that are initiated by
the Principals via organized teams set policies on the following:
1. Teacher salaries
2. Teacher assignments

33
 3. Performance appraisal\
4. Transfer and promotions
5. Leaves
6. In-service education and other monetary benefits
7. Recruitment and firing
8. As well as grievance procedures.
The Principals coordinate the works of teams and other interest groups tasked to
either develop plans or implement these plans. These policies become part of the faculty
and administrative manual.

ADMINISTRATION OF PROGRAMS AND SERVICES

Principals coordinate the development of curricular, co-curricular and extra-
curricular programs. They manage student services such as:
1. Guidance
2. Health and medical
3. Canteen, and
4. Athletics
5. In addition, they supervise and monitor the work of lower level managers,
support staff, teachers, counsellors, librarians, coaches and others.

ADMINISTRATION OF PERSONNEL
School head does the following in the administration of personnel:
1. Interview
2. Hire
3. Evaluate, and
4. Help improve the skills of teachers and staff
5. They give advices
6. Explain procedural questions, and
7. Provide opportunities for faculty and staff development.
8. They also make the painful decision of terminating, after due process, personnel
who do not meet school standards despite their efforts to help them.

34
ADMINISTRATION OF BUDGETS
Principals prepare and administer the approved budgets. This task is oftentimes
unpopular to many administrators probably because it is a business concern. The budget,
once approved by higher authority, serves as a legal basis for annual expenditures,
accounting, and auditing. There is a prevalent notion among people in education that
because education and business are two fields that are poles apart, there can be no
convergence of their concerns. The popularity of this belief is losing ground because over
the years, certain principles from the business have become the bases of practices in
education. Thus, the importance of the preparation of reasonable budgets in supervision
cannot be ignored. Therefore, budgeting is a skill that every administrator must have and
enhance.
The budget is concerned with Three (3) major types of expenditures:
1. Capital Expenditures – Generally this is being prepared by higher authorities.
2. Personnel services – this is being prepared by site-based school Heads. These are
the salaries and other benefits
3. Maintenance and other Operating Expenses (MOOE) – also prepared by site-
based school Heads. These would include expenditures for utilities, supplies and
materials, repair and maintenance, contractual services and transportation, among
others. Budget must be carefully prepared and must be able to stand up to close
scrutiny.
To insure that the expenditures are in accordance with the approved budget, the Principal
does the following:
1. He/ She oversees the disbursement of expenditures for non-salary items such as:
a. the requisition and allocation of supply and equipment
b. Transportation
c. Repairs and maintenance

2. Principals with limited finances are expected to resort to cost-cutting that have to
do with class size, staff size, cost of purchases, use of utilities, et.
3. Conduct of fund-raising activities to secure support from local business and
community to augment their limited budgets.

35
 4. As a standard operating procedure, principals prepare reports on finances to
higher authorities.
ADDITIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE ROLES
With the rapid progressing numbers of faculty modern Principals are now tasked
to perform additional roles, such as:
1. Public relation activities which require tact and diplomacy.
2. Negotiating with faculty associations/ unions which require comprehensive
knowledge of the rules of management and labor.
Under these tenet is the ability of the Principal to be able to represent the school
well, whether in public affairs or in the negotiating table, it is very important for the
supervisor to be highly skilled and knowledgeable.

EXCERPT OF THE WHOLE TOPIC

It could be deduced from the foregoing statements in this particular topic that:
 School supervision is a complex process that entails many dimensions.
 Supervisors are expected to attend to many aspects of supervision both inside and
outside the classroom they all impact the delivery of quality education, which is
the primary reason for the existence of the school.
 A school Head is a curriculum leader, strategic planner, a team leader, an
administrator, an evaluator and a negotiator, among many other functions.
 The milieu (or situation) of a school leader revolves around many stakeholders:
the students, teachers, staff, parents and community members.
 In order to realize the objectives of the school, the school head should provide a
strong and enlightened-leadership.
 Strong leadership enables school to deliver effective instruction, motivates the
people in the organization to work as a high-performance team, and insures the
smooth operations of the school organization in accordance with its mission-
vision.
 Thus, to be an effective supervisor, regardless of title or position, it is necessary to
have administrative skills, curriculum development skills, instructional skills,
inter-personal skills, evaluation skills and other related skills.

36
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bago, A.L. (2005). Supervision of Instruction the Philippine Perspective. Manila,
Philippines: De La Salle University Press.

Glickman C.D, Gordon S.P. & Ross-Gordon J.M. (2001). Supervision and Instructional
LI. Leadership: A Developmental Approach, 5th edn. Toronto, ON: Allyn and Bacon

Langton. N., Robbins, S.P., & Judge, T.A. (2011). Fundamentals of Organizational
Behavior (4th Can. ed.). Toronto, Canada: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Pajak (Eds.), Handbook of research on school supervision (pp. 801-841). New York:
Simon & Schuster Macmillian.

37
 CHAPTER III

SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION

REPORTERS:
Jennifer Libnao
Michelle Lumibao
Eden Tabag
Ma. Luisa Palad
Lerma Bamba
Arturo Inocelda
Stephannie Parazo

38
 Olive Lambus
Introduction:

The most influential determinant to student success is an effective teacher.

Effective teachers are constantly engaged in understanding and deepening their
pedagogical knowledge and practice with the intended goal of raising student
achievement. Teaching is a complex profession that requires continuous support and
ongoing deep analysis in order to see substantial change in a student’s learning. Given
this complexity, teachers cannot be expected to do this alone. Crane (2002) posits that
individualized approach to teacher development creates a transformative process that
provides teachers an opportunity to see their practice and their students’ achievement
shifting. In order for true transformation to exist the relationship between a teacher and
their instructional supporters must be collaborative and reflective (Feger, Woleck, &
Hickman, 2004). The main purpose of supervision is to improve instruction in order to
enhance students learning. This is a leadership function that is accomplished in response
to academic goals and personal growth needs of those involved. To carry out this task,
the instructional leader continuously looks for ways to assist teachers in doing their
classroom tasks better. Whenever and wherever necessary, the instructional leader
provides intervention measures to improve the teaching-learning experience in the
classroom. Instructional leadership became a dominant model in the 1980s as research
findings indicated that effective schools usually have principals who focused more on
instruction (“Developing instructional leaders,” n.d.). The definitions of instructional
leadership have become more comprehensive to include not only such tasks as setting
clear goals, allocating resources to instruction, managing the curriculum, monitoring
lesson plans, and evaluating teachers, but also the emphasis on learning. Because of this
focus on learning, Dufour (2002) prefers the term learning leader to instructional leader.

39
CLINICAL SUPERVISION DEFINITION

Clinical supervision is a specific supervisory approach which may respond

to these educational needs. It has been characterized as “structure by which instructional
adequacy can be established” (Krey, Netzer, and Eye, 1977. It can also be defined as
supervision focused upon the improvement of instruction by means of systematic cycles
of planning, observation, and intensive intellectual analysis of actual teaching
performances in the interest of rational modification.

Sullivan and Glanz (2009) define supervision as a “process of engaging

teachers in instructional dialogue for the purpose of improving teaching and increasing
student achievement”.

Essentially, clinical supervision in education involves a teacher receiving

information from a colleague who has observed the teacher’s performance and who
serves as both a mirror and a sounding board to enable the teacher to critically examine
and possibly alter his or her own professional practice.

If clinical supervision is capable of serving as a method ( or as some suggest, the

panacea) of educational improvement, then a summary of its characteristics and
associated field work needs to exist.

Clinical Supervision Cycle

The clinical supervision approach was first published by Goldhammer(1969) and

Cogan (1973). However effective supervisors had been using similar methods for some
time before these publications. Goldhammer and Cogan borrowed the term “clinical
supervision” from the medical proffession. In theory and practice, clinical supervision is
a continuous series of cycles in which the supervisor assists the teacher in developing
better and more successful instructional strategies,

Sullivan Eight- phase cycle of instructional improvement:

1. Establishing the clinical relationship by the supervisor with the teacher by

explaining the purpose and the sequence of clinical supervision.

40
 2. Planning the lesson either independently by the teachers or jointly with the
teacher.
3. Discussion of evaluation of the lesson plan.
4. Observation of the lesson and recording of appropriate data.
5. Collaborative analysis of the teaching-learning process especially “critical
incidents and pattern analysis”
Questions are preferable to lectures: “Why do you think the students
started to talk when …?
6. Making conclusions by the teacher about his/her behavior and the students
behaviors and learning
7. Collaborative decision-making on changes sought in the teacher’s behavior, and
creating a plan for implementing the changes.
8. Making arrangements for the next pre-observation conference
Weller Three phase cycle:
1. Collaborative Planning
2. Classroom Observation
3. Analysis and Feedback

Weller Three Phase Cycle

1. Collaborative Planning
This is where the clinical relationship between the teacher and the supervisor
will be established by explaining the purpose and the sequence of the observation. Lesson
planning and time of the observation will also be discussed in this phase.

2. Classroom Observation

This is where the observation will take place. Important data during the
observation will be recorded. Supervisor will be using an observation tool in recording
important information.
3. Analysis and Feedback

41
 Analysis of the teaching-learning process, especially about “what went well
and what went wrong”. Also making conclusions by the teacher about his/her behavior
and the students’ behavior and learning.

Sullivan and Glanz four phase cycle:

1. Collaborative planning
2. Classroom Observation
3. Feedback
4. Collaborative response

Sullivan and Glanz Four Phase Cycle

1. Collaborative Planning
This is where the clinical relationship between the teacher and the supervisor
will be established by explaining the purpose and the sequence of the observation.
Lesson planning and time of the observation will also be discussed in this phase.
2. Classroom Observation
This is where the observation will take place. Important data during the
observation will be recorded. Supervisor will be using an observation tool in
recording important information.
3. Feedback
Analysis of the teaching-learning process, especially about “what went well
and what went wrong”. Also making conclusions by the teacher about his/her
behavior and the students’ behavior and learning.
4. Collaborative Response

Collaborative decision-making on changes sought in the teacher’s behavior,

and creating a plan for implementing the changes. Making arrangements for the next
pre-observation conference.

Clinical Supervision in History and the History of Clinical Supervision.

42
 Through supervisor preparation and supervisory practices have not been given
major emphasis in education (Goldhammer, 1969), patterns of supervision have
developed concurrently with the establishment and growth of schools in this country.
Although educational historians differ on exact dates of various periods there is
considerable agreement in the literature about the progression of major emphases in
supervision.

Trends in Instructional Supervision

Just as there was early concern by American settlers for the establishment of
schools and for the content of curriculum so was there need for supervision. For the most
part, response to this need manifested itself in the selection of teachers or in the moral
obligation to “keep school” (Alfonso, Firth, Neville. 1975). Indeed, supervision in
American schools from 1642) (the time of the Massachusetts Bay law) until the late 19 th
century can be characterized as school (as opposed to instructional) supervision
(Burnham 1976) describes the three approaches to supervision which dominated the
period: “(a)authority and autocratic rule;(b) emphasis upon the inspection and weeding
out of weak teacher; and (c) conformity to standards prescribed by the committee of
laymen” (p.302). Clearly, the major supervisory task was inspection.

The design of Clinical Supervision

Clinical supervision is a field-based approach to instructional supervision. The

word clinical was chosen as a label to “denote and connote” the salient operational and
empirical aspects of supervision in the classroom”. Goldhammer stresses that it describes
“supervision up close”. Clinical supervision has nothing to do with illness or pathological
or psychological disorders but rather focuses on professional practice in field settings in
education. Two further aspects are effectively considered together. Clinical supervision
operates as if (a) teaching behavior can be understood and controlled and (b) instructional
improvement can be achieved by controlling. Clinical supervision also is based on the
preposition that the supervisor-supervisee relationship can be one mutuality. The
supervisor’s task is to secure the commitment of the teacher (not to coerce) and to

43
increase the teacher’s freedom to act self-sufficiently in the classroom (Moore and
Mattaliano, 1970)

Goldhammer (1969) specified the values associated with clinical supervision. A

primary value upon which clinical supervision is based is respect for individual
human autonomy.
Goldhammer (1969) indicates that these pre-observation activities serve primarily
to provide a mental framework for the remainder of the supervisory sequence.
They also help to reduce anxiety which often occurs in response to in-class,
observational supervisory practices.

Strengths and weakness of Clinical Supervision

Further, the intents and purposes appear to respond to some expressed supervisory
needs. Blumberg (1974) specified that in order to turn the supervision process into a
productive venture three conditions are requisite:

(1) the teacher must desire aid

(2) the supervisor must have or be able to locate resources required
(3) the interpersonal relationships must enable the teacher and supervisor “to give and
receive in a mutually satisfactory way”
“Practically speaking if we are interested in improving classroom instruction we
must start with the teacher”. Cogan (1973) indicates that instructional
improvement is not limited to one style of teaching: he says that “good teaching
may take manifold forms”

Five Phases of Clinical Supervision

Phase 1: Planning

 The purpose of planning conference is to enable the supervisor and the teacher to
identify the focus of observation in a collaborative way.

 Collaborative planning reduces anxiety and makes the teacher feel comfortable
about the process in the same way that the patient usually feels better after

44
 consulting with a doctor who is adequately trained to provide the needed
assistance.

 The teacher explains the lessons to be observed, its purpose and content, the way
the teacher will handle the class, and the desired learning outcomes.

 The supervisor asks probing and clarifying questions in order to be clear about the
expectations.

 It is also during the planning conference when the schedule of observation and
post-conference is set.

Phase 2: Observation

 The observation takes place at the scheduled time.

 The supervisor gathers data and information using the observation tool.

 It I the task of the supervisor to record data and information as accurately as

possible, especially of patterns and critical incidents during the class session.

Flanders’ System of Interaction Analysis

 The teacher and supervisor have the opportunity to draw conclusions about the
classroom climate and make inferences regarding the effectiveness of the
strategies.

Kounin System of Analyzing Classroom Management

 Identifies specific teaching techniques that help or hinder the classroom

discipline, and demonstrates that the techniques and not the teacher’s personality
are the most crucial elements in classroom control.

Phase 3: Data Analysis

 Soon after the classroom observation, while the event is still fresh in the mind, the
clinical supervisor collates, tries to make some sense of the raw data, and
develops a plan for the post- observation conference.

Questions to consider in analyzing data:

45
 1. What patterns and critical incidents did the data indicate?

2. What strengths and weaknesses did the teacher exhibit?

3. What techniques were especially successful?

4. What techniques did not work well?

5. What patterns, events, and concerns needed to be addressed?

6. How will the conference begin and end?

Phase 4: Feedback

 The teacher is able to examine critically his/her teaching with an open mind.

 The supervisor’s task is to help build upon the teacher’s understanding of the
behaviors and events that occurred in the classroom as borne out by the data.

Blasé and Blasé (2000) concluded that effective feedback is given when principals:

 Include explanatory comments that focus on specific behavior observed in class;

 Avoid non-judgmental and non-evaluative behavior;

 Provide detailed and descriptive information of the behavior observed;

 Include positive elements indicating strong points in the teacher performance;

 Establish collegial relationships based on trust and respect; and

Promote two-way interaction and problem- solving orientation.

Phase 5: Reflection

 The supervisor critically examines his/her behavior and performance during the
supervision cycle.

The questions to consider are:

1. How well did the clinical supervision cycle go?

46
 2. What worked well and what did not?

3. What are the areas of improvement? How can the next cycle be improved?

4. What other strategies can be explored for better results during the next clinical
supervision cycle?

The quality of a school is almost proportionate to the quality of classroom

INSTRUCTION given in that school;

The quality of classroom instruction given in a school is very much dependent

upon the quality of the TEACHERS who teach in that school;

The quality of performance of the teachers in the classroom is often related to the
type of classroom SUPERVISION.

COGNITIVE COACHING

 requires supervisors to engage teachers in a supportive, collegial investigation,

and reflection of the teaching-learning process

Coster and Garmston, 1994

47
  dictates that the individual teacher performs the evaluation steps. The process
involves collaborative reflection that requires such activities as comparing actual
and desired students’ performance, evaluation, appropriateness of teaching
strategies, and analyzing effects of teacher classroom behaviors among teachers.

 it promotes such higher order thinking skills as analyzing, evaluating, problem

solving, and decision-making.

COACHES

- serve as facilitators and mediators. They are able to lead teachers through
planning, reflection, and problem-solving through dialogues.

ULTIMATE GOAL OF COGNITIVE COACHING

- is to develop teacher independence through meta-cognition ( a process of

introspection in search of internal cognitive guides).

Meta –cognition involves three important stages: planning, monitoring, and evaluating
requiring three types of activities to wit.

1. Planning Conference- during the conference, the coach help teachers 1) think
through their planned lessons carefully 2) participate what might happen during
the lesson 3) plan a way to document what will transpire during the lesson.

2. Lesson Observation – classroom instruction is observed and documented as it

takes place. Desired behaviors which are used as bases for discussion during the
reflection conference are noted.

3. Reflection Conference- coaches facilitate and mediate by helping teachers

1) Summarize impressions and assessments of the lesson

2) Recall data supporting those impressions and assessments

48
 3) Express feelings about the lesson

4) Compare the plan with the actual implementation of the lesson

5) Analyze why desired outcomes were not achieved.

Acosta and Garmston (1994) autonomous teachers are:

1. Self-directing,

2. Self-monitoring,

3. Self-modifying, and

4. Goal – oriented

Teachers are constantly experimenting and experiencing. Even if they fail, they
learn from their failure. They operate in the best interests of the organization and, at the
same time, attend to the realization of their own personal goals and needs.

The COACH must also periodically reflect and self-evaluate his/her effectiveness
as a MEDIATOR. By doing this, the coach can fine-tune his/her role in the process, and
help build more meaningful, mutually satisfying, and more productive relationship with
the teacher.

PEER ASSESSMENT

The dictionary defines the word peer as “an equal in civil standing or rank, or an
equal any respect.”

Peer assessment my lead to peer coaching or consultation which Sulivan and

Glanz (2000) consider as an umbrella term of many different types of peer-to-peer
assistance that are interchangeably referred to as collegial teaching and peer supervision.

PEER COACHING

Peer coaching takes place when a fellow teacher, who is knowledgeable about
specific aspects of the teaching-learning process, serves as a coach or consultant to
another seeking help.

49
 Based on Joyce and Showers model (in Sulivan and Glanz, 2000), peer coaching
involves regular meeting between or among two or more teachers in order to jointly solve
problems using planning, feedback and creative thinking for development of a specific
task.

Goals for Peer Coaching

 Refine teaching practices;

 Stimulate self-initiating, autonomous teacher thought;
 Improve school culture;
 Increase collegiality and professional dialogue; and
 Share in the implementation of new or common instructional skills.
-According to Joyce and Showers

PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT

The ERIC Digests (n.d.) defines a teacher portfolio as a collection of works,

records, and documents demonstrating and highlighting a teacher’s knowledge and skills
in teaching.

It is also a documentation created by a teacher that reveals and describes his/her

duties, expertise and professional growth.

Depending on the intended use, a teacher portfolio may include some or all of the
following:

1. Teacher’s background
2. Class description: time, grade, and content
3. Licensure examination
4. A personal statement of teaching philosophy and goals
5. Faculty development
6. Implemented lesson plans, handouts, and notes
7. Gradee student work.
8. Video/audiotape of classroom lessons
9. Colleague observation records

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 10. Written reflection on teaching
11. Photographs of bulletin boards, chalkboards, or projects.

A portfolio may be used as additional source of information for assessing and

evaluating the effectiveness of teacher for administrative decisions such as retention and
promotion (summative), or for providing feedback so that teachers may improve their
teaching and level of professionalism (formative).

The following steps are recommended by ERIC Digests for implementing a portfolio
program:

1. Start slowly.
2. Gain acceptance.
3. Instill ownership.
4. Communicate implementation.
5. Use models.
6. Be selective.
7. Be realistic.

ACTION RESEARCH

Action research is an inquiry that teachers design and conduct in order to improve
teaching.

It promotes the concept of teacher-as-researcher (ERIC Digests. n.d.), which

encourages teachers to be collaborators not only in improving teaching behavior, but also
in revising curriculum. Improving working environment, professionalizing, teaching,
developing policy.

The most important feature of action research is the linking of “action” and
“research” which involves trying out practical ideas as means of increasing knowledge
about improving curriculum. Teaching and learning (Kemmis and McTaggarrt, 1982).

 Teacher-action research is solution-oriented.

 It consists of spiraling cycles of problem identification systematic data collection,
analysis and reflection, data-driven, and problem redefinition.

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  Kemmis (O’brien,1998) developed a simple model of the cyclical nature of the
action research process consisting of four steps: plan, act, observe and reflect.

The plan includes these items that serve as bases of implementation:

1. A description of the problem and the idea (intervention measure) to put into
action.
2. The rationale for change.
3. The strategic action to be taken.
4. The people involved

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 5. The monitoring strategies
6. A realistic timetable

The implementation of the strategic action is observed and monitored through such
techniques as the use of:

1. Diaries and logbooks

2. Anecdotal records
3. Questionnaires
4. Type recorders
5. Video cameras
6. Test

BEGINNING TEACHERS

Those who are hired without any previous teaching experience usually after the
completion of pre-service education, or those who enter the teaching profession after
quitting a non-teaching job.

 The first category is composed of new graduates with either a Bachelor of

Secondary Education (BSE) or a Bachelor of Elementary Education (BEE) degree
from Pre-service education institutions.
 The second category usually comprises graduates of other professions who have
taken 18 units of pedagogy to qualify to teach.

Pre-service education is the formal teacher education program designed to help an

individual prepare for the teaching profession.

Under Philippine Law, both types of novice teachers have to be certified by the
Licensure Board for Teachers after passing the professional examination. According to
Dukes, Cangelosi, and Knight (in Cangelosi, 1991), pre-service teacher education
programs provide beginning teachers with necessary, but still insufficient, competencies
to be successful in service teachers.

This view is reinforced by Carter (1990) who cautions educators from making false
assumptions regarding new teachers.

53
1.New teachers are well-prepared (because of their pre-service training) for their initial
classroom and school experiences.

2.Teachers can develop professional expertise on their own.

3.Teaching can be mastered in a relatively short period of time.

To become consistently effective, especially in the initial years of their teaching

careers, beginning teachers need assistance and feedback as they perform their
work. This is the function of supervision. Gordon and Maxey (2000) report that
many educators believe that it takes three years to induct a new teacher fully.
This period according to Cangelosi (1991), is the most critical and career
threatening.

PROBLEM AREAS FOR BEGINNING TEACHERS

o Reyes (2003) conducted an investigation of 137 neophyte teachers in 15

private schools in the National Capital region to find out the major problems
they encountered in the workplace during the probationary period (first 3
years).
o The results of the study showed a gradual decrease in the percentage of
distribution of the problem areas except for professional relationships during
the first 3 yrs. of teaching.

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CLASSIFICATION OF NEOPHYTE TEACHERS (CONGELESI, 1991)

1. The Born Teachers

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 Although all neophyte teachers experience difficulties during the first few years
of teaching, the born teachers succeed immediately.
At the start of their career, the performance of born teachers is already
comparable with, or even better than fact that of some experienced teachers.
They need minimal supervision.
Their teaching performance further improves with experience.

2. The Potentially Competent Teachers

To achieve satisfactory classroom performance levels, these neophyte teachers
need experience and instructional supervision to overcome initial problems.
With reasonable supervisory support and encouragement, they are able to
surmount difficulties and develop into competent teachers.

3. The Misplaced Individuals

These beginners require unreasonable and costly supervision in order to achieve
satisfactory classroom performance levels.
The research findings of Reyes, that were earlier cited suggest that adequate
support and encouragement should be given to all types of beginning teachers
primarily by supervision and secondarily by experienced teachers and other
school personnel.

Lunenberg and Ornstein (2000) identified seven general causes of these failure:

 Assignment to difficult classes.

 Isolation of classrooms from colleagues and supervisors.
 Poor physical facilities.
 Burdensome extra class assignments.
 Lack of understanding of school expectations.
 Inadequate supervision.

In addition, beginning teacher fear:

1. Not living up to personally imposed standards.

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 2. Meeting parents
3. Being evaluated
4. Being rejected by students and colleagues
5. Being embarrassed

A similar view is held by Gordon and Maxey (2000) who proposed that there are
work-related and person-related problems that confront beginning teachers.

1. These concerns may be clustered as follows:

2. Curriculum concerns
3. Instructional concerns
4. Relationship concerns
5. School environment concerns
6. Personal concerns
7. Concerns about expectation

There are reasons to improve provisions for the professional development of new
Teachers:

1. To make their job easier.

2. To make them feel more confident inside and outside the classroom.
3. To reduce their feelings of isolation.
4. To enhance quantity and quality of their interaction with colleagues and
administration.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
https://www.slideshare.net/angelaeroles/supervision-and-instruction

Supervision of Instruction The Philippine perspective, Adelaida L.B (Book)

57
 CHAPTER 4:
EVALUATION OF CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION

58
 REPORTERS:

ELESCUPIDES, Lilian D.
TAGARA, Camille S.
CARPIO, Rochelle S.
SEMBRANO, James Joshua D.
Introduction

Advocates of the school of thought, who considers teaching as an art, argue that
classroom instruction is a complex activity that puts primary importance on the teacher
variable, among many other interacting variables such as student, curriculum, instruction,
and learning environment. Clearly, this concern for personal variables in the teaching-
learning process is a bias towards what Wiles and Bondi (1991) refer to as the art of
teaching perspective which is glossed over in the science of teaching view. Based on this
perspective, when preparing for classroom instruction, important concerns such as what,
how, and how much to teach, under what conditions, among others, are decided by
individual teachers in consideration of personal lenses.

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EVALUATION OF CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION

Evaluation - It is the making of a judgement about the value of something.

Types of Evaluation
FORMATIVE EVALUATION
The purpose is primarily to determine the effectiveness of the delivery of instruction that
will serve as the basis for improvement.
SUMMATIVE EVALUATION
The purpose is to use the results for making administrative decisions.

The Need to Evaluate Classroom Instruction

Despite the unresolved issues and controversies, evaluation of classroom
instruction remains a common practice in many schools in the Philippines. Why is it
necessary to evaluate teaching performance? Why is the evaluation of teaching
performance a required skill for an instructional supervisor? Evaluation is arguably an
important and crucial process in instructional supervision and, therefore, part and parcel
of the responsibility of an instructional supervisor.

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1. It helps the instructional supervisor know how to assist teachers in their works.
2. It assesses the quality of instruction.
3. It monitors teachers' progress of instruction.
4. It serves as a basis for administrative decision-making.

Dimensions of effective teaching

HALSALL (1998), “The dimensions of effective teaching include knowledge

and understanding of the subjects being taught; setting high expectations to challenge the
learner, planning effectively; employing strategies that match not only the needs of the
learners, but also the objectives, and managing the learners well.”

MOORE (1998), He emphasized the importance of demonstration of a variety of

skills such as reflective thinking, decision-making, planning, communicating, and
systematic evaluation.

EXPERT TEACHER

1. Subject Matter Expertise

2. Classroom Management Expertise
3. Diagnostic Expertise
4. Communication Expertise
5. Rational Expertise

RESPONSIBLE TEACHER

1. Learner-centered
2. Skills
3. Values-integration

The Filipino model provides a continuum art of teaching and science of teaching
perspectives.

CATEGORIES FOR EVALUATION

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 Based on the different categories cited by various experts, teaching behaviours
maybe content-related, instruction-related, climate-related, and classroom-management
related.

1. Content-Related Behavior – relate to mastery of the subject matter

2. Instruction-Related Behavior – pertains to methods and strategies including
effective communication
3. Climate-Related Behavior - concerned with the physical and socio-emotional
environment conducive to learning.

TEACHING COMPETENCIES

Although there are variations in focus and emphasis, there is a convergence of

thought that classroom observation provides the opportunity to assess different major
areas of competence. Effective teaching involves the interplay of various competencies.
1. Communication Skills
2. Knowledge of a variety of Teaching Strategies
3. Skills in planning
4. Mastery of Subject Matter
5. Skills in assessing the outcomes of learning
6. Skills in classroom management
7. Attitude that foster learning

Classroom Management and Observation

Classroom management refers to the wide variety of skills and techniques that
teachers use to keep students organized, orderly, focused, attentive, on task, and
academically productive during a class.
According to Kounin Instructional Management (California State University,
Chico, 2005), classroom management includes all of the things a teacher does in pursuit
of two important objectives:
 To foster student involvement and cooperation in all classroom activities
 To establish a productive working environment in classroom

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 To achieve these twin objectives, it is important for a teacher to make sure that
before instruction takes place, there is all-round readiness in terms of the room, activities,
materials, and more importantly, the students.
Jacob Kounin is an educational theorist who focused on a teacher’s ability to
affect student behavior through instructional management. His best-known work was
done in the 1970s, where he conducted two major case studies. From educational
psychologist to a well-known theorist today, Kounin brought a novel idea that
incorporated both the instructional and disciplinary aspects of the classroom together.
Before this happened, most educators viewed their role as a straight-forward passing on
of skills and knowledge to their students. After publishing his book, “Discipline and
Group Management in Classrooms” (1977), Kounin attempted to influence the original
viewpoint of educators and to integrate teaching and discipline in the classroom
Kounin’s first observation of an intriguing pattern in student behavior was when
he asked a student in his own classroom to put something away; he noticed that the
students around him suddenly followed in focusing their attention. He watched as the
correction of one student behavior actually spread to other students engaging in
inappropriate behaviors, and resulted in a much more ordered room. He later described
this phenomenon as the “Ripple Effect”.
This first observation led Kounin to conduct experiments over 5 years with
students from all levels, but later Kounin changed his focus to seeing how teachers
actually prepared or proactively managed their classrooms before behavior occurred. He
noticed how the reactions of teachers to students affected classroom management in a
negative way. He learned that teachers were always receiving similar responses from
their students no matter how they reacted to misbehavior in the classroom. From this
observation, he concluded that there must be something a teacher could do to prevent
misbehavior in the first place, which would lead to more effective classroom
management.
From his studies, Kounin developed theories about classroom management that
were based around a teacher’s ability to organize and plan in their classrooms while using
proactive behavior and high student involvement. He believed that in order for a teacher
to have an effective connection between management and teaching, there needed to be

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good Lesson Movement. This Lesson Movement is achieved through withitness,
overlapping, momentum, smoothness, and group focus.
Withitness was Kounin’s word to describe a teacher’s ability to know what was
going on at all times in his/her classroom. This can be as simple as making scanning
looks around the room every once in a while. Kounin said that is was not necessary for
the teacher to know what is going on, but for the students to perceive that the teacher
knows.
Overlapping is the ability for a teacher to in a word, multi-task. Being able to
present a new topic while preventing misbehaviors is essential for a teacher. The concept
of overlapping ties into the idea of wittiness as well.
Momentum is the flow of a lesson. A teacher must be able to “roll-with-the-
punches” in acknowledging that things might go wrong and being able to fluidly adapt
and continue onward despite distractions and disruptions. An example of this would be a
student late for the class interrupts or technology that is being used goes wrong.
Smoothness is also highly related to momentum. Being able to keep on track without
getting on tangents as well as being diverted by irrelevant questions or information is
important. Many times, a teacher can get distracted and leave a topic open and not come
back to it until later, which can be confusing to students. Another thing that can ruin
smoothness is when a teacher does not have a plan or course of action, it can seem as
though the lecture is jumping from one topic to the next.
The final aspect that results in Lesson Movement and effective teaching through
integrating management and learning is group focus. Group focus is the ability of a
teacher to engage the whole class using techniques such as building suspense or asking
community questions. This can also look like asking random questions, or asking a
student a question and then looking around at other students to see if they are thinking or
ready to respond. These are the main theories and history of Jacob Kounin.

Attitudes that Promote Learning

Teaching competency largely depends on the teachers’ personality traits, beliefs,
desires, and motivations.
Its inclusion in the observation process is necessary as it influences effective teaching.

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 Some of the suggested attitudes and behaviors of the teacher that promote
learning, create proper climate in the classroom include: high expectations, enthusiasm,
concern for children, openness to student inquiry, fairness, humor, sensitivity to the needs
and concerns of students, and decisiveness.

Other Concerns in Classroom Observation

Cangelosi (1991). Argues that classroom observation should not only be
concerned with teaching competency variables because the latter are not the sole
determinant of lesson’s success. Classroom observation must also focus on student
outcome variables because student achievement is the goal of instruction and, therefore,
the success of a lesson depends on how well the students realize the learning goals.

Guiding Principles About Classroom Observation

Sullivan and Glanz (2000) propose certain guiding principles about classroom
observation that every observer should bear in mind. These principles can help improve
the effectiveness of classroom observation in determining teaching performance.
1. Good supervision depends on reflective thought and discussion of observed
behavior.
2. The use of observation instruments provides teachers with data on their classroom
behaviors that enhance their understanding of and commitment to instructional
improvement.
3. Observation involves the factual description of what has occurred, and its
interpretation.
4. Conclusion about behaviors should be based on the description, and its
interpretation.
5. The choice of observation instrument is a collaborative responsibility of both
supervisor and teacher.
6. Personal bias of the evaluator due to his/her “personal lenses” as a result of
experience, belief, values, and philosophy can lead to misinterpretation of
observed behavior.
7. Observation is skill that is developed through training and practice.

65
 8. Not all classroom behaviors can be observed.
9. Feedback is an essential element for successful observation.
10. Multiple observations with different foci of interests are necessary.

Types of Observation

Structured Observation
Requires the use of an instrument that limits the focus of observation on the items
specified in the measurement tool.
It is intended for summative evaluation of instruction as one of the bases for
arriving at an informed administrative decision (i.e., rehiring, promotion, termination)
regarding the faculty.

Ecological Observation
Involves observing and recording classroom conditions, all learning events, and
all types of interaction bet. Teacher-student, as well as student-student, whether verbal or
non-verbal, that take place during the entire observation period.

Ethnographic Observation
Similar to ecological observation, this type does not have predetermined
expectations as to what should be the focus of the exercise. The difference is in the
recording of the learning events.
Unlike ecological observation which does not involve selective recording of
classroom events, ethnographic observation entails selective recording of information
based on what the observer considers at the time of the monitoring as a significant and
worth noting.

Observation Based on an in-class Rating Scale

This is similar to structured observation which uses an instrument (rating scale)
focused on predetermined aspects of the teaching-learning process.
The difference is in the type or rating scale used.

66
Informal Observation
The most common and easiest to perform.
This type of observation is conducted most frequently.
Some educators call it “kangaroo observation” which invokes the image of an
animal hopping from one point to another which is exactly what the observer does.

Lenses of Observation
What does observation mean?

The action or process of observing something or someone carefully or in order to

gain information.

It is axiomatic that instructional supervisors should be knowledgeable in

determining teaching effectiveness. This is a non – negotiable skill that all supervisors
must possess and continue to develop. They should be able to assess the behaviours and
practices of teachers during classroom observation, and provide valuable constructive
feedback to help teachers improve their teaching skills.

According to Borich (1999), He focuses on what he calls lenses of observation as

evaluation areas of classroom teaching performance.

These are the following that he refers to:

1. Learning Climate

It includes the physical and socio-economic aspects conducive to learning. This

includes the facilities, and materials, student observance of classroom rules and
procedure, teacher-student and student-student interactions, and teacher’s expectations of
students.

2. Classroom Management

It involves a more comprehensive view than learning climate. The foci are on
student behaviour, cleanliness and orderliness of the environment, smooth flow of the
lesson and observance of classroom rules and routines.

67
 3. Lesson Clarity

Its concerns are on the clarity of explanations or directions, local sequences of the
lesson based on the expressed objectives, suitability of the strategic used of motivation,
presentation, lesson proper, and evaluation; effective use of audio-visual aids; quality of
the questions and answers that promote higher order thought processes; and student
understanding of the practical applications of concepts and theories learned.

4. Variety

The assessment focuses on the variety of teaching strategies used; provisions for
different modes of learning (visual, auditory, tactile and kinaesthetic); used of different
attention getting devices: variation in the use of the non-verbal (eye-contact, voice,
gestures); and the different uses of rewards (compliment, smile) and rein forcers
(example).

5. Task Orientation

The emphases of this evaluation are the extent of the implementation of a well-
designed lesson (congruence between written and taught curriculum); the teacher’s
maximization of his/her opportunity to focus on instructional tasks that are well planned;
and the effectiveness of the teacher in maintaining the smooth flow of the lesson by
anticipating and preventing student misbehaviour.

6. Student Management

The foci of the attention are the quality of the learning activities or tasks that
promote active learning which may include exercises, problem sets, seat works, and
group activities. The monitoring of such activities; and the provision of feedback to guide
students.

7. Student Success

The assessment focuses on the students’ completion of their work at moderate or

high level of success, the timeliness of feedback and corrections; the maintenance of the
classroom pacing and momentum.

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 8. Higher Thought Process

It is necessary to assess whether the teacher provides activities, and ask questions
that require critical thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. Individual and group
activities should afford the necessary opportunities for higher order thoughts processes
and discovery.

Why do we need Measuring Instruments?

According to Good and Brophy (1997), because of the complex nature of

classroom life, instruments for systematic recording of classroom interactions are needed
to assist teachers in understanding more fully and becoming more aware of classroom
behavior.

But according to Sullivan and Glanz (2000), the use of the observation
instruments is problematic when directly connected to evaluation. This is because “ ife in
the classroom” is based on context and dependent on situation that contributes further to
its complexity.

The use of evaluations, if not done properly, may discourage interpersonal and
collegial relationships, and instead promote a superior-subordinate orientation that causes
mistrust and even antagonism.

An instrument to gather empirical observation is needed to assist the classroom

observation process. A well-designed instrument, when properly used by a trainer
observer, produces measurement results that have high degree of validity and reliability.

According to Cangelosis (1991), there is a cautions against a what he calls

“pseudo measuring instruments.”. The items in such instruments are high critical that will
yield highly subjective interpretations.

Item Rating

1. The teacher displayed mastery of the 1 2 3 4 5

subject matter.
2. The teacher used effective and appropriate 1 2 3 4 5

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 communication.
3. The teacher conducted the class very well. 1 2 3 4 5

It will all depend on the subjective judgement of the observer.

 What will be the basis for making an objective assessment of how well the teacher
knows the subject matter?
 How will one determine whether the teacher uses effective and appropriate
communication?
 What is the basis for determining whether the teacher conducts the lesson well?

Low Inference Indicators of Subject Mastery

Item Rating
1. Taught without reading notes 1 2 3 4 5
2. Provided examples to illustrate difficult 1 2 3 4 5
terms or concepts.
3. Gave accurate answers to students’ 1 2 3 4 5
questions.
4. Related the topic to real-life situations. 1 2 3 4 5
5. Related the subject matter to other fields 1 2 3 4 5
Low Inference Indicators of Communication Skills

Item Rating
1. Used correct grammar in speaking. 1 2 3 4 5
2. Maintained eye contact with students. 1 2 3 4 5
3. Considered and used students’ ideas and 1 2 3 4 5
suggestions.
4. Asked probing questions. 1 2 3 4 5
5. Spoke in a voice that is clear and loud 1 2 3 4 5
enough to be heard by everyone.

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 When observation instruments are poorly constructed, the result of the
observation do not help teachers improve inadequacies in specific teaching behaviours.
Vague and fuzzy observations are usually challenged by those observed. When they are
not adequately defended (which is usually the case), they can cause conflict and
demoralization among the faculty.

DEVELOPING A MEASURING INSTRUMENT

According to Cangelosi (1991), the development of a usable classroom

observation measurement that is likely to produce valid and reliable results depends on
how well the developers address important issues.

Here are the other bases for the following proposed guidelines for developing a
measuring instrument:

1. The development of measuring instruments is done collegially.

2. The purpose of evaluation is clarified by defining the evaluation variables
with specific sub-variables.
3. Measurable and observable indicators are identified for each sub-variable.
4. The items are developed and then reviewed for content validity by experts.
5. The instrument is revised based on the comments and suggestions of experts,
as well as on statistical analysis (statistical analysis).

Assessing Measurement Validity and Reliability

Wiseman, 1999

Assessing the validity involves the determination of the degree to which an

instrument measures what it actually intends to measure.

FOUR CATEGORIES OF EVIDENCE THAT INDICATE THE VALIDITY OF

THE INSTRUMENT:

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1. CONCURRENT-RELATED EVIDENCE
The evidence shows the degree to which performance on one instrument relates to
performance in a standard instrument.

2. CONSTRUCT-RELATED VALIDITY EVIDENCE

The evidence shows the degree to which an instrument measures a trait that is
abstract and, therefore, not directly observable.

3. CONTENT-RELATED VALIDITY EVIDENCE

The evidence demonstrates the appropriateness and comprehensiveness of the
content. It provides information on the adequacy of the items to measure the content
being assessed.

4. PREDICTIVE-RELATED VALIDITY EVIDENCE

The evidence provides information as to the degree to which estimated

performance becomes reality. It is determined by correlating the results of performance
on the instrument with another measure given at some future time.
Wiseman (1999) emphasizes a view shared by Cangelosi (1991) that a major
component of validity of any measuring instrument is reliability:

RELIABILITY REFERS TO CONSISTENCY

THERE ARE FOUR CATEGORIES OF EVIDENCE THAT INFORM ABOUT

RELIABILITY:

1. Stability-related evidence
It refers to the degree to which scores of a group of individuals on the instrument
administered on one occasion are consistent with the scores of the same group using the
same instrument given at a later date.

2. Equivalence-related evidence

72
 It refers to the extent to which two forms measuring instrument yield seminar, if
not identical results

3. Internal consistency-related evidence

This evidence provides information on the agreement of the different items in one
instrument. This is determined by splitting the items in one instrument into two parts.

4. Internal consistency-related evidence

This evidence provides information on the agreement of the different items in one
instrument. This is determined by splitting the items in one instrument into two pairs. The
test has high consistency if the result from one-half of the test shows high correlation
with that of the other half. This procedure is called as the SPLIT-HALF METHOD.

FRAENKEL AND WALLEN (1994) IDENTIFIED 7 QUESTIONS TO IDENTIFY

THE USABILITY OF AN INSTRUMENT:

 How long will it take to administer the instrument?

 Are the directions clear and easy to understand?
 Is it appropriate for the intended groups?
 Is it easy to score and interpret the results?
 How much does it cost?
 Do equivalent forms exist?
 Have there been reports of problems from the other users?

EVALUATION OF BEGINNING TEACHERS

Cangelosi (1991)

Maintains that the most challenging and difficult evaluations are those involving
beginning and marginal teachers.
For majority of teachers, the first three years of their professional careers are the most
SIGNIFICANT, CHALLENGING, AND THREATENING. WHY???
DURING THE FIRST THREE YEARS…

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 Neophyte teachers try to adopt to their new career and working environment
without the benefit of a wealth of professional experiences on which to base their
decisions. They have to struggle to prove that they can survive in the classroom, as well
as to prove their worth to students, parents, colleagues, and administrators.
They do not enjoy security of tenure which is a cause of instability.

Glickman (1985)
Beginning teachers are generally occupied with feelings of doubt and fear of inadequacy.
These feelings are compounded by a heavy workload and additional assignments
that neophyte teachers are not prepared to handle because of their lack of experience.
These problems and concerns impact the evaluation of classroom performance.

New teachers who are having adjustment problems and are not given support and
encouragement by experienced teachers and supervisors are more, compared to seasoned
teachers, to be less effective in the classroom. Consequently, they leave the profession in
favor of non-teaching jobs.

EVALUATION OF MARGINAL TEACHERS:

The more problematic area is distinguishing between the potentially competent
and the misplaced individuals.
Misplaced individual
If allowed to go on without any drastic intervention measures perpetuate
instructional incompetence that would be difficult to reverse as time goes by. Besides,
allowing teachers who are instructionally incompetent to continue teaching encourages
them to stay in in the profession, and in the process, prevents them from seeking more
satisfying careers for themselves.
On the other hand, the presence of potentially competent teachers who are not
identified and given the necessary direction, guidance, and support may result in either
perpetuation of ineffective teaching in the classroom. The first consequence will hurt
both the teacher and the school, while the second may ruin potentially satisfying careers
that may eventually translate to the loss of a valuable resource for the school and the

74
teaching profession.
EVALUATION OF EXPERT TEACHERS:

Mcgrath 1991, Listed Some of the Reasons Why Expert Teachers Leave he Profession:

-Lack of Opportunities for Advancement-Failure to Be Treated Like Professionals

-Failure to Reward Excellence
-Lack of Involvement in Decision-Making
-Low Salaries

In order to reward and motivate teaching excellence, Cangelosi suggests

summative evaluations based on cost-effective measurements and career ladder
programs.
1.How well does performance, relative to the summative evaluation variables, correlate
with qualifications for meeting the responsibilities of the advanced position?

2.Does the evaluation discriminate only on relevant variables and not on irrelevant
variables?
3.Are criteria, evaluation variables, and all the process for making evaluations
communicated to all affected parties?

Summative evaluation for expert teachers are designed to identify exemplary

meritorious instruction.

They can be recognized through the following:

1.Consistent high summative evaluation ratings on classroom performance over a period

of three years.
2.Endorsement from peers
3.Fulfillment of higher level credentials or certification for the advanced position.
4.Scholarly work (research and publications)

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EVALUATION SYSTEM

This suggests that in making administrative decisions regarding a tenured faculty,

administrators do not simply rely on evaluation that only focuses on evaluation teaching
but the overall performance are also considered in the decision-making process. The
choice of criteria is usually guided by the mission-vision of the school, as well as the
accepted concepts and principles that the schools follow. That is why it is not surprising
that because of the divergence in the mission-vision, teachers are expected to fulfill roles
peculiar to the nature of their perspective.

Each of the criteria is usually defined by indicators which are directly measurable
such as:
1. Prof. growth and development may be demonstrated by attendance in or organizing
and conducting seminar workshops.
2. Undertaking research or publication of articles in reputable journals.
3. Active membership in professional organizations.
4. Enrolment in graduate studies.
5. Getting awards or recognition from non-government organizations (NGOs) or
government organizations (GOs)

ETHICAL CONDUCT

May be gauged by the practice of professionalism in dealing with students,

colleagues, parents, and school administrator, as well as in adherence to the established
rules and regulations of the school.

COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
Can be assessed through active participation in the school extension program, as
well as active membership in NGOs with specific advocacies for improving the life
marginalized communities, and religious organizations whose programs and projects are
based on the principle of preferential option for the poor (POP).

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“GOING THE EXTRA MILE”
May be measured in terms of a teacher’s voluntary and wholehearted participation in
school activities.
The evaluation procedures specify the following:
1. The feedback mechanism
2. Needed documents to be submitted to support claims about accomplishments and
achievements.
3. Schedule and frequency of the evaluation.
4. Identification of the evaluators (principal, asst. principal, subject is coordinator)

CHAPTER V

STAFFING

77
 Reporters:
Ann Margarette M. Domangan
Oliver V. Cancio
DARIUS RIGOR GAGARIN

Jelly Ace G. Calma

Ginalyn A. Felix

INTRODUCTION

Introduction One reason that has always been advanced for poor results in schools
is that principals are not appropriately skilled and trained for school management and
leadership, and as a result there are those who call for professional development of school
principals. According to Reitzug (2002:3), professional development may take different
forms such as training, on-site processes, networks and professional development
schools. As a human resource manager, a principal need to set up mechanisms for
nurturing and unfolding of educators’ potential in order to enhance effective teaching and
learning. For this reason, development and enhancement of educators’ potential should

78
relate to the work they are doing of not only nurturing the intellectual potential of
learners, but also of moral formation and appropriate humanization according to national
policies and goals.

Just like teachers, principal’s professional development must be planned, long-

term, embedded in their jobs, focused on student achievement, and supportive of
reflective practice. It needs to include opportunities to work, discuss, and solve problems
with colleagues. Their programs are varied and meet the unique needs of principal
through conferences, forums, study groups, workshop, seminars, institutes in grants to
pursue self-designed school based project.

Staff Development

 Wiles (1991) raised a basic issue about staff development when he explained that
the terms staff development and in-service education, although used
interchangeably, are conceptually different. According to him, in-service
education or in-service training assumes a deficiency in the teacher or
administrator, and presupposes a set of appropriate knowledge, skills and methods
that needs to be developed. On the other hand, staff development is more
compassing term which includes all activities leading to professional and personal

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 growth. In contrast to in-service training, staff development is directed towards
total human development and not just towards any narrow, specific concern,
which is the focus of instructional supervision. Thus, which in-service education
is staff development, not all staff development is in-service education.
 A comprehensive type of staff development is demonstrated in Lawrence Dale’s
Planning document (in Orlich, 1989) which categorizes activities under six major
functions.
1. In-service education (improving knowledge and skills)
2. Organization development (motivation, decision-making, conflict
management, etc.)
3. Consultation (clinical supervision, mentoring, coaching, etc.)
4. Communication and coordination of resources (effective communication and
coordination)
5. Leadership training (innovations, creativity, classroom management)
6. Evaluation (needs assessment, test construction, etc.)
 For Orlich (1989), the goal of staff development is to provide thoughtful and
guided enhancement of human talent in the schools through a long-range working
model which incorporates well-conceived strategies.
 Based on the definition by Seyfarth (1991), an effective staff development
program may be measured by the changes in personnel behavior and better
working relationship in school.
 According to Seyfarth (1991), some authors extend the explanation of in-service
training and staff development by distinguishing between training and
development. For them, training typically refers to teaching technical employees
and non-teaching staff how to perform their present jobs effectively and
efficiently. This perspective is based on the defect or deficiency orientation that
seems to pervade in-service education. In contrast, staff development refers to
teaching professionals and administrators the necessary skills for present and
future positions in the organization which is a growth-oriented view.
 Lunenberg and Ornstein (2000) provide a compromise view about training and
development. They do not make distinction, and refer to both types of

80
 intervention (training and development) collectively as training. To them, training
and development are two sides of the same coin or currency directed to the same
goal: effective instruction in school.
 The limited view of in-service education for teachers is reflected in the scope of
the in-service training program of the Department of Education, Culture and
Sports specified in the Congressional Commission on Education, or EDCOM
(1993). In the report, in-service training refers to any planned school activity
indented to enhance the knowledge, skills, and competencies of teachers which
may take the form of any or a combination of workshops, seminars, conferences,
conventions, summer institutes, and meetings. Specifically, the various types of
in-service training programs are designed to provide teachers the opportunity to
upgrade and update knowledge and competencies directly related only to
curriculum and instruction as indicated by the following concerns (The
Congressional Commission on Education, 1993)
o Orientation to new concepts, objectives, values, curricular innovations and
educational policies
o Upgrading of skills and competence in methodology and content in
different areas
o Evolvement of models, strategies, methods, guidelines, and instruments
o Monitoring and evaluation of projects and curriculum innovations
o Planning and programming in curriculum development, instructional
evaluation and action research
o Enrichment, production and utilization of materials
o Problem identification and evolving proposal for possible solutions
o Sharing and enriching knowledge and experiences, and information
dissemination
o Strengthening inter-agency cooperation and collaboration
 Even the specific proposal by the Presidential Commission on Education Reform
(PCER, 2000) to strengthen teacher competencies at the basic education level is
primarily a deficiency orientation. PCER proposed the implementation of Project
TEACH or Teacher Empowerment to Achieve Competencies and Humaneness.

81
 The objectives of the project, which imply lack of certain skills, and competencies
(i.e., use of technology, reading, critical thinking) that need to be addressed,
illustrate the deficiency view. These are to develop the teacher as:
o An IT teacher who is adept at using new learning technologies as means of
enhancing the teaching-learning process;
o A reading teacher;
o A critical and creative teacher;
o A values education teacher imbued with the ideals of integrity, honesty,
patriotism and work ethics.
 On the other hand, the Professional and Organizational Development Network in
Higher Education (n. d.) explains that faculty development has three-fold focus ---
the faculty as a teacher, the faculty as a scholar and professional and the faculty as
a person which varies the former.
o When the emphasis is on the faculty as a teacher, the program offered is
geared toward instructional supervision.
o When it is on teacher as a scholar and professional, the program assists in
career planning and professional development in scholarly pursuits such as
writing grants, publishing, committee work, administrative work and
supervisory skills among others.
o When the stress is on the faculty as a person, the program provides
training in wellness management, interpersonal skills, stress and time
management, assertiveness development, and other concerns which
address the individual’s well-being.

OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES
Professional Development Enrolment in graduate programs.
1. To update and upgrade the In-house and off-campus seminar
knowledge of the faculty members in workshop.
their respective fields of Demonstration lessons.
specialization. Orientation for new teacher’s.
2. To enhance the teaching skills of Action Research.

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 faculty members.
Social-Cultural Development
Field trips.
1. To expose teachers to “low-stress”
Recreational activities such as
and “non-stress” activities.
ballroom dancing and parties.
2. To promote healthy working
Sport festival (volleyball, bowling,
relationships in the organization
basketball, etc.).
3. To deepen community awareness
Community day.
and involvement.
Family day celebration.
4. To enhance home-school
Team-building activities.
relationship.
Cultural shows (folk dancing,
5. To develop appreciation of the
musical concerts, etc.).
richness of the Philippines culture.
Personality Development
Seminar-workshop on public
1. To help teachers develop self-
speaking, power dressing, social
confidence in dealing with students,
graces, art of listening, proper diet
peers, administrators, and parents.
and nutrition, good grooming, and
2. To develop health consciousness
coping with stress.
among the faculty.
Group dynamic sessions on self-
3. To help teachers recognize their
awareness
strengths and weaknesses, and deal
Aerobics.
with them appropriately.
Curriculum Development
Seminar-workshops on syllabus
1. To enhance skills in syllabus-
making, lesson planning, and
making, lesson planning, and test
curriculum-mapping.
construction.
Demonstration lessons on how to
2. To enhance the skills in integration
integrate different concepts.
of different concepts.
Spiritual Development Retreats and recollections.
1. To deepen the Christian spirituality Pilgrimage.
of the faculty. Involvement in Basic Ecclesial
2. To strengthen relationship with the Community (BEC).
Lord. Bible sharing.

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 3. To have a sense of renewal, and view
teaching as a calling from God. Living Rosary.
4. To deepen the knowledge and Colloquium on teaching ministry.
devotion to Mary.

STAFF DEVELOPMENT

 Failures of Staff Development

 Programs to Achieve Objectives
 Designing Staff Development Programs

 Staff Development provides activities intended to upgrade the knowledge, skills,

and understanding of the human resource in school. It aims to create positive and
productive changes in the human resource’s thinking and behavior, and to secure
compliance with school and national policies. (Seyfarth, 1991)

 Failure of Staff Development Programs to Achieve Objectives

 Popham (in Seyfarth, 1991) reminds that staff development programs,
despite their potentials value, often fail to achieve the intended results.
This is attributable to several factors:
 Lack of coordination of staff development activities with other programs
to improve instructions
 Absence of training continuity
 Lack of provision for organizational adaption to the desired outcomes.
 And more importantly weakness of the design itself, among others.

Torres (1996) identified the following characteristics of training programs that did not
work. These may be clustered into four major areas:

1. DESIGN

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 Lack of Variety-Contains homogeneous proposal for teachers in general.
 Limited-involves short period of time addressed to the concern of individual
teachers rather than groups.
 Esoteric-ignores teachers’ real conditions
 Lack of Coherence-contradicts (and inconsistent with) pedagogical model
requested by teachers

2. COORDINATION
 Lack of faculty involvement-sees teachers only in a passive role as recipients and
potential trainees

 3. ORGANIZATIONAL ADAPTATION TO DESIRED OUTCOMES.

 Lack of integration of content and method fails to integrate subject with teaching
skills.
 Traditional-focuses on teacher-centered model rather than on student-centered and
interactive teaching learning model.
 Academic and Theoretical-ignores practical, technological, personal, and critical
or social orientations.
 Poor Choice of training Venue-holds training outside the workplace that limits
opportunity to apply training to actual school conditions.

4. CONTINUITY
 Starts from zero with each new policy, plan, or project.

 Designing Staff Development Programs

Educational literature is replete with a variety of staff development

models. For his part, Seyfarth (1991) proposes a training model
consisting of Four Steps:
1. Establishing Priorities
2. Determining Objectives

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 3. Planning of Content
4. Choosing Methods of Presentation

 Establishing Priorities
 Priorities are determined in consultation with important school
stakeholders. Individual priorities are considered during the
discussion. Stakeholders arrive at a consensus after a discussion of
all the issues and concerns brought to the table. The important
bases for determining the priorities are the results of the needs
analysis; the results of performance evaluation; and the short-term
programs and services, students development, human resources,
performance evaluation, and training.

 Determining Objectives
 This refers to identifying the desirable outcomes in term of
improvement in knowledge, skills, values and attitudes, and habits
that will eventually translate to effective instruction. Examples of
objectives are: To use effective integration strategies in classroom
instruction, "and “To apply a new method in teaching a specific
subject.”

 Planning Content
 The selection of content is based on the identified objectives. It
should be based on the criteria of feasibility, suitability,
importance, and impact. Feasibility to what is reasonable and
doable, recognizing the realities in the school in terms of resources
(human and material) and time. Suitability is a concern for what is
appropriate given the school culture that defines the norms and
relationships among personnel. The criterion of importance
considers the value of content to everyone, not just to a few
individuals in the organization, Impact is an issue of what will

86
 produce the maximum benefit to the staff in particular and to the
school in general.

 Choosing Methods of Presentation

 The underlying principle in the choice of methods or strategies is
the concept of andragogy rather than pedagogy. Knowles (in
Orlich, 1989) emphasizes that adult learners have different
temperament, motivation, and predisposition from young learners.
In general, adults are more self-directed, possess a wide base of
stock knowledge, and learn by solving problems: As a
consequence, adults…
1. enjoy planning and conducting their own learning experiences.
2. Learn better when the training addresses their needs;
3. need opportunities to apply what they have learned;
4.need greater independence in choosing structured options;
5. learn better experientially.
 Feist (2001) stresses that to learn effectively, adults be involved in setting
learning objectives which ensures applicability to real-life situations; they
should feel like respected partners in a collaborative process; they must be
provided with the opportunity to practice new ideas, skills and attitudes,
respect on them, and apply them in their own life-situation; and they must
be supported in becoming self-directed, lifelong learners.

STRUCTURES OF STAFF DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS

- Designs are based on principles of adult learning and a full understanding of the
process of change.
- Programs are conducted in school settings.
- Development takes place in more than one incident, and incidents are spaced over
time: They are conducted long enough and often enough to assure that
participants progressively gain knowledge skill and confidence.

87
- Training is conveniently scheduled to avoid interfering with on-going job
requirements of participants.
- Development activities take place at a convenient location.
- Trainers have credibility with the participants.
- Participants are involved in the planning, development and presentation of the
training program.

During the late 1970s and early 1980s, several major studies and reviews
contributed to our understanding of the characteristics of effective staff
development, focusing not on attitudes, but on actual practices (Berman &
McLaughlin, 1978; Kells, 1980; Lawrence, 1974; Yarger, Howey, & Joyce,
1980). The resulting list of effective practices, well known by now, included:

• Programs conducted in school settings and linked to ‘school wide efforts;

• Teachers participating as helpers to each other and as planners, with

administrators, of in-service activities;

• Emphasis on self-instruction, with differentiated training opportunities;

• Teachers in active roles, choosing goals and activities for themselves;

• Emphasis on demonstration, supervised trials, and feedback; training that is

concrete and ongoing over time; and

• Ongoing assistance and support available on request

Staff development came of age in the 1980s. It was the focus of countless
conferences, workshops, articles, books, and research reports. State legislators and
administrators of local school districts saw staff development as a key aspect of
school improvement efforts. Many school districts initiated extensive staff
development projects to improve student learning. Research on these projects and
craft knowledge generated by staff developers have substantially advanced our

88
 understanding of effective staff development practices beyond the overview
studies of the early 1980s referred to above.

Ongoing Teacher Training by DepEd

- K – 12 MTOT On Critical Content in English, Filipino, Mathematics, Science,

Music and Arts
- Mass Training of Teachers for the k-12 Basic Education Curriculum
- Trainings for the Red Cross Youth Advisers
- Implementing Guidelines on the Allocation and Utilization of the Downloaded
Funds for the 2017 Training Program for Senior High School (SHS), Technical-
Vocational-Livelihood (TVL), Teachers under the Strengthened Technical-
Vocational-Education Program (STVEP), and Teachers of Alternative Learning
System (ALS) for the information and guidance of all concerned

Staff Development for Instructional Leaders

Marsh 1992 defines Instructional Leadership “is something specific to a principal.

It refers to anything that school leaders do to improve teaching and learning in the school.
It focuses on learning and its promotion. This is the reason why instructional leaders are
also called learning leaders”.

Who play the role of instructional leadership?

Provision in RA 9155 (Governance of Basic Education Act 2001) states (The Shift in
Locus and Focus of the Leadership Roles of Principal in School Improvement)

“There shall be a school head for all public elementary schools or a cluster
thereof. The establishment of integrated schools from existing public elementary and
public high schools shall be encouraged.”
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Roles of Instructional Leaders

In general, they improve teaching and learning in the school.

They lead in setting the school vision and formulating strategies.

They are resource provider.

They are instructional resource.

They provide a visible presence in the school.

They understand effective practices in school.

They define the school mission.

They understand effective practices in curriculum, instruction and assessment.

They promote and participate in teacher learning and development.

They ensure supportive and orderly environment.

They understand effective pedagogy.

SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE APPROACH ON IN-SERVICE

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT MODELS OF INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERS
AND TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERS IN DEPED

What is In-Service Professional Development?

Is a professional training or staff development effort, where professionals are

trained and discuss their work with others in their peer group.

What is Instructional Leadership?

A. Assessment of Learning

 Utilizes the effectiveness of the processes and procedures of instructional

strategies

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  Creates and manages a school process to ensure student progress is conveyed to
students and parents/guardian regularly.

B. Developing Programs and Adopting Existing Program

 Addresses and sustains successes of current programs in collaboration with

teachers, and learners.

 Develops a culture of functional literacy.

C. Implementing Programs for Instructional Improvement

 Manages the introduction of curriculum in line of curriculum initiatives in line

with DepEd policies.

 Works with teachers in curriculum review

 Enriches curricular offerings based on local needs.

 Organizes teams to champion instructional innovation programs toward curricular

responsiveness

MODELS OF IN-SERVICE PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF

INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERS

1. Traditional Model- The traditional model exposes the principal to the research
base on management and the behavioral sciences. The participants are often the
passive recipient of knowledge and the source of knowledge is research
generated.
2. Craft Model- The principal is trained by other experienced professionals. In the
craft approach, the source of professional knowledge is the practical wisdom of
experienced practitioners.
3. Reflective Inquiry Approach- In the reflective inquiry approach, the principal is
encouraged to generate knowledge through a process of systematic inquiry.
 Networking
 Mentoring

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  Reading and Journaling

TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR INTRUCTIONAL LEADERS IN DEPED

1. Training on Coaching and mentoring

2. Instructional Supervisory Competence

3. Latest Pedagogical Trends in the Philippines

4. Staff Development

5. School Heads Dev’t Program Foundation Course (SHDP)

6. National Training for Trainers (NTOT)

SELF-EVALUATION

Instruction: TRUE or FALSE

______________1. Instructional Leaders is a competency of school heads that focuses on

financial issues of school.

______________2. Training Programs are well-planned and in lined with the current
programs and issues of the educational system of the Philippines.
______________3. An effective instructional leader should work to the teachers and
community in order to address the needs of learners.

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REFLECTION:

Answer the question briefly.

Training Programs shouldn’t be designed to deliver competence, they must be dedicated

to producing excellence.

CAREER COUNSELING FOR INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERS

INTRODUCTION

“The decisions you make about your work life are especially important, since
most people spend more of their waking lives working than doing anything else. Your
choices will affect, not only yourself and those closest to you, but in some way the whole
world.” -Laurence G.

Climbing to the top demands strength, whether it is to the top of Mouth Everest or
to the top of your career. -Abdul Kalam

While business organizations provide extensive career counseling to managers,

school institutions seem to neglect this aspects (Daresh, 2001). When faculty member
decides to leave the classroom to assume a leadership role in a school, he/she makes a
major change in career path. Most people who change career usually look for
opportunities to discuss certain concerns regarding their new role to other people who can
provide a sympathetic ear. Unfortunately, in many cases, there is no one available to
provide this kind of support. This can be addressed through career counseling which
offers the necessary mechanism to help individuals consider all aspects of their decision
to embark on a new career, and to enable them to see clearly what lies ahead. Through
counseling, they can allay their fears and anxieties, and feel better about their decision.

CAREER
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 An occupation undertaken for a significant period of a person's life and with
opportunities for progress.

COUNSELING

Is an essentially a process in which the Counselor assists the counselee to make

interpretations of facts relating to a choice, plan or adjustment which he needs to make.
(Glenn F. Smith)

Is a series of direct contacts with the individual w/c aims to offer him assistance in
changing his attitude & behaviors. (Carl Rogers)

INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERSHIP requires the school principal to wear many hats. At

various times, principals must be:

 Administrators
 Managers
 Diplomats
 teachers
 curriculum leaders

BEING ‘THE PRINCIPAL’: ONE BEGINNING PRINCIPAL’S PRACTICES,

CHALLENGES AND FEELINGS A CASE STUDY BY RINNELLE-LEE
PIGGOTT

New principals’ struggles in the complex and dynamic environments of schools,

principals have to ‘juggle a number of existing tensions’ (Stevenson, 2006). Daresh and
Male (2000) and Walker et al. (2003a, b) note that as beginning principals take up their
role, they almost immediately experience a ‘culture shock’ as they are cautioned against
violating any cultural codes of the school (Langston et al., 1998 cited in Walker & Qian,
2006; Daresh & Male, 2000). The new incumbents, eight American and eight British, in
Daresh & Male’s (2000) study, admitted that prior to the principalship they held

94
unrealistic conceptions of the role and have also found that they are treated differently on
becoming head by persons in and out of the school.

In addition, some new principals have to deal with the influence of the ‘ghost(s)
of principals past’ (Walker & Qian, 2006, p. 301). Draper and McMichael (2000 cited in
Walker & Qian, 2006) found in their study that seven out of ten new principals reported
on issues brought about by the difference between theirs and the previous principal’s
style of management.

As new principals struggle with their workloads and are driven to compete with
other schools, they tend to develop a sense of isolation from teachers and other principals
(Rooney, 2000, cited in Walker & Qian, 2006; Weindling & Earley, 1987; Wildy &
Clarke, 2008). Legotlo and Westhuizen (1996) found that in their isolation, new
principals were disappointed at the limited feedback and guidance they received from
their employing bodies and other principals. Harris (2007) notes that principals are often
dehumanized and their feelings, anxieties and vulnerabilities disregarded.

Coping and asking for help In order to cope with the emotional and physical
distress brought about by the challenges and dilemmas they face, beginning principals
have employed a number of strategies which have been categorized as physiological
strategies, socio-psychological strategies and management skills (Parkay & Rhodes,
1992). Beginning principals in Daresh & Male’s (2000) study mentioned going on
outings with family or reading novels in a quiet space at home as strategies for ‘personal
renewal’. A not-so-healthy response of some beginning principals in the study of Walker
et al. (2003b) was to depersonalize their job, by rejecting their role as administrator so as
to appear as part of the teaching staff. Others opted to shield themselves using rules,
regulations, policies and procedures. One novice principal spoke of the need to be highly
diplomatic by ‘…keeping my mouth shut and some of my gut reactions to myself’
(Walker et al., 2003b, p. 14).

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THE CHANGING ROLE OF THE SUPERVISORS IMPLICATION TO
TRAINING

The changing role of teachers due to emergent technology necessarily demands

modifications in the role of supervisors. The use of educational technology in the delivery
of instruction requires new strategies in teacher supervision. A school that seriously
carries out its responsibility of providing its faculty the opportunities for growth and
development is usually rewarded with excellent teaching performance there are additional
benefits to be derived from allowing and making teachers grow and develop both
personally and professionally for the school.

STAFF DEVELOPMENT

 Can be viewed as the activities and programs formal or informal and in or off
campus that help staff members learn about responsibilities develop requires
skills and competencies necessary to prepare themselves for advancement in the
institution or beyond the campus.

IN-SERVICE EDUCATION

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  A program of instruction or training provided by an agency or institution for its
employees. The program is held in the institution or agency and is intended to
increase the skills and competence of the employees in specific area.

TEACHERS CENTER

 New teachers center mission is to improve student learning by accelerating of the

effectiveness of new teachers, experienced teachers and school leaders.

ANDROGOGY

 The word comes from the Greek word “andro” meaning man and “agogos”
meaning leader of it leterally means leading children.
 The method and practice of teaching adult learners an adult education.

PRINCIPLES OF ANDROGOGY

Instruction for adult focuses more on process and less on content.

Case studies, role playing simulations most useful.

Instructors adopt a role of facilitator or resource.

NEED ANALYSIS

 To be necessary compelled, a method of determining or describing resolving it

into its part.

STRATEGIC STAFF DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

WELLNESS

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Supervision of Instruction: The Philippine Perspective (staff Development)

Rinnelle-Lee Piggott, Being ‘The Principal’: One Beginning Principal’s Practices,

Challenges and Feelings

https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/education/documents/research/jubilee-press/the-
principal.pdf

97
http//www.models/development.com.ph

Deped Order 32,s.2010.

CHAPTER 6

LEGAL CONCERNS

98
 Reporters:

Maria Kristina G. Angeles

Kyla Rubi S. De Leon, LPT

Marife Angeles

Dinky Novesteras Ramilo

Introduction:

The educational system will not function effectively with weak school
administration. Effective administration begins with leaders who know how to
motivate teachers and students. Good administrators also know how to enlist the
help of the community in improving schools for all concerned. If administrators
allow personal relationships or ambition to dictate their decisions, the school

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environment will become one of distrust. This lack of unity and teamwork will
result in low student achievement.
Ever since schools have existed they have been heavily influenced by the law. 
These laws span over hundreds of years and have either been modified over time or
changed because of the attitudes and beliefs of society as a whole.  It is surprising how
many aspects of schooling are deeply affected by the law, particularly the relationship
between teachers and students. These aspects include: 

1) Teaching Conditions: certifications, duties and powers, employment conditions,

grounds for dismissal, labor laws, and collective bargaining. 
2) Physical Safety of Students: negligence, liability, and child abuse issues. 
3) School attendance: compulsory attendance. 
4) Maintaining Order: discipline, classroom management, suspension/expulsion. 
5) Student Rights/Democratic Practice: freedom of speech, beliefs, participation in
governance by teachers and students. 
6) Teaching Practices: subjects to be taught, curriculum, length of school year, treatment
of exceptional children, copyrights on educational materials. With so many aspects of
schooling affected by the law, teachers must ensure that they are proactive in minimizing
the possibility of breaching any laws that stem from the aspects outlined above.  The
bottom line is that we must know the law so we can stay out of trouble while still being
able to provide a highly creative and productive learning environment for students. 
Teachers must have the ability to anticipate possible dangers and take steps to avoid them
and regulate school life in such a way that learning is taking place while the rights of all
are being respected. 
Today’s society is more litigious than ever, where people no longer hesitate to
press charges when they feel they have been wronged in one way or another.  Lawsuits
have become very common in schools, where cases have been made against teachers,
schools, and school boards.  Many of these cases have been successful for the plaintiffs
where millions of dollars have been awarded to them.  Cases have been made and won
because of various forms of negligence on the part of teachers.  In the Des Hawley
Secondary School case study, the new principal has great concerns regarding the

100
carelessness of teachers on the job because twelve students were injured in a single year
due to negligent acts.  These incidents occurred during field trips, school sports,
chemistry lab accidents, and a vehicle accident involving a teacher’s vehicle while
transporting students.  The aspect of schooling that is being neglected from these
situations is mainly a breach in the regard for the physical safety of students.  Teachers
need to be concerned about the safety of their students because they can be sued and
prosecuted if their responsibilities are neglected.  If prosecuted, it is highly possible that a
teacher would lose his/her job.  In regarding the physical safety of students, teachers
should ask themselves two questions: 
a) How can I protect myself from being sued? 
b) How can I avoid potentially dangerous and inappropriate behavior? 
By answering these questions alone, teachers can greatly decrease their chances of being
found liable if brought to court for negligence.

Legal Concerns, Marginal Teachers, Rights and Responsibilities of Administrators

Introduction

“One of the more difficult and worrisome aspect of supervision is the possibility of being
brought to court for certain administrative decisions related to classroom performance
and affecting the employment of a teacher”

Administrative Decisions

• Administrative decisions should be based on summative results of the evaluation

of instruction obtained thru through the use of valid and reliable measuring
instruments.

• Summative evaluation of instructions is supposed to provide accurate data and

information to be legally defensible.

• They are the judgements on the effectiveness of instruction that are used for
making administrative decisions.

Summative Evaluation

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 • The evaluation after the implementation

• Involves collecting, analyzing and summarizing data.

• For the purpose of giving decision makers information on the effectiveness and
efficiency of instruction.

Effectiveness of content

• Instruction solve the problem?

• Criterion created prior to evaluation?

• Was the criterion established in conjunction with the needs assessment?

Specifically:

• Did the learners achieve the objectives?

• Learners feeling about instruction?

• What were the cost?

• How much time did it take?

• Was instruction implemented as designed?

• What unexpected outcomes?

Alternative Approaches to Summative Evaluation

OBJECTIVISM

• Answering questions on the bases of observed data.

• Goal based and replicable, uses scientific method

SUBJECTIVISM

• Employs expert judgement

• Includes qualitative methods

 Observations an interviews

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  Evaluate content

Limitations:

Objectivism

• Examine only a limited number of factor

• May miss critical effects

Subjectivism

• Not replicable

• Biased by idiosyncratic experiences, perspectives, or the people who do the

evaluation.

Marginal Teachers

• Marginal teachers are those w, and ho are no longer neophytes but whose teaching
competence remains unsatisfactory and are there considered for dismissal,

• If allowed to continue these may undermine the teaching profession, cause

disservice to society.

Cangelosi: Categories of Marginal Teachers

1. TYPE 1

• Teachers who have been designated marginal because unwarranted concerns

about their instructional method have been raised.

• Accurate summative evaluation is needed to determine whether they should be

dismissed or retained but given special help.

2. TYPE II

• Teachers whose teaching performance is ineffective, but who are responsive to

the instructional supervision.

• They have the potential to succeed in the classroom with reasonable level of help.

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 3. TYPE III

• Teachers whose classroom performance is ineffective, and who are not responsive
to instructional supervision. They are beyond help. Thy may either be:

1. nearing retirement or planning to leave the profession voluntarily in the

near future.

2. expecting to pursue those teaching careers for many years to come

Rights vs Responsibilities

• The right of the administrator is to expect satisfactory classroom performance

from the teacher.

• The responsibility of the teacher, on the other hand, to carry out his/her teaching
task as well.

• The obligations of the administrators is to give adequate support and reasonable

opportunities to teachers to succeed in the classroom.

 Cases are often brought to court by teachers who have been subjects of
 disciplinary actions
 suspension or
 dismissal.
 and who feel that they have not been given a fair deal by school
administrators.
 This is a disturbing situation that creates tension in the school community.
Schools are wary about court cases against their administrators because when
management decisions are challenged, it is not only the administrator is concerned
who is the subject of complaint, therefor the object of judicial and public scrutiny
that is dragged into the fray, but also the name and reputation of the school.
 As a rule, Administrative decisions should be based on summative results of the
evaluation of instruction obtained thru through the use of valid and reliable
measuring instruments.

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  Summative evaluation of instructions is supposed to provide accurate data and
information to be legally defensible.
 They are the judgements on the effectiveness of instruction that are used for
making administrative decisions.
 Administrative Decisions
a. Retention
b. Promotion
c. Suspension
d. Evaluation
 Procedure relating to professional competent issues
1.Informal stage
2.Initiation of the formal process
3.ExternalReview (Chief inspector to arrange the review of the work of the
individual teacher)
4.Hearing
5. Appeal

Legal Requirements for Employment (for teachers), Teacher Accountability,

Security of Tenure for Probationary Teachers

Legal Requirements for Employment (Teachers in the Philippines)

• Official certificate of registration
• Valid professional license from the Licensure Board for Teachers of the
Professional Regulation Commission created by the virtue of Republic Act 7836
• The license awarded to teachers who have met the academic requirements
(obtaining a bachelor’s degree in education or completing 18 units of education
subjects for non-education graduates), given by the Board in August every year.
o REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7836
AN ACT TO STRENGTHEN THE REGULATION AND
SUPERVISION OF THE PRACTICE OF TEACHING IN THE
PHILIPPINES AND PRESCRIBING A LICENSURE EXAMINATION
FOR TEACHERS AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.

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  The Law states that…

Teacher Accountability
• Who is accountable for high student performance? Should teachers be blamed for
students’ poor performance?
• Ultimately, it is the teacher who should be accountable for the scholastic achievement
of students. The school’s responsibility is to set standards of excellence, and it is the
teacher’s responsibility to meet these standards. Thus, it is incumbent upon the school
to ensure that those who are not able to meet these standards (the marginal teachers)
are not allowed to remain in the classroom. If they do, they perform disservice to the
community in particular, and to the society in general.
• a marginal teacher is one whose performance borders incompetency but who is not
incompetent. [Google]
• the student high scholastic performance
• is a joint responsibility among:
1. Students
2. Teachers
3. Administrators
4. Parents
5. Community members
…and not the responsibility of the teacher alone.

Security of Tenure for Probationary Teachers

• Do probationary teachers enjoy tenure?
• In a sense, yes. The security of tenure they enjoy is limited to the term of their
probationary employment, and their services cannot be simply terminated without
cause.
• Tenure protects competent teachers against unlawful and arbitrary decisions by
administration. Tenured faculty cannot be whimsically dismissed without due
process.
 Probationary period = 3 years

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  Employment contract of a probationary teacher = *1 year
 *but maybe renewed for the 2nd and 3rd years
• During the probationary employment of one year, a teacher enjoys security of
tenure which means that the school cannot arbitrarily dismiss him/her despite the
demonstration of expiration of the contract at the end of the school year, a teacher
cannot claim security of tenure, and compel the school to renew the employment
contract.
• This is not subject to legal challenge because when the contract is terminated,
there is no “expectancy of continued employment (Luneberg and Ornstein, 2000).
• Non-renewal should not be equated to dismissal which is only permissible “for
cause” It means that non-tenured professionals, just like tenured faculty who are
the subject of dismissal cases, are entitled due process.

“The best teachers are those who show you where to look, but don't tell you what to see.”
ALEXANDRA K. TREFOR, attributed, Making Classrooms Better

Source: http://www.notable-quotes.com/t/teaching_quotes.html, Google images and

Supervision of Instruction: The Philippine Perspective (Staff Development)

REMEDIABLE TEACHING PERFORMANCE

MARCZELY (2001) -before drastic action is taken, the necessary strategic intervention
is taken, the necessary strategic intervention measures (Clinical supervision, coaching,
mentoring, etc.) should be made available to the teacher. Dismissal action has to be
deferred until remediation has been undertaken. However, if the problem is not
correctable, then necessary action, no matter how harsh, should be taken because non
remediable poor performance victimizes students and society.

MARCELY-suggests answering the following questions for determining remediable

behavior.

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  Were students, faculty, or school damaged?
 Had the teacher been warned, could the conduct resulting in damage have been
corrected?
 Could the effects of the conduct in question be corrected?

The author argues that teaching incompetence may be remediable if it is not

chronic. However, when this is repeatedly demonstrated despite intervention measures,
over time, it can become non-remediable.

To avoid losing in a court action she emphasizes the need of:

 CLARITY-refers to the use of straight forward, specific, and written evaluation

system.
 COMPLIANCE-pertains to the implementation to the letter of the provisions of
the contract or the faculty manual between the faculty and the school.
 CONSISTENCY- refers to equal and non-discriminatory treatment of all
similarly situated faculty regardless of rank or position.
 CONTINUITY- refers to the connections between Evaluation measures and
supervision. Data collected during several observations should show a reasonable
consistency or connections to each other and to the final or summative evaluation.
Improvement or no improvement in performance (despite interventions and
evaluations.

PROBATIONARY PERIOD
Based on the Manual of regulations for private schools, the probationary period is
the interval during which teacher’s fitness for the job is determined. The probationary
period allows the school administration to evaluate a teacher’s working habits and other
traits before making him/her regular and permanent. The manual provides the conditions
for the probationary period which not be more than three consecutive years of
satisfactory service for those at elementary and secondary levels of and six consecutive

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regular semesters (equivalent to three years) of satisfactory service for those at the
tertiary level...

“No one should Teach who is not in love with Teaching”

Rules Governing Employment in Education Institutions

In the Philippines, the relationship of teaching and non-teaching personnel in

educational institutions is governed by rules that are conjointly promulgated by the
following government agencies.
a. Department of Education
b. Commission on Higher education
c. Department of Labor and Employment
d. Civil Service Commission

Causes of Termination of a faculty: Based on Manual of Regulations for Private

Schools.

1. Gross inefficiency and incompetence

2. Negligence in keeping school or student records, or tampering with or
falsification of the same
3. Conviction of crime, or an attempt on or a criminal act against the life of any
school official, personnel, or student, or upon the property or interest of the
school.
4. Notoriously undesirable
5. Disgraceful or immoral conduct
6. Other causes analogous to the foregoing as may be provided by the regulations
prescribed by the Secretary of education

Rights of public school teachers

1. To be informed of the charges in writing

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 2. To full access to the evidence in the case
3. The right to contend himself/herself, and to be defended by a representative of
his/her choice and adequate time being given to the teacher for the preparation of
his/her defense.
4. The right to appeal to designated authorities.

Laws relative to the practice of public school teachers

1. R.A. No. 7836- Philippine Professionalization Act of 1994
2. Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers
3. R.A. No. 4670- Magna Carta for Public School Teachers
4. R.A. No. 6713- Code of Conduct and Ethical Standards for Public Officials and
Employees.
5. R. A. No. 7610- Anti Child Abuse Law
6. R.A. No. 9710- Magna Carta Of Women

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Supervision of Instruction: The Philippine Perspective (Staff Development)

 Campanilla, M.B., Special Penal Laws Volume III.
 Campanilla, M.B., Special Penal Laws Valume II.
 Cruz, I.A., Philippine Political Law 1989.
 Cruz, I.A., Constitutional Law 2007.
 Reyes, L.B., The Revised Penal Code Criminal Law Book Two.
 http://www.notable-quotes.com/t/teaching_quotes.html, Google images
 www.lawphil.com

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